SUFI ORDER AND RESISTANCE MOVEMENT:
THE SANÜSMTA OF LIBYA, 1911-1932
A thesis ~ubdttedto the Fadty of Graduate Studies and Resevch in pdfiiIfïhent of the requirements for the degree of Master of Aas
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hstitute of Isl?unic Studies McGill University, Montreal 1999 National Libraiy Bibliothèque nationale mm dC-& du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliîraphic Services services bibliographiques
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The author retains ownership of the L'auteur consewe la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Author :Awalia Rahrna Title :Sufi Oder and Resistance Movanent: The Sanisiyya O€ Libya, 191 1-1932 Department : Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Universi9 DeWee :Mastez of Arts
This thesis is a stdy of the Sanïîsiyya osdex, in which partîculaf emphasis is placed on its role as a iesistance movement Based on a meyof the socid, economic, rebgious and political adVities of this sufi bmthdd and its involvement in the mbd system of the Noah Afkica diiting the first three decldes of bis century, an attempt will be made to identifir on the one hand die fhctom th ccmtgbuted to the stxength of its resistance to Italian invasicm, and cm the other, the elements that led to its fidur;e. It is ygraed that its Mitiail success m the resistance benefited fiom the netwodt of the qibiyus where kdbxvin hmdiff-t tcibes were intepteci sodlyand eccmornidy m accordance with strmg Islamic values. However, hck of dtvptraining and weaps, dependenq on a prominent figue, cornpeting ambitions witbin the
SmÜG fvrmy and geographical distance dtimately weakened the resistance. Auteur : Awralia Rahma Titre : Ordie sufi et mouvement de résistance: La SanÜsiyya de Libye de 1911 à 1932 Département : Institut des Études IsWques, Université McGill Diplôme : WAt&e ès Arts
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Ce mémoire porte sur i'énide de l'ordre SanGsiyya, avec une attention particulière sur son mouvement de résistance. En se fondant sur les activités sociales, économiques, religieuses et politiques de la fratemité sufse, ahsi que son impfidon au sein du système txibd pendant la pénétration occidentale ea
-que du Nord durant les trois premières décennies, la recherche tentera dSidenti6erd'me pmles fiacteurs ayant contniué i la force de sa résistance à l'invasion italienne, et, d'autre pwles éléments qui ont causé sa chute. Il a été débattu que le succès initial de la Sankiyya dans la rédstance a pu tirex parti du réseau des x&ytas où les iMw2 des &€fiérentes tribus fixent intégrés socialement et économiquement et ce, avec des valem islamiques solides.
Toutefois, le peu d'entraînement militaire et d'mement, h dépendance à l'égard des leaderss Ies cüffkentes persdtés au sein de la fàmille Sans et les distances géographiques ont &Ni la résistance. I wddlike to express my gratitude in the ktplace to Professor Eric L
Onnsby, my academic advisor and diesis superclisoq whose schohdy cntiLism,
patience and encouragement have made this thesis possible. My thvlks ais0 go
to Pmfessor A. Üner T-y, the Diffaor of the Institute of Islamic Studies,
fa his imightfd couxnents. I wodd aiso like to thank my teachers at die
Institute, espediy Pmfessor Hemian Landolt, my former academic
supervisor, and Fmugh Jbbakhsh who widened my insight mto Islamic
mystiusm and die Pe- hqpage. My thanks are also due to ShFerahkm
and Wame St. Thomas of the Islamic Studies Libram for their assistance in 0 4 obtaining iesdmatds. I wodd also like to record my thah to Zakgi
Ibrahim fbr his rneanhgfd help m the very eady stages of my study; and to
Steve Wez for his editoriai help, espeady as he accomodated me in spite of
his own busy schedule.
1 wkh to acknowIedge here the generosity of the Ministry of Religious
Afftus of the Republic of Indonesh, the Canadian Intemational Development
Agency (CIDA) and the Mcclll-Indonesia Project in providiag me with a gmnt
to stdy nt McGill University. My th?nks h go to Prot Dr. Nourouzzaman
Sbiddiqi and PmE Dr. Buzhanuddin Daya of Yogyakarta for di& moral e support and encouragement 1 am likewise gntefbl to my Indoneskm fiaends for th& wum fiendship during my stay in Montreal,
I wodd also iike to express my heartfelt dimks to my parents H.
Abubakar Mdand Hj. Isrmwati and to my yomger bmthers and sisters for
their suppm as wd as to my father and mother-in-law who were so
encoutaging. Fidy 1 dediute this thesis to my husband, Kusmana, who
desemes spedho= and thanlrs for his constant love, criticism and support. The system of transliteration of Arabic wods and names applied in this
thesis is htused by the Instihite of Isl?mic Studies, University.
The table of tr;uisliteration is as follows:
b =+
t =a
th =&
j =c h =t kh =i
d =3
dh=i
=J
Short :
Long : vii
TABU3 OF CONTENTS
.- Abstract 11 Réd iii Acknowledgements iv Transli teration Table of Contents Intrioductim
Chapm 1 THE POLJTICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OFLIBYA IN THE EARLY TWENTlETH CENTURY A. People and Land a B. Economy C. Politid Situation 1. Ottoman Administration 2 Tripolitanian Resistance and the Emergence of the Repubk of Tripolitania 3. Itahm Penetration
Chapter 11 ROLES OF THE SANÜSZYYA: THE CENTRAL POSITIONS OF smm,IKHW~AND ~FWYRT A Stmctuie and Oiganizaaon of the SanÜsiyya B. Socio-Religious Role 1. Dbikr as die essence of SanÜsiyya's Mystical Teachkgs 2 Education 3. ?'&ai Integration C. Economic Role
Chapter III RE!SPONSES TO COLOISIAIJSM A. Baclrground of the Resistance B. Responses tu Colonialism 1. Responses of the Libyan People 2 The SanGsiyya Responses C. The SanÜsiyya Resistance: Roles of the Lea&g SanÜsiyya Leaders 1. The Role of Sayyid Aipd Shdf (1 813-1933) 2 The Role of Sa@ Muhammad Idris (1890-1983) 3. The Role of 'Uniar al-Mukhtk (1 862-1931) Conclusion Bibliography INTRODUCTION
The Sanusiyya movement constitutes an interesting phenornenon in
Islamic history, and pvtiCUISlifly in that of North Ahican sufism. This sufi bmtherbood wls narned afk its founder, Mdpmmad ibn 'sal-San= al- ~ham-bial-~asd a1-1&; a-miijiii (1787-1859 AD), & - &O knm as the Ginnd SpniG, a prominent Sufi-scholat ia nineteenth ceatury Noah
Afnca. This &a evolved fiom a rrhgious to a politid movernent when ît bep to play a substantial part in the sesistance agrinst the French in the
Sdma, Wst the British and It?lians in Cyremica and m the emergence of the
Kingdom of Iibya. The latter was ded at ktby SaniiSi's pdson, Çayyid
Mdpmmad Idris, who ascended die thme in 1951, dyto lose it in a miiitaq coup d'état led by Mu 'ammat al-Qaddafi in September 1969.
Muiy scholars have discussed the SanÜsiyya and their correspondmg poIitica3 movement Most have noted the role of the Sankiyya in resisting colcmialism in their homeland. Bark for instance, points out that the Libyan iesistance during the years 1911-1920 depended heady on Sankiyya foices, Ahmida discusses the soapl cuItuial and historical background of
modem Libya hm the eady nineteenth centiiiy to the end of the amied
anticolonial resistance? Hebelieves diat Sufi Islam, tribai ditzuy ocg?nizauon
and d traditions wem crucial M the f#ît against coloniafisfn. The politid
and cultural legacy of the resistance has ais0 been pmeiful strengthdg
Libyan natidsm and leadiag to the mhlof a strcmg attichment to Islam
d the clan. The memory of this pePod has not yet fided, and appreciation of
this background is essential to understanding present-ciay Lib@
The ptBiitish anduopologist, Evans-Pritchard, cm the 0th- han4
interprets the Sanùsjlya's politicai development estth& historical
background in Tba Sdof ~~'ca~Yet here the emphasis is more on the
development, traàng the historg of the SanGiyya fkom its ori@ to the @od
of Itlliui colonjzabon. The present thesis is however as indebted to this book as
are so muiy odiec writings tbnt focus on Liiya.
A pdcular character is amibuted to the SanÜsiyya by Nicola Ziadeh who
sees the brotherhds deas that of a revivaiist movement. As Leoivalist
2 Ah Abcidatif Ahmidz. Th Making ofM& fi& Shte Fodn,Cdof*@im ad&abta=, 1830-1932 (Amiuiy, New Y&. SUW1994). 0 3 E.E. Evans Pritchard, Tbr Saami ojfCw(Oxfd: Clarendon Press, 1954). -e movement, the SanÜsiyya ans consexvative to the extent it did not recogaize the dedopent "the wddhad known since the advent of Isiam." '
Research dl now hm covered various aspects of the order, such as
reiïgiosity, ethnic, economic, and sochl issues, and politics. Howeveq only fm
scholars have tned to see the interconnection between the doctrines and the
political movement of the &a One scholar who has, Knut S. Vikor,
ccmcluded that the political movemmt was not the central aspect of the
Thus the histoy of the Sanùsiyya is dso the history of a Sufi bmtherhood
which welded the edinic identity of the Sahafan bedouin and neighborhg
The movement hm also become my focus by mon of its distinctme
Wahhabi doctrines, a unique blend that consïsted in maintainhg Sufi values
and &g for a retum to the fundamental IslYnic sources, the Q6an and
Sunna. 1 propose in this thesis to mvestigrte why the Saniisiyya became
Nicoia A. Ziadeh, SP*~ A S* $A RanPdirt Mol~~~~lentin l'hm (Leiden: E.J. Bplz 1983), p. 3. 0 invohred in resisgog col- and what fàctom tended m strengthen and to weaken the &stance. 1 propose to investigate die nature of the jhi2 (hot
war)' which was such a major feahire of the tesistance and to compare diis to
sLnilnr nuieteenth-cenhirg A6ican movemmts which may have influencecl die - - San* the TijG Tokolor, al-Hajj Umy in west Sudan; the S-
M-d Alpud; the S&-IclÜsii, Mdpmmad ibn 'Abd AU& Hasan in
7 AccordLig to Peters, modem theones ofjb Alge& in die period 1839-1847'. To answer the question, 1 intend to employ a histCKical appioach, addresshg the probIem descriptively md analytically. This method will involve, respectively, colectiug, aiticiilnng and interprebing the data and My,nanakg the dtsin the €kmof a complete storg. The thesis itself will commence with an introduction to the sources and resdmediods use4 and then move cm to the hrst chapter *ch anB pfovide an account of the political sehg in Libya during the hrst three decldes of the 20"' centuq. The second chapter wiU investigate the institution of the gknr>ct and its ddes,while the diiid dl trace the forces worktig cm behalf of tesisiance. FFinany, in the conc1usim,I d dnar together the thrd of my argument and spithesize the results. 7. Spencer T+imingham, The S@ Ordm in Lrlirs (Mord: Oxford University Press, 1973). pp. 240.241. Rsphael Danzigex, %&dal-@& d L A&nh : O th Fmb mid IntdG~llsohkWbn (New York, London :Hoknes and Meia Publishers, 1977). THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF LIBYA IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY A. Peopie and La~d It is diflicullt to hdexact data on the population of Libya in the late Ottoman period, since a large put of the population consisted of nod 12,01vÙd]and semi-no4 (m'ha) and because people hid the true number of Mymembers fhm census takers in order to avoid paying a larger tax bill This being said, scholars have estimateci the population of Tripolitania for this pehd at betweetl800,oOO and 2 donand that of CyLenaica at between 190,000 and 500,000~ The population of Li+ in the dytwentieth ceaturg was a mixnire of Anbs, Betbers, Twegs, Dawada, Tebu and foreign minorities mch as Jews, Italians, BPtish, French, Spanish, Dutch, Greeks, Swiss, Austrians and Fezzan and Cyrenaica. Berbers and Jews were predollljnandy setùed in the coastal Mediterraaean city of Tripolitania, dong with otha forriga minorities. Agha Mohamed Barbar, Tdc T&h (Z~~II)Racrr*Lsa th 1- III&= 1911-1920 (PhD. disdon, University of Wlsconsia-Midison, 1980), based on the Ottoman statistical yedmok Tmb- V?'k'SlulnmircJifor 1911, pp. 6-9. Anbs, descendants of the origmal conquerors, iived almgside the indigenous Berbem in Cyasmica. Berba-speaking Tuaregs adDaanda lived in the mtehr in Fezzan, together with Tebu-speakbg slaves? The European mborities had th& own communi~esand mahtained th& oam laws administed by th& chiefi or coundois; however, they &O intexacteci Mth other populaeims in the area, pacticularly for economic reasond Jews, on the other hand, led a difkrent lik compared to other minotities, being much more! mvolved in die commmity M which they 1ivd Not oniy did they hold administrative posts, such as those of local tithe and tu collectors, but they also had a iepresentative in the city council and two iepresentativcs in the vlhyet cotmd Rabbis from this community played the same role as a district zbaykb, a&g as mediators between the community and the aQniaistrati~n.~ 3 Wrighf LraJrs pp. 24-25. The Tuareg mdylive in the oses of Ghat and Ghdaniesy the nrto of western Fezzan and parts of the Sahaca down to Tibuctu. Tb& dationsliip with noah Afncan sufi brotherhoods, UicLudiDg tbe Sankiyya may be found in Henry Duveyxier, Lm Lartwaq & NdExphfin 1Sobmrt (Nendeki: Kraus Reprint, 1973), pp. 301-315. Saalso, Fm& Renne1 Rodd, Peqûb ofthe Ki1 (Loodoii: hkmdh, 1926), pp. 48-49 ind 200. The da&-slanned Tebu, who live in southem Cyrenaica and Fezzan, are beiieved to be descendeci frwn an ancieat Saharan race. See W-t, Ijbyo, p. 24. See ah,Eise Fan- Li& &rAn#tqmm&tribr Tik(Berlin: RamPr Hobbhg 1933). The Dawada, the %dm eatiers," are said to be the spangei or esnotes commupity, and have appanmdy lived for centuriesy in thiee oillages in the Ramla al- Damda between the Wadis AjaI nad Shatti in Western Fezzan. See W-t, fiop, p. 25. Barbar, Th T&k, pp. 50-51. Bedouin of Cpmaica, who phyed such a key sole in the rise lad development of the SanÜsiyya, were of mixed Arab-Baber stock. The Arab mbes B?nU F@l and Ban6 Sulaym took Liain the deventh centurp- They were both origjnaily kom Najd and of Mu+ luleage, of which the Ba& Suiaym were the senior branch. They moved hto upper Egypt afier the downfiill of the Cammthian movement in kabia, out of which they had ewolved. The 3anÜ ?@lmwed wesmd to Tdp01itamia and Twiisia while the Ban6 Suiaym mainry setùed in Cyrenaica, where di& descendants have lived down to the present &y. Meanwhile, the teibes of Cyrenaica belonged to one of two rmin groups, the Sa5di and the Mnnbu&. According to ~vans-Pridiard,'the Sasdi were diMded into taro mnM branches, the Jibarna and the l$ariibi, the Jibama tribes behg the 'Aw%$r, Magharba, 'AEd and 'Arziba, and the HGbi tribes the 'Abayda~ HZsa, 'Aiht J?âyid, Bara'asa and Darsa. These tribes Jived throughout Cyrtsnaica and shved the hdamong diem in what they ded wq&m. The Sa'adi dso claimed desceut for the Banu Sulaym. The MiGbu2in, on the otber han4 were either Arab triberneil or Berbers who Pyeicipated in the oïighd invasion or came fbm Morocco to Tripoli and Cpreil2ica. nie Ma&bu@~used the km4 but did not have the right of ownership. Because they were only few in number and therefore wed, each dan was tied to a powdSa'Zdi tdbe7 In Fezzan, the main mbe were the AwGd Sulapiin, bie ~as~wna,the Faqaha and the Maq* The AddSuhymàn used to hein the Süte area und about the middle of the nineteenth centurg. Dining th& wars with the Qlauamlis m 1831-1835, the tribe mwed to the south, where they occupied most of Fezzan and dien held the political power in that regon? The E&wba were the second krgest mie ke;they lild once lived amund the Sabha- Mua& ara but later invadecl the area northwest of Sabha where they a evmtually sedeci once the AwlZd Sula* came to occupy th& fomer tefritory. The invasion of the mkma forced the Meatdbe in him to move &om the Sabha region fiutha noah to the Huriij momtaias area.g In TPpo1itania province, the Add Bk3 and Wardilla tribes lived in the Wad* area The other tribes and th& locations were the AwGd Masallem, ai-HaWatim, the Add Mu'uaf and al-Ddb of Tarhuna; al- '.of Masalh FaGtL; AwGd al-Shaykh, Bathna, Awlad GEt, Fiijui 7 Evans-Pritdiard, Th SIII)YI; p. 51. B&u, Tb,Tllmavku, p. 99. Barbu, Th Tu&k, p. 100. and 'A~yknof 2%- Ziyam Ma'adân, and al-Qa&fà of Siae; al-@ba of GhadZmis and 11-Zuik; and ai-Rujiban and al-Md$Ünid in the Jhand Jabaî al-Gharbi or Nafka areas.lo The miway of life is one of adaptation to a &en environment In Cyrenaica, cow, sheep oz clme1 hdmmoved 6nw one place to another according to the season in order to obtain suffisent water and the basic needs of huwn beings and ananals. Nevertheless, a few tnrd groups stayed in the same place diniag whter and summer seascm, e-g., the Hadduth section of ~ara'asa" Composed of 45 chief trïbed2 in the dytwentieth centuy, the BedouM of Cyrenaica *etainecl the co~lltneaccepted tribal understandmg of w+, %nnelaBd," and Lw$? (&go bwyt ) as a mbd subdivision that constitutes an extended f?milg, the basic unit of tribal Me. This segment may be described as a genealogical Iine or a politid mity.13 A collection of such fàmdiies constituted a mbe and each mie had its own leader, the slqkb. The relationship between the ~hgkband his people was exphùied as hllows: Leadership is dedin CpaPica when a camp is moved eeryben days or so in the aMy season- dendecisicms keto be made about plooghing. when the rrgalp wa- of animais is to begin, dois to use the water, hm and where men are to gather for communai pqer in the rnoming of the Great FestM, and on a whoie iderange of the other mundane occasions. It is no accident that the men who iead in these activiiïes are also the men who are out in hntwhen moments of high dnail are emacted or dodirect activities th& bases.I4 In a wider society, the Bedouin of Cyierilica built a systern of dationship both within and without their community tbt made it possible for them to estabIish and maintain thek own g~v-ent.'~ This depended upon a network of dations between the various dgb~through whom they looked a& th& collective interests. They were in an economic sense a self-supportkig people, ading th& home-made surplus pducts, e-g., homes, skins, wool, ctanfied buttes, suqIus badey, honey and wax, for other consumer pds.Some cornmodities, sudi as tea, qaq Pce, and doth had to be imported fiom other c0unt8es.'~ Due to hconsistency of rainfall and the distribution of water supplies, they became not pepsants, but shepherds." Consequeatiy, it was hq#y uiimal husbandry * Petexs, Th Br&&#? pp. 1-2 He argues against Evans-Pritchard's statement that the Bedouia of Cjremica were unable to pvem themsdves and that a for* pcmex should dethem. 17 This charactesistic distinguishes the Bedouin of Cyrenaica fFom their counterparts in Pnkstine, SpSa. Iraq, Egypt and the Ahgbb, wh~peas5~1try is dominant. See Evans-Pritchnid, Tk Smrwa; p. 46. a that tumed the Pdi vwtation of the countrg into mil%, butteq meat, wool and hides.I8 B. Economy Duhg the Ottoman administration, the Liiyan economy was based on agriculture, pastdsm, handicraft hdus~esand local and fore@ trade. Agkultural activities were undden only in the smaü fertile area in the noah of the comtzy and in the -es of the hinterland, with the result that the countq's economy dependeci mainly on livestock breeding. Yet, it was the iand of Cyreriaica that was cmsidered the most fde temain for cereal dtivation in the entire country; in it was highiy p~oductive.'~Bdv, wheat and dates weze hanport export ~ommodities,~along Mth caravans whicb commercially linked regions withbi trans-Shriran Afeca to one another and ultiarately to ~riiope? The Jewish population of conseal Tripolitania was '9 Anthony J. Caciiia, fibp ns&r rba S'd Oûbmnn Oqtdm 1835-191 7 (ïripoik Govemment Press, 1945), pp. 9198- 20 &ca apod hq,ostrich feathem and Ahican hides to Europe and impdJilt, gun and gunpcnvder. Sa, Shulrri Ghanem, The Libpn Econamy befm hdepndence,'' Sdd Eamwmù DdprnCIXt tf Li&, E.GE Joffe and ICS. Mdacbb, eds. (Cambridgeshire: Middie East and Nonh AEeican SNdies, 1982). p. 142 libya was an important transfer point in the tmns-SPhuan debetween the interior of Mica (the area of Wadai-Boqu--Dsrfur) and Europe Th- aae ais0 a invohred in -de, cnfts and money-len* whereas the Itlli?ns wexe en@ in retail lad wholesde commerce md food proces~mg..~ The economy of the counbeg in the ktthree decldes of the twentieth centuy was dosely reiated to the sdand politid sphaes. This perid was marked by the gradual implementation of a long term politico-ec0~1omic pioject established by die Itllians to develop th& own colony, since Liiya was regarded by then as Itaiy's burth shore. The ktphase, between 1913 Md 1936, limed at creatiag an dkstyucture that would attract Idians to setde in Libya; this meant die construction of publie buildings, traasportation md commUNcation hQlities, ali of which reqitiied a huge investmenta The next step, duting the y- 1936-1942, was to be devoted to developing the lgeidtural se- and piasuing land reclamation, lvgely in der to accommodate as muiy Ialiui peasants zs possiile. - - ggnincant trnde mures between eastem and western Libp For rhis reason, -le of Libpa took advantage of the need foi semices on the part of the caravans and provideci camelsanddrivef$. ~3 Ghanem, 'The Libyan Economy,'' pp. 144-145. Pubiic buildings îike haspi&, baats~dsdiooisaswd~khwatersupplies and ase\rapge sysmn fond the second most costiy Fourth Shore pmject afta the mqortation projects which indudeci rorrds, hysnid ports, ie. 10.175 Won Irnliza lin Sa h,Ciaudi0 G. Segrè, F&b SkTbc I'W@n 4Liû~~(Chicago and London: The University ofChicagoPress,l974). The economic aspects of the Fourth Shore Prqect resulted in sd disniminlkon that diffientiated westexners fian native fibyan in temis of econhc and CMc We, Ita&ins and westemers enjoyed d fàcilities and +vileges, whereas Arabs rermined on the land, under threat of seizure and deportation to concentration camps, if they did not coopemte. Meanwhile, the people of Tripolit2ai?, Cyrenaica and Fezzan were involved in different work. Most of the population of die Tripolitanian coast and its sunoundings, Jebel Gharbï, and a sdpart of the Cyr&can coast, was agxicuitunl. Simple tmde in the fomi of buter was also cdon with qpidturai goods, e.g. grain for dates. The nomadic people of Cyremica weze largely involved in herâîng camels and sheep and providing semices for cvravans. A pastoral economy also meant the exdiuige of dairy products, e.g., milk and butte&, there ans also exdi?age of ne& (movable wealth), like go14 anirmls and @dd products but dso indiirting uiy item htmay be exchaqed for money and inherited m succession cm an individual bah. Lady, there was exchange of m% (prn~ezf~),landed property which is iahdted Smi~Itaneous~.~ In temi of colnmme, Libya tuded with Empan countries such as Italy, Great BritaM, France, the Ottoman Empw and Aus- with d of whom the prts T-li and Bengki did decommerce, not to mention the pozts of Misuzata, Khoms and Sirte. hi yan pdcts such as isey for the production of whisky and espart0 psfor the production of hi& quality pape wge mainly expdto Brihin, C. Political Situation Ahthe downfdl of the Qddynasty (171 1-1 835 A.D), the land of Libya came under direct ccmtrol from Istanbul, a situation that pbsted until1911. Tbwas fDîlowed by moie tEim a decade of Italian administration iasttig mial the me of the secmd Wdd Wu. Hm Liiyans reacted to Ottmand ItPliui coatr01 diroughout this pdand what ideology they depended on to strengthen th& resolve will be discussed in the following Pages- î. Ott- Administration Liand the Ottoman Empire in the eady twentieth centurg have been desaiby one scholu as being "p-eis in pain,'' 25 since there wls litde else m sham. The Ottomans were invited to Libya m the 187û's in ozder to help the Libyans defend themselves +st continual attacks by the Spaaiards ZI Shukti Gan- The Libyan Ecanomy befm Independence. S& Pnd Eam& Detx@mat ofG&p,4s. E.G.H. Joffe adKS. MJacb (ChmbiidgeshLr Middle E?st and Nonb Afirican Studies Press Ld,19û2), p. 141. a and the Knights of St Joha As part of the Ottoman empire, Li- Wed fear advantages, ad the country hced more thna its fair share of matd depiivntion. Momover, because of the rernoteness of the cenbal govemment M Istanbul, Ottoman ccmtrol over Libya was weak. Militay persornael ans limited,26 and the ecmomic benefits matteactive. These conditions did not favour Ottoman attempts at goveming the county as a whole. It was a ChalIeage for Ottoman admMistrat01cs to coUect taxes hmthe nomads and the inhabitants of the inteiJoq given the remoteness of certain regions and their mwillingness to bend to centrai authoity. A large part of the population paid no taxes by the EUne the Qarunnnlis came to dethe country. The growtlh of Westem capitalism howeve~ais0 affected the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Qdswere detctrmined to collect tax diredy and efficiendy, ma- no exemptions in thip regard Any =sistance by tribal chiefs was to be put down, wïth the result that some tribes chose to cooperate instead" TI'herewere 1OOO Ottoman tmops in Cyrenaicain 1881, but the numk had dedined to only 300 by the Iate rineteenth centuy. With 20,ûûû men and modem equipment, the IalLns took oves Cyreoaica fiQr years later. Wright, LihA Mh Hidllg, p. 21. Ali Abdullatif Mmida, Tbs1Cllikiifig$.hakm Li& (Aibany, New Y& SUNY, 1994). p. 57. Undet Ottoman de, Liwas divided into two administrative regioneTripoli& and Cyrenaica. Tripolitania (rarabulw ol-Gbmb) was a pfovMce (y&/#&l), with a govemor (d)assisted by a provincial board (mrk-ikmi yk). The governor's subordinates took the sank of m&mwfand kuyrnuh and they, too, had th& regid cound. The status of Cyrenâica (Barqa) changed swd times. But fhm 1888 it was a district [mr;/tarmn$iEk) headed by a mrr/kuanfdirectly responsibIe to Istanbd In matters affecting the -y, posts, customs and judicial matters, the d of Tripolitania was also respoasible to Cyrenai~a.~ On the eve of the Itab invasion of Lt'loya, the province of T+litania included four distdcts fiant&), each headed by a m&r;~~am$under dose juzisdicticm fd 21 subdismcts (hi),each headed by a hymuh and 23 regions (nhye), each headed by a mt/uk The district of Cyrenaica hduded five Between 1835 and 1911, there were two distinct periods of Ottoman govemment, the Hamidina and Young Turk regirnes, respectively. The administrative policy of both reghes towads the Libyan provinces was gendy the same, partidy in the appointment of governom who were a Rnchel Simon, Li& hmOztommim udN&nh: Tk 0-un Intrhmcnt Ur L&m &i"g ih WwWtb IlJy (191 1-1919) @dn: Klaus Schwna Vdag, 1987), p. 22. m 29Ibid. diuged &th mzintaining Istanbul's authozity. Genedy, Ott- contml 1 over Libya was weak and this hr seved reasms. In the Hamidian pdod, fo+ mstance, the gwemor's repts on provincial administration were hvdly accurate, since govem01s tended to use these as a fonmi to express personal hatreds. Lata, under the Young Tds, hexe ans an absence of pariiunentaq controJ, due to the brief existence of the constitutional-pariiamentar~rregime (1908-1911) and the remoteness of the prince itselEm Under Ottoman nik, development phns were de,but fm were reatized, due to la& of fimds and the. " The chief development projects were focusecl on Beqhazi and Tiipoli- wtiere water networks, sewage and rnuiupal de?nmg skcces, pmt devdopment, roads improvemen~schooIs, diaics, and public buildings were provided The authorities also arranged for councils to mvestigate the deveIopmeat needs of Libpns in die fields of industy, agriltrue, trade, colnmunicati011, education, hdth and transpoctation, but th& reco~endationswere not implemaited3* Several attempts to develop Iibp were also made M the three yem of Young Turk de- impmved education and mgional security baag diief among them. Increased political a&ty in the fomi of clubs, md raid politid c~ll~ao~~llessthrough the medium of the press, helped to in- the feeling of connection and identification with the Ottoman empire. 33 During di& presence in Liya, the Ottomans fotmd it riifficult to defend the provinces from the Ando-Egypb fones to the east, the French to the west and south and the Italjans' penetation to the noah. There weze some attempts at coopenbion with the SanÜsïyya to push hem out, but mqhaitemitory continued to be lost. The SanÜsiyp's decision to coUab0iate with the Ottoman was based to some extent on cornmon dgious ties and the idea of Pan-Islaniism. 2. Tripolitdan Resistance and the Emeigemcce of the Republic of Tripolitania The Sanüsiyya, centered in Cyrenaica, were not alone in the Libyan &tance movernent the people of Tripoli& had &O taken steps towards autonomy, although it was not recognized by any Western ~ountrg.~ Resistance to the IPliPas began in October 1911 Mth an ;creeiibr Eorce that consisted of a sndnumber of tribesmen and th& leaders, nme of whom 34 The Ieaders of the Republic asM foa rrcognition hmthe Itahq British, French and U.S goveXIllllents. But Idy had ahdysecured diar dnims to mya 0 was well-eguipped. The Tripolitaniaas as a whoie were m fict divided do two rmin gmups: tribesman and aty-dweliers, the lattez consisàng of traders, 'hi'and the local piissaries of Ottoman descent The urbui-based pup was ais0 divided Mto three political camps: those wîth the d to collabonte with the Idans, ded the Efmm, anodier that fled to Egppt, Tunis or Tdey;and a third, "the wait and see group," whose members bided di& tiw until a arinner emergdu The tribal leabinduded SulaJrmàn al-Biûiï6 6rom the Nafika ares,% al-=di d-Mu~ta$r and Alpnad al-Mwayid of Tarbuna, and 'AG TantÜsh of the Tajura area. Together with a number of Ottmau foices they met the Itzliuishsevdbattle~duiingtheyevs1911-191~suchasindmt0~ll Tripoh, Shz' &Shah 'Ayn Zk,and Bk Tub&. Although the resistance won seved victories, the Ilians had by 1912 succeeded in caphiriag Tripoli, Tajura, Sidi Bitd and 'Ayn Zam The sesistance went on und the outbreak of the First Wodd Wa., denit was Mteisupted by a pe&d of accord foliowing the Treaty of Ouchy-Lausanne, siped in October 1912 by Itaiy, Bri& and tbugh agreements with Engb to those who had fought against them. This treaty ended Ottoman sovereispty over the province and dieV fodinvolvement m the resistance mmement. However for the rn~i&&k, the Treaty had no sigdicance, smce they had dedved that they would persist M th& resismce until the withbrawal of Itdh forces. " The yevs 1916-1920 mvked a decline, however, in this resistance. The peLiod witnessed the British-Itdh Coalition, conflia among the ceibal leaders and the emergence of the Republic of Tripolitank The resistance mded because of its hdc of coordination whhin the provMce and vnong two 0th- provinces; the withdrad of Ottcnnan's forces and since the ide? of Pan- Arabism and Pan-IslaWsm did not help much for it was simply used ter political legitimacg. The new Otto- administntor, Nuci Pasha, bved in Tripolitania in 1917 and found that the Sanisiyya had made a peace agreement with the British d Itabms. This fia led another Tripolitanian leader, Ramadk al- Shuta* to decide not to coopente with the Cprenaicans and to attack the Sanikiyp's followezs m ShBSince the ernergence of Sayyid Mdpmmd Idns d-Sans M Cyrenaica, the Sufi order had adopted a diploznatic approah to Britain and Itaiy, a poliq that was ckdered by the leaders of the T&oiiw resis*ince to be etpident to collaboration. This event lwakened then to the necessitg of haviag theL own autonomous govertment> sepamte fiom di?t of the other province. It was not und the autrnnn of 1918 th2t Tripolitanians uimessed the biah of the J1;1m&&ya a;/-Tmbk&ya(Repubic of Tripolitania). This occurred at a time when the country was in tunnoil, both political and economic, and so it came as no surpiise that the newly independent country expired ahno more thfour years (19184922) of existence. The Republic had no intemational sponsor to htervene with the Itllians on its behalf; and once die Fasusts came to poww in Rome in 1922, the Itahans took a much harsher 1Lie The Republic of Tripolitania was the ficst fodrepublic in the Arab wodd The dti* force behind its fomding was Sulayd al-Bamd, who beforehand had wged that an autonomous Ibadi-Berber province be hnned in Jabiil &Gharb under the Young Tudrs. The chance to establish his oam 39 Anderson, 'The Tripoli Republic,"~.44. e own pvernment came lfter the signjng of the Treaty of Lusanne by Itaiy and the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The treaty resulted in a division of provincial leadership, by *ch Itzly gaineci a fèw coastai tmms dethe Ottoman issued a deCiSUSLtion to Libyans giving them M authmity over their own a&riis and regthe aight to aappoint an agent to protect Ottoman intemsts in the country. Afk the signing of the Treaty of Lausame, the Ottoman administrators and provincial leaders of Tripolitania met at the '.a Congress to deade th& position on whether to accept autonomy under Ottoman protection or cooperate with Italy which had already dedared its annexatim of the country. No agreement; however, could be reached since the participants in the congress had split nito two diflrerent interest groups; one - wished to coopemte, the other to resist The first pupwas represented by Fvhat Bey dowas inclinecl to cooperate with Italy, dethe second group was exemplified by Sulaymin d-Bu~6who decided to resist. Even so it took sevd years before die Republic was offidly established Presideat Wilson's declanticm of his support for national self- detennination in Januay 1918 more or less convinced the Anbs d Libyans of their cight to libcnte themselves. To reaiize this goai, the people of a Tripolitania chose a council to dethe pmvince, comisting of Sula- 6 a Ba&ïi, Rania~al-~i~wa$di,* Alpad M@d of Tarhuna and 'Abd al- Na% Bilkhayr of W& 'Azzam Bey was the council's secretay, and a twenty-four member advisory group was fonned to mpresent most of the regions and interest of the tepublic The Um wu to acbieve Ml independence fhnItllian deby s&g agreement in prinuple to a Tripolitanian amirate. Yet, they were fPr fiom United inter*, with the result that civil wu broke out When the problern of the province was bmught to the attention of Rome, Tripolitanians hund support fiom CommUlZists, Socialists and "tmub1emakm of aJI kinds.'"' Neverthe1ess, Giuseppe Volpi was appointeci Govemot of Tripolitania. Negotiations held in Md1922 between Volpi and die Central Re* Bolrd to hd a solution to the issue of an independent Tripofitania widiout Icalian invoIvement Eailed in its effbrt. At the same time, a delegation of Tripolitanians tumed to the Sansyya leader, Id&, and requested that he takes up the post of amÛ of d Libya. Idris accepteci the offa, dthoiigh he knew that it would meaa a confiontabcm 6th Italy. These were the events that clused the demise of the short-lioed tepublic Besides the Ottcnnms, there wem tbree main &en powess involved m Libp France, Great Bitah, and My. On the me han& the French md the British had established more less fimi footholds in Egypt. AIgxk, and the Suh. On the other hand, Italy was stin tqing to find its c'pzomi~edland" a~yossthe sea. The active influence of Itdy in Libya duzing the hist half of traentieth centurg dsfor fiutha discussion hem. The ambition to atmex the temitory of Libya was due to swd seasms. For Itaiy, Tripolit- was a pstionof naticmal honor and of political and eccmOinic basicaily &ce Tiipoli was die principai pxt and a majas According to one schohr, Italy had three reasons for embylring on a policy of planned colonbation in Iibya once it had paded it. Fht, it hoped to dwe its own high population deasity. Second, it wanted to keep 0th- powets out of Liya. Third, it needed a cheaper and more effective way ofgamisoning the -- 42 Chdes Lapworth, T+d irad Yuaqg 1% @~~dos~Stephen Sud3 & Co., Ltd, 1912), 79. 43 The sedement was probably estabLished by the Phoenicians in the 7' centrnry BC as Ui'at kter Oea They established two okcolll~nerieial aties in Ijbya, Sabratha and Leptis, and the busiest Mediterranean port CYbtlge. in Tun- Major mauufnchnal goods anre amid bmTripoiitatnia to Cmal Aûica by way of hao great raites wfnch met up about 250 des south of Ghadames Md continued as a sin& route to the Rive N&. JobWright, Libya (Ltmdotx EmJt Benn La, 1969). 33-36. About the live of ancieat Libyuis see, Ebrwbku, T& Nri-y, tmm. George Rawlinson (New Y& Alned A.. Toronto: Radom House, 1997). a terri- than by troops mmnaip a bvnn shore and pmvisioned almost entirely ffom the homeland? Fudemnore, Libya was ahrvays considered a potential base for the Itaib peneatim of Afkica to Lake Chad and beyond4' The It?lian politicai iuterest in Ottoman North Afica was puisued at hrst &O+ a poliq of ccpeaceulpenetration" of the economic and sd life of the teriltoq, and not by conquest, starting in the 1880s. The hanciai iastitution knawn as the 'ZBpico di Romas' was established m 1905 to begin an cceconomicpenetratim" of the land The bank iavested in lod agddture, light industrg, mineral prospecthg aud shipping..' New businesses were ficlmcced and controllhg intesest was acquUed in swing and m many sectom of the expozt trade: cemais, wooi, ivorg, sponges and ostrich fathers. Erpedtions to pmspect faminerah in T.ipolitauia were hded, and within a féw years the Banco di Rorm controlled much of the domestic and bneign bude of Libys. 47 ItaüM -de had also extendeci to all the main Ldbyan ports, aad schode were opened to spread the Italiyi Iuigunge and cuIture. The - - .. Martin Moore, F-b Sb(Lood011; George Roudedge & Sons, Ltd, 1940). pp.13-14. See also, Claudio G. Segré. Fdb .S'hm (Chicap and London: Chicago Universiq Press, 1974. a Banco di Rorm thderopened its fbt bmch m Tripoli m 1907, and 0th- branches in Benghazi and 0th- Iibyan ton. The effècts of the Eumpean penetraticm of &ca on the Sahara and Sudan were pMycornmerQal as the traditional trade between Noah Afiica and the counmes south of the desert ans drawn aany westwards and southwards hgthe new, secure dways and river mutes to ports on the Adantic CO-" wth the advent of Fasasm, Itaiian colonial expansion entered a new phase which saw an end to the poliaes of mousk'bernl govemments. The rise of Benito Mussoltii m October 1922 mvked the beginning of a period of unabashed impermlism, best artidated in his statement: ^We Fascists hd the supreme unprejudiced CO- to an ouselves imperialistsP9 ~he colonizatim of Libya, refed to as a 'CfÔwthshore'' for Italy, was m addition, considerd piut of "creating a avikatim" itself? The significance ththe Fascists govemment attached to the conquest and the development of Tiia was obvious fkom the hi& rank of the governom appointed there in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1925, Emilio de Bono, a leadex of the March on Rome that had brought Mussolini to power ia 1922 succeeded Count Volpi in Tiipolitania, while RodoIfo Gnazni came to be a Wiight, fi& p. 15. 49 Wright, Ubp, p. 32. knawn as the ccm~of Tripolitania. Theq in 1929 the Mushal of Italy, Pietro BadogJio, was appointeci govemm of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, *ch had been mitd for bettet coordination of military ~peiaîioas. Under Badoglio's direction GinPlni completed the conquest of Fezzan. Fascist Italy needed oiae years before it could completely conque Iibya, a result achieved throiIgb the aggressive rdtay tactics adopted by Gmzhni These were iequired m view of the fierce iesistance o@dby the SanùZyp. Gcuki had come to the conclusion tb?t no Cyzenaican couid be mted not to be a supporter of the SanSyya. He tried to exploit the jealousies and hostilities &ch other tri'bes felt toward the fattes. However, mited by language and law, libyans as a whole qpded the It?liaas as f-ers whom one migbt serve but not love. For diis reason, LyPns partiupated eitkdLectly or mdirectly in the resistuice. Chnptef II ROLES OF THE SANÜSIWA: THE CENTRAL POSITIONS OF SI~IDWGKS,1lgl~1~~7fi AND W-'S A Structure and OgMization of the SanÜsiyJra adherents; iMwÜn, disciples; and 9bgh.A manu3 ieceived no prideges, aras not Mitiated, so@t no blesshgs and couid iempni a foUowtz of other orders. I&w& were initiateci, resided as a matter of a duty in the z&ya or the sufi a lodge, usuaJly h?d some sort of education and helped out +th the znzUs of the lodge deninvited to do so. The chosen and most experienced i&& were designated as zs(y&, and were entnisted with the administration of the qia Over aU was the Chief of the Oder, the der of al1 ~jyaand th& ~bgkbs. The Chief of the Order anis lssisted by his councilors, the rnnqdhv, the w&i and the Ah@ These couadk, dedal-&~~a/(y, aaed on behalfof the Chief of the Order in the latter's absence, semed as the appoiated administrators aad judges in the name of the Chief of the Oider and attended die annual 5d al- Niwla k ZiPdeh. Stm&@zb: A SE-y ofA lkitdt Motrnl~nt% fih, 2d d a @den: E.J. Bdl, 1983). pp. 1 1&121. 0 A* f' and confe~ences,amq oh ddes? The lvrlh? supemised the matdand handlife of the qjbzym and received gifts and tithes on behaif of the order. The -fa iesponsile for mdoctrination in the order supefvised otha ru4- and tnnsmitted I the instructions of the Chief of the Oder to his subordinatesesP However, hr the purpcwe of this chapter, whieh surrreys the roles of the Sanüsiyya, ody the three piincipal elements of the brethien- ~hwkh,ihkk and ~&ym- ppin be considesed It shodd furdiemiore be noted that the title of sbg& bestowed on the head of the ~@vyuought not to be cmfbsed with the same tide bome by traditionai &bal leadeq ais0 refdto as $bq&. 0 The qaXvryu s@& had two fimctions ia the eyes of the .*cf= one temponl and the other spirituaL The ktdevolved fkm his position as anministator of the z&y~ which was his piimarg fuaction. This role extended to acting as an lgmt of unification for tn%esmen, a task made necessay by the incessant intra-tribai conflicts that arose ove legai and economic matters. hd owneship and Qsputed borders were arnong the main such problems, and it was fdt htthe 2riMya ~bqkb,who benefited fbm the tepmation of Mâhdism attached to Sayyid Mdymmad aiaiMiahdinl-Sanz: was an iddinsaniment of peace. The second fundon stemmed feom his duty as a dgious patmn to his disaples. In this resp- a $hg&, with the occasional assistance of his ikbüh, served as the inr* of ddy payer or as a teacher. Srnethes, one of the i&w& migtit read "ieligous WiSitiqp'' to a pupof people.5 Here, the tenn 'gikbbt%k" is used in a bioader sense, that is to say all adhemnts (hmt&) and disaples fib&) of the Sanea. * This idea was aiarent in diffémnt regions of the Sudm Chad and Libya at aimost the sarne the. In the case of the San* it ans developed not isy Say$ MWal-Mahdi al-Sans himsel€ but by Sayyid Aipad &Shnfif, although it was aiticized by &Mahdi al-SanÜZ See, Horeir, p. 112, Ziadeh, S'b,pp. 52-56. MmAshbab, ai-~Md-S- (i'ripok Mafia'at Ma$, 1952). pp. 87-99. Fos the Sudanese Mahdi, see PMH& Th MuW Slra? rir the S& 11814898,206 ed. (Oxfd: Qvendon Press, 1970). 5 Nach- recosded that Sans i.Rsd a rrtigious mt to the Kuka people of Wada'i on certain evenings of Rimqlb. See, Gustav Nrhrikl, Shand Sd, uans. Aiian GB.Fisher and Humprey J. Fisher (Berlreley md Los ADgeles: Uaitrersity of Catifornia Press, 1971), v. 4, p. 12. The tebal breakdm of SPnÜsigya membership indodeci mJlinly the Bedouins, the Tu- aud the Tubus. Prominent sub-tribes of the Tunregs induded the Awpelimmiden, Hoggass (Ahaggar), Asgus and Kelowh. According to Furlong, Asp and the Kelowis weze enthusiastic fohwefs of the San&+, esprmlly those who ded in Air and Ghat See, Chades Wellicigton Furlong, Tda Gntary n> th SakObsCrCCZIiiOlls radEqknbw in T*b (NewYodc Chades Scr%nex's Son, IgOg), pp. 93-94. W,DwepBec Wtes that the mbe was krgely spht betweea the Sans and the Tir& orciers. See, Henrg Dwepiex, La Lcrbmq followers, and the areas where this ordm spdSince th& resdwas conducteci at different times, howevec, di& h&gs tend to vug. At the htest stage of its development, the derhad spread throughout North fica, the Sahel, and bondinto large parts of sub-Sahaam Afnca. In 1883, on the other hand, den Duv+er pubLished his fbdings, there were 121 s*yas distebuted in Eggpt (17 x+us), European Turkey (l),Asian Turkey and the WjÙ (2), Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (66), Tunisia (IO), Algeria (8), Momcco (S), and other parts of Afiica (12)? Later, Evans-PPtchard reporteci that the nuinber had kicreased to 146 xem, spmad throughout Egypt (31 qkya),the IJijj (17), Libya (84) and Sudan (14). 'O Zi?deh, for hie part, dismisseci repoa~ Spaulding and Lddwien Kapteijns. An IzUAhma: 'A0 DwkÜ a~dth Sea,7906- 1916 (Evanston, Iilinois: Nosthwestern Univexsîty Press, p. 16. Tubu, Tbbu or Tebu is the name used inteschaqpb1y by sdschdars to descill'be this tdx. Acdgto Duvepier, docaOs them Toubou, th- were six operathg among tbis people mentioued in "other parts of AfXca'V Ma,the Tubu of Wada'i, was suid to have been the ktmong the TU~US.Kmùa or Kada, ICoyo, Nghmip, Inpa and Kodem, to accept Islam. See, Gustiv Nachtigd, SAad Sruclitrr, p. 164. See, Heny Duv- Lrs Tidv Nd ~hnahurhu Sahm (Nendeln: KFUU Reprint, 1973, hrn published in 1864), pp. 300-310. lo EX. Evans Pntd?ard, Th Sd $Cm(Odord: aarrndon Press, 19%). p. 24-25. O dr?t the SanÜsiyya had established q&jus as fk mua. as South East A& especdy Indoneska, describkg diem as only an exlggeratim." In ficZ the Sanüsiyya had extended its inauence to Indmesia, althougti for political reasonq it evolved into 1&yya.'* Therefme, it is the IdGiyp., not die SanÜsiyya that is recogpized by the IndoneSinn Couacil of Tm;;ïù2 (Jamyiyyah Ablith ThOJJqoh &Muytabamh an-Nahdiiyyah) m its decisicm dated Apd 19, 1981, and in its list of the forty-he rec~spized.~a.'~ T.W Arnold nfw to Riddel d SndH-je as sa* "the reügious oders rnoreov- have extendecl their orarniption to the Maia. AEchipelsgo, men the yo-t of them -the SmüQylb - hding adhaeng ia die most distant ialznds, one of the signs of the influence beiog the adoption of the name Sans by many Malays, den in Mecca they @ th& native fm Atabic names." Ziadeh, S*, p. 103. 12 Nerrertheless, Sagyid Ahmad Smonce empioyed Hap Mu?mmPd Assad, hm the BUgtrese 'xk3as his s~cretayfor some tirne befm his retum to south Suldin 1928 and them appointeci him the MW&CI.Wowever, it seerns that he did not spdthe ta@u. See, Muh. Hatta Waiinga, uKiyai Hnp Muammaci Assad Hidup dan Perjuangannya" (BA. thesis, FOCufq of Letrere, IAIN Alauddin, Ujung Pandang, 19ûû). In the eady 30's. 'Abd al-Fattah anis also repmted to h?Pe gwie to see S?ygid Alpaad SUwhothen pehim as &a to mach adspd the docbeiaes of the .*a to ïndonesia, Shaiif also told him a kh@u had ?Lady been sent a> South Sulawesi. Tiateq Kiai 'Abd al-Fattah renamed the .lmju as 1- This tnnstomil9on was, acwdng CO van Bruinessen, a> psevent politicai pmblems whh the Dut& do might have associatexi the ,Mawib the the SanÜsiya iesiStance rnovement in Libp The small scal-a is now headed by Kini 'Abd ai-Fatth's son, Khi Dahian, centend in P- TaPitmalaya (arrst Jaen) and spmad in sevd locai branches. See, Mvtin van Bniinessen, KI&& Kwag: Pa- dm Tm& (Bandung: MiPn, 1995). p. 202. l3 See. Idvoh 'AligyPh, TsOnpob Mw4akrrb N,&marang: Toba Puma, ad), p. 38. 4 Wtth i@ to the importuice of the q&ym themselves, Trimiagtiun writes, "the xpijiu was a center for mbd unity and tbis gave it strength to the Sanüsiyya organization, as Evans-Pritchard put it: UPülre the Hdsof moat Isiamic Ordem. *ch have rapidly dkhtegcateà into autommous segments without contact and cornmon ditection, diey have been abIe to maintah this orgrniPtion intact and keep control of it. This they arw able to do by co-odnating the lodges of the O& to the tcibal stnicture.15 In a typical camp1ex, there were a mosque, schoolrooms, guest- iooms, houses for the ~&kb of the and his My,zooms fbr teach- and disciples and houses for iMwim, dents aad serants, and th& families, as a w& os, sometimes, a garda and a cemeterg. l6 A A&+ initdly was built for the purpose of digous, edu~athd,@cultural and sdactMaes. To $Z& Latsrwish of the Maghvh tabe, al-San= wmte a letter, 'We built you a @iija with a r@M to lead the prayers and teach the Qur'kso people can go back to It ans in the @niyw of the Sanea, in my opinion, ht"ethosu md "arodchrid' " met and were manifested as a netwodc of social, religious, commercial, judid, mibq and political activities supefvised by the sbayk%rs. Ziadeh explains that "... a ~iiay4as conceived by the Grand Sans w?s a place for hard wodr, toilsome hbor adproductive efEmt Sansyah forbids begging and abhors lazy Me. Woig is essentiai, and cooperati011 and fidl cotfabotation are the bases of SmUG a~tkity."'~ The trao most kapottant aspects of the Sankiyya's mie were neiigious ap- m have inspirecl a Sun6 anci moderate sufisrqmwhile the latter was the most miginal part of the Saniisiyya progam.n l. DMkras the essence of the Sanüsiyya's teachhgs The sufi doctrines or wIIIC?D-fof the SanÜsiyya focused on &b, even though the fouadex himself lefi numemus writings on difkrent subjects such J.L.Ttiaud, ecSanüsiyya," EI, ix, p. 24. as Ab, q? al$@, &&th and histoy.= Smce the SanÜsiyya followers weze mainly simple tdbesmen, accordïng to Homir, it anis iiegarded as daent fm them to levn how to pray and how to recite &h, instead of a high hl of The okmia%founder, M-d ibn 'Ali al-San= (1787-1859) had studied under a number of Sufi masters, including the founders of the Darqawiyya and nj%yya orders, aLCAratiial-DqaG d Alpnad al-Tij-ii respeetively. Al-SanÜG had several other Sufi afhliaticms, such as the For smnnaqj O€ hiS Wfitings bet. ktS. Vior, .S$ adSnbdia on tk Dant Edgc (London: Hiart and Co., 1995), pp. 218-239. a AbduLllola S. El-EX&, ''%sciai and EcdcTauurfmations in the Libyan Hinaedand durhg the Second Wf of tbe Nineteenth Centurf (Ph.D. dissertation, Uniresitg of CaWarnia nt Los Angeles, 1981), pp. 10û-109. 0 ShàdhiljrgP. Jdyya, Nea,Habibiyya and pmbab1y other orders? Thus the doctrines of the SanÜsiyya were Jdya blend of Valcious beliel, with borrowings f?om other movemenb and iadividuals, such dso the iefomrist Wahhabi movement, the Malikite school of lnrr, Ibn Taymiyya and al-~haz&~ himseif claimeci degiance to the .*a Mn~m~k'a)the short chah lMking him to Ibn Idas, by way of al-'Z'Gand al-~abb-e.~ Al-SanÜG considered the Sufi &Ar the dyway to achieve spiritual ascendanq hmal-# al-amrnàiq the dsod, to the divine souL The S& repeatedly pedormed prayers and &kr to puefg the heart and prepve it for nature." Perfomed collectively or in solihide, SanSyya dhikr is intended to =ch more "the vision of the Prophet" thm "the viskm of God," but one is a B.G. Marûn, AhLw BmrhcnboUdr in Nimtcwbb-Cndrry Ai(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). p. 101. However, it appears that his dydirwt ILik was with Ibn Ides and al-TjZd, see, RS. O'Faheg, Emgllllttk Sar'ntr @vauston, Ilfinois: Northwestern University Press, 1990), p. 132. tS Ziadeh s-ts tbat the SanÜsiyya was a GhpZ?li?il dec, in the sense that the bmtherhood combinecl the ckacterktics of the '-and the sufi nxcmmended by al- Gh* himselfregaded as the possible prototype of this nineteenth centurg Wer. See Ztaeb, Sua&@&¶ pp. 44-45. 0 not supposeci tn mach an ecsrPtic state. To the Pmphes" one shdd concentrate on the image of the Prophet in me's own heart und one sees hW waking and sleeping uid can pose questions to him. Before beMg able to do so, howevei; aie has to regard one's Sufï rmstez as the spkituai qiesentative of the Prophet The Saniisjrya treats the pdceof &A.r like fod such as ddy prayeq hthg pilgcim?ge, etc., to the actent tkt befose and d&g the ritual, one should comply with certain condibons. This attitude is interesting, since dhibis not an obligation for a Musiim, whereas the iattec ue. 'IttZh practices etiquette. A &Zr pedoaner is supposed to fulhll the followhg ccmditions? he must sit in a piirified place; face the diipcàcm of die p& spdperhnne on each thigh and covez them with a doth; spWeperhrme in the place where the dkbis to be heM; purie one's Jiir (secret) and q& @mut)only for God; a wey good, peffumed dothes; see tbt the man is duk and dose one's eyes, Miaginnig one's hyM to be presenc obsesve ,4i4, that is, bllancing secreq (ni), opexmess (hG&a), and sincexity @&@,), so as to purify one's deeds of d doubc say &ihk ih0&3 in a loud voice and introduce the meanhg of d6iAr into the heart with every iepetition; banish thought of every being 6com the heart with Eiüibrr to establish the influence of ih-a thughout the heyt; keep dent afkthe tbUd emptiness fh@b), so as to focus and piesent the heart to the &-. and nwer dmik water during the &Ar ceremony- Furthemore, the ieciter mny not suspend a chain vound his ne& but must cany it in the hand, hstea4 no musical instrument is to be played; no dancing or &gbg is to take place; no tobacco or coffee rlMikMp is allowed, although tea is tolerated." In addition, there are other regulations phceci on dtn'k which fàll under the headiag of etiquette. The five etiquettes (tZ&3) of dbr'bare: " repentance (IiwEM), cleanliness &ho;quiet (nkii;wimessing in the hev~ht the is a spiritual chaM extending fnnn one's master back to the 31 Rinn, Mamhtr et Rbauriir, pp. 503-504. Ta W tolerated as long as it is sweetened by casde siig~r,not the aystalizeâ white sugar- In their daiiy Me, the San&& are pmhibited îium any kinds of luxurg in the men's doth, silk, embroidmes and the -ents, iike also the money and goid utensiis. These noble metais CM legally be used only to nise the handle and the gdof the sanoid, because the swod is intendeci for the hoiy war- Womai on the cont.rary, are allowed to wea,r such oniaments, si&, and gold. See, Duveyxier, b CogHhé Mdune,p. 7 0 Pmphet; md ackaow1edgtng the help of one's as a rrpresentative of the Pmphet The dbibof the SanÜsiyya generaily consists of the fbflowing fodmdas: 1. "O my God, bless me at the time of death and in the tests which fbfluw death," repeated foag times afier the dawn pnyer wMe lying on the nght side, the head piesseci on the right hand. 2 ~W&$'fiaC sepeated 100 times Mth prayer beads. 3. Loi* ik-A&ki&repeated 100 times. 4. ie A&&mrna '& ~qpi&"rh'-M~~&rnudaINaE 0I-~mmzPa- '&- â&bi wa- ~&'&'nw- ~ah-repeated 100 times. " The second to fourth &hare repeated three thes dtogether. And as an altemath to the second, the higher level su& can nad 100 times the following formula if there are no outsiders listening in on the gatherinng: ~ZiLrbo ih-&% &&mrnctd m7&3 ~pX&Mu&.rnmad f k&hnrbat tve fig5 '&& mi warrrZtbv 'ih A&%%.'Ihis fomiula, to which @al graFes are attache4 is kept seczxd' 33 DuveyBer, La Gq* Mivsn,,, pp. 9-10; huis Rinn, Mdet K6aru# (Alger: LiMe Adolphe JO& 1884), pp. 502-503; Octaxe Xavier and Depont Coppoiani in Lm GeRc&ws Murahmm @%.th:Maisonneuve, 1897), pp. 553-554. See ais0 Ziaâeh, p 89. Tùere is a diffice among these sch01ars conceming the thLd fmula. Duveyxier urd Rmn siriguluiÿe the wod ,&bu, m p&&, arhile Depont and Coppolani plunlize it, mi &i%bi. 0 In addition, the Sanüsiyya demandecl thnt an individupl reute a formula of &Xv fbr his imtisiticm. There are three forms of the formda, called a;l-~~dal- M~&imrnd implemeated facMF&ent levels of memk 1) &kgWh%,2) Li- ihî i&-A'b Mu@mad mû? h%Jhr56' hmQat wa nQ5 mÙ wcudkh 'ilnfii, which sentence must be read 300 times and recited 100 times, and 3) AUiilummu pE '&- J@M- Mwmad alalNatntuI-urne lcvl '&- t3hi wa &&bi wu JA?~ Al-SanÜii considered the best prayer to the Prophet to be Ibn Idns' hous al'=.& d+, *ch he almost entLely incoiporated hto the rrl& al- hbr'rof the Sanüsiyya." According to Sayyid Alpnad Shanf, there are & suti 0 rrcitations: al-L&&y4 olF(3k'&a and al-2@mjyan Among these three, the Eist is the best loved by the Sankiyya, which Padwick has tfiashted as foIlows:= 37 Say@ Ahmad SmAnrvrii a/&- p. 59. nie other taro are tradated by Adains, ated in Ziadeh, p. 88. "O my Resource in every time of distress, the One wb answexs me on everg supplication, my Re- in evexy difhculty and my hopwhen my own devices fail (Meaning, of course, God)," and "And unite me to his (that is the Pmphet) as thou hast United the spirit and the soui Çni mon) ouMnrdly aad indy, wakhg anci sleeping, and make him, O Lord, ta become spit of my oum essentLl sdf, him, of ali persons in the wdd, befm the lik of the HarPfoer, O thou Great Gd." a Y Constance E. Padwick, MwhDc~vI~.~: A Si%@ fptsCr-&nd I Gmmm Vie (London: S.P.CX, 1969, p. 165. My God, I ask Thee by the light of the Face of the ktGod tirihich ad the bases of the Grrnt me,and by which upm the wodds of the Great Gd,to cal1 dmb1essing on an Lord M- the geat in raz&, and on the hmily of the Prophet of the geat God. 2. Education The educatid system of the San* was promoted MithDy by the founder of the .&294 and fïuther developed by &Mahdi &San= and Alpnad ShaGf. Al-SnnüG had established a pmgram of voluutaq &cati011 hedon two types of school fol the people of the hinterland: "permanent schools," and "mobile ~chools."~The fomm kiduded the @&ttyosWH were intendeci fm permanent residents, whereas the latter were especially designed for nomadic tribes. In the "mobile schooi" tachers were appointed by Sana hgdihs to accompany the bedouin camps which for econornic reasms W- constmdy on the move. In both kinds of school, teachers taught most aspects of Islamic shidies such as the Qdaa, wam$ lFqb (Islamic LaxG)y @ aljqb (IsWc jurispmdence), and Qdtb (Prophetic Tradition). In addition grammu, mathernatics, astronomyy and other subjects were given to supplement these. Nor were intdectual pursuits the ody concem, for sports and physid tddq were o&rrd (- in the Werinstinxtim), as weli as vocational courses in bookbinding, cupenty, smi&eq, metal wozk, dyeing, mat-making, cotton-spmniag and weaving.." Some zrSMyw taught ody one subject oi two; in the Sudan, for exrmpk, Qdanic schoois were found in Kawar and ilm ma,^' or andJFqb were taught in the eyrtMsus amqthe 'A\alqL mi.'* A mme advanced level of educatim ans aiso O-d M lruge qk$ws such as &Bay& Kufk and Mizdah. And those who mtended to be teachers usudy went to the Sanbi University at Jaghbüb." The University had 30 m& by the time of al-Mahdi and 8,000 volumes of books in its hibray on a Islamïc hw and jriiispnideace, mystiasm, philosophy, historg, Qdc exegesis, poetry, astruniomy and ast~o~ogy.'~ 40 Ho&, Sdand Emmmic T@~M,p. 94. Ai-SanZ hsdf \ms interemd in a great ruige of subpces, inciudiog mnthermtics, astrology, why,. music, law and politics. See, Dajjani. rJ&znk o/Sa&&w, 2°6 ed. (Cak al-Mqtba'a al- Fanin 1988) ,p. 47. See aiso. E.A.V. de Candole, Th 48ond Thqffirrg ThofLi& endm Mohamed Ben Glialboa, lm),p. 6. '1 J.L. T-d, LI( i+n& Nb& jC .S'a&&, VOL 1 (Paris: Editions de h Miison des saences de l'homme, 1995), pp. 44&450. 45 Dweei; lp wt Muarliww, 11886, p. 24 and Evans-PntEhard, ThSunui, a p. 17. The peak of dns eduatid system wls rea&ed diimig the leadership of al-Mahdi (1859-1902). In Algena, the number of Sana f;o1lowezs was reported to be 511 by Rian in 1882~Depoat and Coppolani eshted in 1897 bt more than 5,000 mm% were enrolled in sdiools m Cyrenaica, with 2,000 in Jaghbüb alme? By 1890, the SanÜsiyya had amund 15,000 students in ail" Ln fàct, when al-Mahdi moved the centex of the derbm Jaghbüb to 11-q ia Kuhr m 1894, the transprtation of the ii'bnrp c01lection done necessitateci a caravan consisting of 3,000 camels? Undex the leadership of Ahmad &ha &Mahdi's successor, the educational system in die Ltiyzn hintezland became espealny indebted to bis schobhip as dl as his statesmuiship. He criticized those "uoqualified and insincete" tachers who hdd positions in the q&ya educatid system ody because they bmiigFt high prestige and generous compensation. Consequently, the qdty of education declined, a point he desm a chapter of his wdon educational pldosophy and peaagogical theories emtided FadMawaXb ab Mwa&-al-N44Z dRabbb* o/M~ZaIn sh- he underfkied the m fict that not aU students codd become successfd teachers. The t&ers must hrst nias- the methodologid and philosophical aspects of teaching, as weU as demonstrate honesty, good judgment, and sharp analpis? 3. Tnid integration When al-SanZ kttravelled to the hinterland, tribal disputes and confiicts were endemic to the mgion. To ute but one example, his urivd there in 1822 came immediately on the heels of the defeat of Ad'fi and the Jadby the joint Corces of A@ad Bey al-Qdand the 'Utnydiit In the two btervals precedhg his next visit, many odier tribai wacs took place. Among them were cdcts invokg the Jakinah and the Fawa'id, the JabœPnzhand the l$ambi and the lSbay&t and the Bara'sah. In addition, thewere intta-tribal conflicts like the war between fictions of the Jabiiioah and the cdctbetween the Kha&a and the Mughaprbiyah, both of the Iatter behg subtriïs of the Bara'sa.?P The process of making pcewas given its hist impetus by the coming of SmÜsiyya iXbwÜn at the request of a given mie to build a &ja in th& tenit-. Then a J&& and severai i&Ün were sent to teach th& children, to 0 direct Fiidny prayers and to sohre th& problems. The sb&b of each *a hctiwed as representative of the Chief of the order. he was the mediatoi between the Bedoian and the Tiiikish arlministrator, dispenseci hospitality to travelers, s~9ezviSedthe coiledion of tithes, directed cultivation of gr?in and care of st& dispatched suiplus revenues to the headquarters of the order, acted as an ihtk Qeada of FPday prayer) and assisted in pieadhg and teachMg.n Gmdually, txibesmen were integated iato the order adinevitably becnie dependent on the SanÜsiyya's qwr(l sbuykh 9 the more so since they could point to more successes tban could th& traditionai ~bgMsSmÜG membas had aice even solved interna1 cdctamong sectims of the AwGd Sulayak and hnd med to ieconcile the Sulapin and Tubu with the Tuaregeu In fàq by &g the tribes to Islam, the .*a succeeded ovdin creating "a Iess violent way of Likewise m the case of the Zdyâ mbe, the SanÜsiyya lgreed to open a new x&ya in Kufka when asked to do so, on the one condition thPt the ZuWayZ should stop thet mpaaous actions." Similar . -- 52 Evans-Pritchard, Th Sclll~n;p. 80. s3 Dennis D. Code& ''Eastern Libya, Wdai and the ~anüsiya,"Th Jd$ &a?n H-, VOL 18,1,1977, p. 29. 54 Ibid. 0 redts wcxe obtaMed nfta the Islamization of the BiyaQt and Tubu, who In dealhg with the prob1ems of disputecl borders and ?and owners, the brotherhwd took the d-?ç.;P.ja"policyor "endowment fbr the x&yanSI Disputed areas were designated for the 2mUryds use and the conflict of the tribes solved through dtivating the land togethex under the supervision of the of the ~ijvjaThis policg worked better than the traditional kb& or "tdd hme race" whexe borders were roughly ded" When this ausecl disputes vnong tribes, the c&ym benefited by absorbing ir into the ~Cnvtza communitfs land 5s Despite thek deand independent characteastics, the Z&yâ soon oEered .iiegi?nce to the Gnnd kiki who had founded his capitai in JaghbÜb. Under the peaceEul guidance of the Gtand SanÜG and al-Mab& the influence of the Slinusiyya spread Lu, and tade with Centrai A6eica flourished. See, Ziadeh, Stznujob, p. 58-59. 57 Horeir, SbfUJad E~IIMIIICTmnr/-m, p. 120. Besides, the properties of the SanÛsiyya were @ed hom .pbp and €km individual sk.The total lands belongiag to the deramou11t.d to amtmd 200,000-S00,000 hectares in 1919. Sees Evans-Pritchard, Tbr Sand, pp. 74-77. Although the temi is used intefchangeably, plmnr maybe theconectone,as thettibewasgiventherighttocoatiaueutiliPngtheIandthat the lodge itsdf did not deveiop; chus the ainsfer was not as cornelete as it usudy is in a sr& Sec, RS. O'Pahey and Bemd Radtke, "Neo-Sub Recdered," in Da Ijh 70 (1993), p 75. Sa dsosMichel Le Gai&'The Ottoman Govenunent and the SQnuPigga: A ReappraiSa,= ~&IKzI%RII/ Jd#Wh Eart S- 21 (1989), pp. 97-99. MMinge was aiso a tool of peace-rmlring. In the case of the Zuwiiyi, the men of the mie mimed women nOm 0th- lin* or, in odier woids, women were ex-d among the sub-tübes in derto &tain the pce agreement This agreement eventdy extended to --six J@& and applied M m area of about 900,000 km2 which exteaded an>m Ajdabiya to Egypc Sudan and Chad " A different peace agreement related to the slave--de. Duveyder reports that nompds on the ficmtier of Eggpt and Tripolitania captured a awavan of slaves 6Lom Wada'i and tht when al-SaniLi Ieazned of this he bought, instmcted and fkd them, fkdy retuming the shves as missicmaries to th& C. Economic Role The re@ous activities of the ai were in reality dosely intded with the commetcial pursuits unddenby the various ~~a,piasuits which inciuded trading providiag security for stomge and exchange opening warehouses to goods in transit or awaiting sale, and maintainhg the cuavan route. Cordell says diat, "the Sanüsjra phyed a mdh-faceted dein tnns- ~9John Da.Lib~ Polibcs: TAanù Rno&b ( Lundcm: IB. Tau&, 1987), p. 184. a Slhlon commeroe durjng the second half of the nineteenth centuy? 61 Al- Sanusi- -3 s invoivement in made is seen by Abw-Nasr as hakgbeen influenced by Alpad TijSs ability to combme bis sufi &g 4th the acquisition of The involvement of the Sankiyya in the life of the tebai communities ais0 meant that it became deeply mvolved in the catavan ade, since the new tnde route fMom Benghazi to Wada'i had been opened up by the ZuwZyii mie.." 'Ibis route was the most important cuIwllly and peshaps ais0 comniercially of ln the desert crossingp." And der the tmnsfer of the San3siya a Coideil, "Eastern Libya,'' pp. 21-36. Hoareoer, a lder of Chemidouz, of the Tubu popuiation io Sahara, saw the peneaation of the =*a as ha* nothmg a> do with commette, but rather with education. See, TOaud, Lo -& N& + Ir S- vol. I, pp. 441447. 62 It is bwnthat the GdSans was in Fez in 1814 (see, D.S. Mvgoliouth, "San+" in EIIC~C@W&Zof &bbip ad Etbia, xi, p. 194). that he came undex the inauence of Aiynad al-Ti= md zeceived instruction tn>m bim; and that he was pmbab1y iaitiaad into the ?"liikiyya order, see, Junil M. Abun Nasr, Th T1jrrny)M'AS@ Omkha MhWiw# (Oxtod: MordUniversity Press, 1%5), p. 50. a The tübe conqued Knnl about 1W.See, =eh, Sum@&, p. 5û-59. It is &O mentioned in this book bat there were four ancient trade routes conuectiag ccnd Afg, and the Medi-- the fjrst, the westernmat route, wu fcom Trmbutrtu m AlgPm; the second, fmm Kano h Nigeria, Ain to Ghadames and Tunis; the third, the eastefnmmt route, hDm Chacl Bomu and WaQ'i, bugfiTibesti mountaïns anci to the covlt ofTripoli; Md iasdy, 'the Gatamaam Rd', hran the Libpzn des- a> the Darb d~~'in,Dufut in eastern Sadan to the Nüe near Asyut in Egypt See, Ziadeh, p. 58 a headquuters fkom JaghbGb to Kufn in Central Sudan, the expansion of the order and the pwthof trade reached its peak unda al-u ah&" The qG+s, leadexs and members of the Saniïsïyya again phyd a signiscant role in this long-distance -de. Z'ATwere established at the intersection of local, and alcmg the trans-Saharan, made routes,66 whereas leaders of the SanSyya controlled ccxnmerci21 affàirs; collecteci tous from caravans and conducted trade on b&aü of the q&jm." Some men became traders the mi the^.^ Among the SuiÜsipyl's iban, for instance, the Majabra of Jab d the Z\IWayà of Cyrenaica were the mbes most active in the -de. The ZUWay& who lmed in Ajdabiya and the centrai Saharan oases, traded with and taxed mecchants using the SahYan route, cg. the Agaand ~alo?~While cornpetition between the two was fierce, accordhg to Hasanayn Bey, the 65 Codeil, ‘'Eastern Libya," p. 28. 67 CordeIl, Tastem Libya," p. 32 69 John Davis, L&m Po& Thad Rm&on (London: LB. Tausis, 1987), pp. 184-1 85. 0 Majabra won the nputation of being the -test tmda of the Liiyan des- Methe Zuu6ya &ed the greatest influence with the SmïG familp. In WIda'i, zojYjta were founded at Jabal Maua md Abeche, and a 0- school established in Nimm, an Mip<~taattride depot7' In Deqii+ym wwestsblished at al-Fasher, Bk Ali in hemand at Faya, 'Ap G?hkkz The second headquarters of the btotherhood at JaghbÜb (1856-1895) was located where the mutes to Eggpt, Nubia and Arabia came tOgethecn Ku6a (1895- 1899 anci 1902-end of mu with the Itlliuis) was at the center of the tnas- Shyui foute. QÜrÜ of Qini in Borku (1899-1902) iay on the main mute In Kt&, merchmidise hmthe port of Tiipoli lad the Sahamn interior was erchuiged - dchféathejc~~ ivqY mdigo-dyed doth, hydar;iie, ssugrr, tea, dfiigs, perhrmes, silk and beads and slaves." Liiya's cbkf trading pvbners at "WMe the Majjbias are the Gieat tndem of the Iiiidese* the Zwayas have nbo theV ciaims to prominmce. The PwLy betaieea the two tribes is always present derthe sdceand occrsioiially it flashes €&th into the light Thae is some envy of the Zwap by ali the other rribes of Cpennica because the man second in impoaaace to Sayed Id& ammg the Sanussis is Ali Pasha el Abdia, dois a ZwayL" Hassan& Bey, Tb Laai 0a.m (toadon: Tbofntw Butmwod~,1925), p. 98. " Ibid. 73 Ibid e the time were Engian4 the Ottoman Empire, France, Itdy, Austri?, TuMsiz, Gemi~iy,Belgium, Egypt, the USA adsevd other countües. Itaiy and Enghnd were perhaps the most active of dl. Ha+ enjoyed prospetity driring the Kt& period (1894-1912), the SanÜaiyya's commercial fortunes dedined fier the French attacked the caravan mutes m Chad, and espdy &er hostilities between Anbs and Itllims emerged m Cyrenaia and forced the aravan -de to move elsewhere m the counrrg. Chapta III RESPONSES TO COLONIALJSM This chapter deals with the SanSiyya's resistance to Itakn coloni?lism, which lasted fiom 191 1, when the Idhn dtazyinded fibya, to 1932, when the SanÜsiyya's resistance was effectively ended. In this ch?ptex 1 d concentrate less on narrating the history of this iesistulce, and more cm intqting its character and motivations, taking into consideration d the elements that contributeci to the process. To do SO, 1 d focus iu tum on the hckground of resistance; die resistance itself; and the deof SanCsiyya leaders such as Sayyid Alpuid SGf(1873-1933), Sayyid Mdyunmad Idns (1890- 1983), md 7Jm~?EMukht& (1862 -1931). A. Background of the Rcsistance The political backgouad of Libya M the coloniai en has been sketched in the tirst chapter. In this section, the discwsion tums to the rensons why Icaly decided to annex Libya and why the Saniisiyya saw Itlly as a threat that had to be resisted The mens why Idy put into effect the ambitious 'Tourth Shore" proje and anaexed the country by the end of 1911, were varied. Rome was a dàven in these circumstances by politicai, economic, demographic, geographiic, military, historical, ideologid and even civilizational fàctors.' For the Italian pheminister Pascoli, Libya was the answer to Italfs demogaphic aisis, a vast land which, for emigrants, would be "a continuation of th& native land," rendered even more fimik by building the necessary inhtnicture. "Always seeing our mcolor on hi& stined by the immense throbbing of out sa" Pascoli also believed diat 1% had a temitozhl aght to Gbya because of their geographical proximity and because of their shdRomui heritage. "We were there al~ead~,''~ans his view, seeing in Roman impd history the justitication behind recîaiming a piece of Itnly>s hexitage. This keiing of historical des* had been expressecl by Mazzini many decades der,in 1838, three yeam &er Tripoli had become a Turkish dz~~t-'North Wcawill ietum to Italy- It has been ours once, and it must be ours again. ' said Corradini, and in desmibing the potential of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica he also stated that these two regions "are all that remalis to us as heirs of the empire which Rome l For more de& on the ciàlizationai goals of the Itaiians see Paolo de Veccbi, Ih&>z G'n'&&g Msion ~A$~?uI(New York: Brentano, 1912). Ibid. Chades Lapworth, T@o&ad Yarnsg X&& (London: Stephen SwZk and Co., Ltà., 1912). p. 81. a established on the Aitiican coast" Luigi Federzoni, a nationalist, stateù even more ominous1y in an announcement in 1909 ht"the new Italian generaticm, possesshg the consciousness of its historic mission, cannot be other than nationalistic and imperialistic." Seen as 'btmvpmmcsm," the pmmised kad, the land of drearns, Libya pohted the way to a better future for Itdy. ' Among the advaatages was Libya's water supply, which "extended in an unintermpted layer fiom the mountains to the sa'' Phand fïg trees, citnis goves and b?auia plaats med the land "like a Ml-bodied whe." Stmtegic pozts with links to Akand the Meditmanean, Tripoli and Benghazi were in a position to tmisshrp goods £hmthe main rruisSah213in trade routes to Europe and vice vema. The people wae represented as an enmous resourte and a potential hbor force to support Ital~~'The cdorrable prospaity of a race of pastod workers and industrial cMfieSmen will provide a more diable element of suppo~both material and spiritual, to the homeland in the strenuous future that lies before WiUiam C. Askew, EuirFpe adX*'s Aq- #fi& 1911-1912 (Durham, Noah Can,lina- Dufre Unhredty Press, 1942). pp. 25-26. For more on this pmject to 1940 hmits beeiamng, see Mvtin Moore, Fdb Sbar Itodin Mnrr Gbn@i$on ofL-)rc (London: George Roudedge & Sons, Lod., 1940), and Seg., FdbSk, wbid, extends the smmy a> 1958/59. a itrs 9 Giuseppe Piazza, an ItPlian cocrespondent in Tripoli desaibed them as 'ltindly, peacefûl, 6riendly..""o The &te was "very healthfd," blessed 'krith Italy's politid, miliq, economic and culd interest in Liiya was emphasized by Crispi (1887-1896), a dominuit figure in Italian politics, who admitted the politicai and rnilitaq sipifiamce of North ficaand wamed that Idy codd not dow any power who might some day be her enemy to occupy territoy in that zegion.12 The Socialist Labriola, in respo~lding to the condemaaticm voiced by Germa, soQlliscs against Italy said, "There mlyhas been a wu in which 'capitalism' played so smd a part, in which the l0 Segré, F&b Sbm, p. 24. 12 Pagliano, La lj6kg 1, p. 28, in Askew, p. 15 '3 Lapumrth, Trijbok caid Yomg I* p. 78. Lapworth aho remzdred that it was not basically baseû on any emao-capitalism tactor, but mted in a politid aspect : "Tt is pue that Lbya is not so fnJdul and prospaous as of old, and that, so tir as know, thae is no fàbdous 4thof goiâ and diamcmds to be obtained, which, accordhg to the peculiar 1ogic of scnne dtics, would have given the war a perfécdy mod juaü5cation. &t the f?a ody semes to strengthen the contention thnt Itaiy was urged on by political necessity, and not by g&d of get-richquick capïcilistn Ibid., p. 139. But in kthpd in fi~tconlczdicts hae what he stared in the prwious paragraph and in many other phof the samc work, es. p. 164. 0 That eccmomic interests pmvided the major incentive for the conquest has been &tiazed by Md=, '"A remarlrnble fèature of much fkign comment upon the a that Geminny or some other FerIiiigbt cJaim Tripoli unless Itllg acted; thus, Giolitti (the ItaIian Pfeaùa 191 1-1914) declaice4 ''id we bad not gone to Libya, some other power would have done so either for political or econanic reasons."14 This of course ans a matter of natid security and defence," and maintenance of the c~~fldnminterests of Bdtain and Itaiy in the Mediterranean. Another factor was national poktics: Fedeaoni wrote to Mussolini in A@ 1927 imernorandum in which he stated: "the colonizaticm of Libya must be a means more than an end: it must dow us to place a fm hundred thousands of ouf counixyrnen thete who win dea part of Africa's Mediterranean shoies Italiui m fàct as weiI as in hw. A problem ofcoldpolitics m that its solution is the only means to guarantee our dehnitive possession; and a pmblem of fo* policy~'16 The Iclliui colmïzation of Liya amich adygot underway between 1886 and 1911, and whKh encounteced strong resistance from local powers situation is to be found in the suggestion dut the Tripoli enterp* is the resuit of a sudden, utmamnbg land-hunger- a greed for 'colonies' ad'empire'- which has ie~tly beset the Itaun nation." See, McCîure, p. 3. This stateinent challaiges Lapworth's idea that economy ans not the main bar and argues as weli tbat it was not the sudden conques% 'TrPly been charged with undue Prreapitanq, but if the conques was ber oniy motive, thai hagunboats ?Wed off the T-litan coast much too iate; some of her present dmentors had "got th= kst" La+, Trrjpbhd Y-g I&& p. 159. (parti- the SanüsiWp), wu deeply mspired by ideologid and socio- econotlljc motivations. 17 Meanwbiie, IItalian aationalists, a sdbut hfiuential gmup, exerted piessme of thQr own. They demandeddth?ta more active fmeign policy be pursued, beginnhg with the annexltion .of . Tripolitank ni& founder, Emico Corrad-dim,-te for the w,a nationalist review, an ddepubrished in 1903 which sounded the "hist battle ay of the natidsts." A new and Ilnlitznt pattiotism anis doed by trao othern?tionalists: Fedexip Gh&in his Lo tqaIkda (1903) and Mazio Moaisso in bis L'impm'dmo ne1 nmh WC(1905)?~ and declared thnt Noah .Hcashould' be .die fociis of this imp-~c endeavor. He uzged nationalists to fmce the govemm-t to go to Trip~li'~ observe Tiipoli or capture it before the much desiied It?liui occupation could be effected, a demaid&at was to shape public opmicm.20 Undet the leadership of nationah m the Par&ment, public opinion-was dppedup to a patxiotic enthusinan and hdy, to war Widl the Turks. A differekt view was put forwnrd by the Socinlist deputies in the pYii?ment Theyhisted that Tripoli haà no si@cant due and that it was and to attempt its colonizatim wodd be to cmvext Tripoli into a vast Itdh . . bdgound Leone CaetYii, an Itplipn deputy and n SociaSist, denied th the sakk 'Cavery honest Sodhmust disappmve of th&. liby.rn adventure. -It means onty useless and stupid b~aodshed"~Yct, the Socinlists' and the Cieady, My.had akady begun to psofit -hmits involvement m Liya . - in economic,. s& md polidcal tenils. Thé èeqnomy qf Idy, O& of the gmat *ers ki Europe nt the end the. nineteenth cent- and the beginning of the . . Askew, -, p. 42 AsLw, Empe, p. 59. twenh, was one of the fàstest gmwjng kthewoddU Impoits haâ ind 243 per cent oozr this peziod, d,whüe expoits had developed by a rmEgin of 224 per cent Agriculture and industries .tao had grown significandy. Yet the nch hnd of Libya, with its valuable min& such as phosphate, sulphq iron, zinc, lead and its 0th- c&odities such as sandstone and sdpwas stin not fdly expiored in addition, erports. of de, sheep, espw, sponges, ohoil, ostrich feathers, &tes, skins, wcd, eggs, old shrer, butter, mathg hema, etc., ~Thes&suppLy&ngdicconstofCyrronicPansjpid~beeaougha>sPlt the wholeof Europc,see,~T~6dY~1~,p.164. 0 country d be the mas te^ ofthe sukmFor me, the possession of Tuais has not a tmth part the dueof Tzipoli?"' 1910,~its inûinaam cmis to tum to LiWhile henght to Tiipoli had been mismanagement of Tripoli providecl yet anotha argument ffor an wessive cold- poiicy. 'Tuirkey seemed . not onlg indifférent but averse to . . imp.0vements of yiy kiad, appazently not wishing ta encounge either native Hawever, Itdy's policy of peacefiil petration adopted m the eVty part of the twentieth centuy. - as an alternative to the armed c~quest..ofTripoliwas . Ed?PftPdo Campezïo, an Itaiian expkWho bnveled in Tripolitania (1879) ad Cpennico (1881) &O crpmscd himadf'difhmtip,- . 'bphd these hdswill à~teme de.- th SiiRan,: since the iaterpeaxf-heBzitish and - Fmchin the binte&d,.the trans-SQharaa mpde had ddined dramitiicply anci shihed to o&es mutes. See, Sqfe, p. 27. fiiled and that.arined conqyest iild bixome necessq kose the Turks wdhgness to gnnt Itdy a shlie in the ecoaomic Me of TiipoIi, the Itrli?ns . Itdy began preparaticms for the &cupation of Tripoli inl:Angust1911. An ultimatum was given to T'dey by &aly on Septembec 28' 1911.' Turkq W~S@en twenty ho- to &muer the ul- Turkey's answ~was pnwipt. . . -. would-be'pted if diey did not &kt the hbegrity of die Itaiy September 29, 1911. In anticipation of waq Itlly had amassed 824,000,000 hcssufticient to tkuuice the was over a year.3s l. Responees of the Ijbyan People The response of Liiyws to the peaceful penetmtion of th& land by Italy gen- tdone of two €bans: there wen those who sought to coopemte widi the Itlli?as and those who refused to do so. nie htpup saw "Illiances 4th the colonial state as the spfest means to pmtect th& authority 0 members wexe for the most paxt merchants or businessmen? Unable to maintain th& economic and politid independence due to the fia htcomperibion among local tribes, on the one hd,and between local powers and f* powers, on the other, was so intense, 14taaders felt obliged to ally themselves with colonial interests. In addition, the ItaIîans tried to appmach them througti muiy avenues: bribq, positions, protection, etc. 37 As in Tripolitaaia, most of the consmi urban popdation in Cyrenaica died idwith ItalLns. This ws due to the fàct that they had only weak ties with the hinterland during the nineteenth century. On the other hand, the intexios, which a rrrmicred under the Muence of the SQnÜsimresisted. kige meLchaats, especially those afEiiated with the Banco di Rom?, fbr exampIe, Musli.merchants like the Muntasir ch," and Jewish merchants Iike the Halfùns family, collaborateci Mth Italy in an efht to protext thek economic interests. Hassuill QY?manli, for example, receioed a subsidy of 4,000 lire a month and afier the invasion ans appointed Vice-Mayor of Tiipoli" These L'byans not only assisted IrPliui ecm~cand adtufal interests in Tripoli City, but also helped the Itlliui amiy to ex- its control over the city.' Anb chiefs were ofien employed to pdase horses fiom the mies at higti prices, in an effort to "damage the war-making ability of the hinterland ttiks.'*' In an effm aimed at co6pting the Smüsiyya in partiCUiZV, - Itdy used Mohammad Elui Bey, an Egpptian who had more than once rendemd services to the Italian govemmeat, to establish connections with the - * l3y the iate sulluner adfd 1912, the Itahns had occupied Misa& Ghnrgan and Zd,and through the Muntasir Mythey extendecl th& duence into Sirt and the F~Z~ZLO.Wmar Pasba, patxkh of the fdy, had been q& ~CUIIof Sia and his son, SQLim heu the same position in Misratah. In Gbargan, t.hdd admiaistxative Pogtions. Supported by the Italiuis, the family regrti thet promicence fnw the Turks. See, Lisa Anderson, Sm Und SdTmdion iri Tuniir and Lib, 1830-7980 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986). pp. 189-190. 39 The BMco di Rama ohSOM pducts br las dian bad been paid for them. This fict obviously led Itassunr to support the Itaiim. See, Askew, p. 2û. This ans one of the atrempts, thEough bribery, to get supports hmthe indigenousi population, a fia tbzt nlnrmed 11-Banid and Aîpd al-Sm. See, Hoteir, Sdand Emmmic T-n, p. 292 * Ahmida, Th pp. 108-109. the Ishmic Uhersity of airo o.'* 'AE ibn 'Abd al-Rdjk w?s also remto have reached a compromise with Idk authoiities thiough the Banco di Those belcmging to the second pup, on the other band, wea for the most pyt from ninl areas, especizliy the trii of the intmoiWThese rejected collaboration with 1taiia.n peaetraticm, wisbg hstead to maintain th& eccmornic md political independence. In QcS the were three diffrrrat pups involved in resisting Itplian petration: the SanGiyya order, the Tripolitmian republic, and the micdederations. The Sanüsiyya sought to ildraintain contml over Cyremica and the hinterland, the TripoliClnians over di& own O- temitofy, and the interiof mies, me those of Giiand Sydca, the Awm Sula- the TV, and most of the Arabs of Wada'i 11-Shatti, over the +ans in wbich they were setded. 2. The Sanüsiyya's Rcaponses Generilty, the attitude of the Sanüsipga towards fmeiga penetrraticm ans manifiestecl in dirre anys: avoiduice, coopei3ation md iesistance. Thew?s no strict chronology to these thm rrsponses, although the kt response sas more common in the dyperiod of the SanÜsiyya's existence when they felt the pressme of westem and Tlirkish fones in th& vicinity. Reniaiiag fkom the yij& in lW, alalSanusi decided to enter Mustagh9nim, Aigeria, his own homeland, but he ans not dowed to do so by the French, who fe~edthat he wodd join foms with the A& 'Abd al-Qadir in Algcrin>s resistlnceU Perhaps this incident led alSan% to establish a distance between himself and "the enemy," although wht he meant by "the memy" anis still undefined. SanÜG's expression for this was, "sevea 4sbetween us and the enemy of AH&." " On another occasion he SU& "evey Muslim must be ready for the confkmtatim.'" Taken together, the two statements imply that the derwas to piepare in isolation for "necessay actions" if the situation required it. Anohet example of the strategy of maintabhg a distance was the establishment of the first SmÜii &Bay&?, on the higti land between Dema and lhglmï, where it was "easily defaded and difficult to access. ss 47 Located several hundred miles fbn Tripoli, it maintained a considerable B.G. Miuan, Ahh Bmtbe&d B Nin&& C'emby 4fia (Cambsdge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 105. disouice 6rom Ottoman poliq-malt- who might have otherwise taken notice of the bmtherhd The order homoved its @@a Erom Kanem, dere it had won patinfluence among the AddSulaymk tribe between 1895 and 1899; this transh was foIlowed by the SanÜsiyya's withdnwal hm Boh and 'Iibesti In the yeu 1895, al-Mahdi removed hic: seat fhm Jaghbüb to Kufn, again in orda to presenrr the order 6com Turkish intemention." Skct poüàes with regard to foreign explorers were applied "to preserPe their independence and resist penetration by colonial infl~ences,'''~since explorers sometirnes mimde~~toodthe order to be a haticai sect, as evidenced by Fudcmg's a statement 'The Senusi were the most powerf.ul and f'suiatical sect M Islam." " It was the F-ch threat 6ran Chad and beyoad, made more serious by the capture of the SanÜsiyya's caravan routes lending from Bagkmi, Niger, Kanem and W&i towards Libya, that fSyconvhced the SanGiyya to put th& diEimnces with the Turks aside and job &es Igntist the French. After haxhg refused for yevs to accept Turkish npresentsitives in Kuh, in 1908 the " CariPintg apt to desclibe the brotherhood derthe second leder, al- ahd di al- smùà *,Fodmg, Th GbmMg. p. 93. SanÜsiyya welcomed th- in the ht-t of gaining th& Howwer, Turkey codd only provide a token force to pmtect such distant boundafi'es and Sayyid Alpad Siilnfwas fdto tum to Lord Kitchener, the Bxitish agent and consul peral in Egypt 1911-1914, since the Fiench had already taken Bomu and mchading Qum and Wajanga, and had neady ceached Kuh The Biitish intemeneci to stop the French at Sayyid Alpad SWsrequesh and hdythe French withdrew to Tekro, on the Liiya-Chad border, in 1910. Accordkg to Candole, author of a biography of Sayyid Mdpmmad Id&, the fburth Chief of the Orda and later Kiag of Libya, these 0 were adythe hrst contacts between %rirain and the SanÛsiyya (contrar~rto daims that these onEg ocdup to the 1940s when Sayyid Mukpmmad Idns went into exile in Esppt). The policy of resistance may be traced back to the leadership of the second Chief of the Order, al-Maûdi al-SanüG, and to the year in 1902, when the SanÜsiyya were defated by the French and forced to leave z&& Bi'z 'Ahdi in Kan- On the death of Sayyid 11-Mahdi siot months later, his position devoived upm Sayyid Alpuad SM The latter was in Kufh in 1911 when Itdy declared wu on Turkey, and he decided to hold a meeting attended by Candoie, ThLje and Tinacr, pp. 1617. menibers of his council and by many important ibün anà adherentsFkq@ks Some of them seemed hesitant to begh a new war *en that they had just hished @hg one ?gainst the French and wexe now hmig the I&s, who had aiready defated Tudrey. They felt bttheu chances of wiwiag were srmll, and that the 1e;iliyis could cut off any aid that onight be fdcoming from 0th- Islvnic nations? But Sayyid Alpad al-Shan'f spoke to them forrefuny, and med to banish thar tho@ts of defeat by readiag Qur'ââc verses concerningfbtGd to thea He emphasized diltjaàil was a duty that had to be dedout regadess of the difüdties of the power of the Fkdy, as Hm& tells us, he annomced, "1 swepr to Almighty Annh that 1 will fight them, even if 1 must do it alone ymed dywith my stafE'." The meeting adjoumecl, after having dednred a )%ad on Jan- 23, 1912; hmthat point onwards Sayyid A&md begrn leadhg the SanÜsiyya's cesis~cemovement C. The SanUsiya Resistance: Roles of the Leadiag SanÛsiyya Leaders During the SanusjrYa resistance, both Sayyid Alpad Sh&f and 'Umar 11-Miikhtâr served as commanders m the field, deSayyid Idns acted 2s the chief negothmi.. Fdemiore, the em-ce of 'Umar al-MatEr after Soyyid Ahmpd Shaaf pmved the close and pow& sdties between the Sufi derlad the trii. Idns, cm the other haad, maintaMd the oiew dint oniy through neggotiation could libyans radi independence. i. The Role of Sayyid Alpad Shàn2 (is7Sl133) Sayyid Alpuad ShGC the son of Sayyid Mulpmmd Shdf and the gtandson of al-SanÜG, was the diird leader of the Sanusigya. Accordhg to Evans-Patchard, he wls "a man of medium height, stow for pi Anb on the da& side, with a îïtm and detecimineci face aàomed with a sdmoustache, a dosesut whiskem on the upper jaw, and close-cut bearrd." " He was diai in his fodes. Mortmver, he WPS h- mpredictable in his judgements and impulsive in his actions. He was besides pud, quarreisome, and hatical. But he was a good Mush and a defiant and loyal mm, pedstent in his beliefs, obstinate in uphoMiag his piinciples and sohwhen defatedS6 Sayyid Aiynad SWsleadership of the der extended over three distinct periods: Erom 1902 to 1912, when he was ccmfkonting the French in the Sahprp; from 1912 to 1918, when he and his Bedouh foU In the ktperiod, he coIlabomted with the Turkish and the British in derto pmtect K& from French ~ggression.In the second Wod, however, Saypid Atpad SMhd himseIf opposed to both the British and the Itriliirns. The Btitish be attacked at the instructions of the Ottaman Sultan and the latter's German allies. His appointment by the Sultan as the Govemor of Tripolitania in JuIy 1915 made it diftidt for han to refuse. But he ma. have ben misled on sevd points. For one thing he was told that he arould be suppotted by the A& 'AE tribe, that the Centrai Powers could win the war then raging in Eufope, and that the wu with the British would be on a srmll Yielding to Ottoman persulsion the Sayyid asked his followers in Cydca, Chad, and the western Egyptian desert to resist the British, in spite of his ductm~e.~~He was deeply aume this decision would cut off most of bis 59 Hk reluctance wzs abreflected in tom, intemiews on the frontk with Bhbashi Royie of the Frontiers Mministraition in November 1914. In these intemkws, h had stateà that the concentration was "not vmed at disturbmig the btier but solely dirrcbd Wstthe Itaiians." Evam-Pntrhud, p.125. He sometimes mgzeed his hdf- heartedness later in lifc, as he said, "Sometimes it occurs to me that 1 was wmng to heed the caii from Istanbul, seventeen pus ago ...Wns not that pahaps the beginniag of dath not oniy for U~Ybut for ail the Saausi? But. hmcould I have done 0th- supplies which were obaMed across the Egyptian htier. Neveaheless, Slyyid AJpad SGfTiaity attldced the British in hte 1915. Although, the Sansyya hd initial success in the desert they were eventuauy defeated by the British whose fmces wem fu superior in number, ie, 60,000 troops as corn@ to the SanÜsiyya's 20,000. They were fmed to leave Egypt and were 'lefi neady starveà in S-'" Furthesmore, they were prohïbited h entefing CprenPca. Fin* himaeIfin a difiicult situation, the Sa# left Libya to go mto exile. From 1918 to 1923, he lived m Istanbul. When Attaturk came in puwer, however, and declareci TUtkey a se& republic, Sayyid Akpad Mt it a was no longer the rigbt place for him. He then le6 fbf Ambh, wheze he lived und his death in 1933. However, even duWg his exile between 1924 and 1933, Salypd Aipad ai-Shanf still kept in contact aiith his foiiowe~~.He would write letters to the latter, offemig them his suppm his prayers and his Winingness to retum to Cyrenaica to lead thejX&61 when the CPliph of Islam asked me for heip? Was 1 aght or was 1 fooLish? But whq exceps can say whether a man is Wt or hiish if he fdows the dl of bis conscience?" See, Muhzmmnd Asad, Th Rad* Mccm (New York Simon and Schuster, 1954), p. 366. "Be diligent in gout sacreci jihad and stedàst in confronthg the treadiefous enemy of Ailab, for the enmiy wants ody to destroy you. Yet, he by the might ad power of Alloh w4l cerÉainly depart from Tripoli. Do not become weak, 1- hope or dupnir, for dief is at hanci. L am sureiy coming to pu. My stay in the Hi+ is exclusiveiy in your intefest and .the intexest of yow county. I pladge to pu by the mighty and a powerofAllah, that Iwill shoidybe amongst pou, and btmybehgwithyoud be a souce of joy and happhess for me.. ." See, H& Soàzl and Ewmd Twqp. Sayyid AipllPd ShaZfs supporters in Libya, ie, al-Khagb?, =him al- ZuwalE, Mdpmmad 'Abid and W." Mulymmad 21-'Abid served in southem Cyreoaica in Kufn, where he based his conmi?nd at Fezzan. He was &O involved in the events in Tripolitania and oigraized supply caravans to the noah. His brothers were active m the noah: E$&l opezated mainly M western Cyrenaica, while SZft al-Dk and 'Aii al-IKhaGbi were responsible for the noah and the east of diat region. According to Horek, Sayid A.lpad ShanPs innuence extended not only to Cyrenaica, but also reached Tripolitania and Fezzan through the network of the @P&s." Hetumecl these institutions hto a military camps, ogmishg bis people fbm one x&@a to another and encoumghg tribesmen to upholdNhcia pSncip1es- His rdly staaed in Dema and Bayda, then moved to the camp of B~n'saBefote visiting the %&yu of MSUS,~ 293. "Peiihaps someone may Say that Ahmad (11-SMal-Sanus] se& relaxation in the Hqaz adtht he left the conntrg and its people; by Almigiity Aliah, 1 wiii have no rest und I corne to yw. If 1 am physidy fu hmyou, yet I am with yai in mind ad action. Do not Meve thnt tbis sacred sauggle is mereiy as it appeam to be; nther in it therienreWe~seaetswhichgoudsg~thyonro~eges,~willing.~yAnph, may He be praised and exaiad, unite me with you smn by the giory of the belovexi proph- folAllah haaadpurwas..." W. Zawi, 'Unrp d.kb&, pp3û-39. Sadd 'Ali al-lCha6.b (188&1918), Sayyid Mu$lmmod (1893-1929) and Sayyid Mulymmad 'Agi (1881-1939) were dl the bmthers OC Sayyid Alpnad Shant " Prhdy cornposeci of 'Aw@r tribesmen, the @i@z of Msus was then estabbshed as a tempOEary headquartear with a corncil consisted of Mami' and &w heads. The headquyoeni wms a place where the cound dveà reposts fiom and he went to the camp of KYu'ba, which ans headed by two &%, V- ai- Md&& and ZTmran al-Sukuri. Heconhued his mission to the SuiapZn mbe and established a camp a af-Shulyzinq whence he led a successtul attack on the Itai;?ui fcnces. IGiowing that the tribes had been integtated by Sayyid Alpd al-Sa Itdy hied to sow discord by giviag gifts to merchants and by proaiising to recogeize and maease the ~bqkb.?tribal auchority. The efforts were ultimately unsuccessfid, howeveq and men convhced otber mito mite, such as the Hasa and 'Ubayciat tribes wbch for example fonned a guerrilla band m 1913. In secognition of his influence, Sayyid Alp.nad al-Shaa'f was pioposed as national leader by Cyrenaican 14kh1, pprwnrily the JabPrinah, 'AwiciÙ and Mag&ibah, who sent a letter dated 1337 A.H. to the deputies of Sayyid Wdin Tripoli and to fiurnemus aibal chie& rmking th& wishes for 2. The Rak ofSayyid Migrunniod Idns (1890-19gf) SaMd Mdyamnad Idns, the son of Sayyid Mdpmmd Mahdi was bom on 12 Mvch 1890 in ~aghbub.~He was brought up me odier members of the SanZ familys in an atmosphere of pierg and simpliaty. His swngattachment to his people led him to help mobilize the derin its iesistance @st Idy. For instance, he helped Sayyid Alpd ShaÜf to cqmke the mmernent at Ajdabiya akthe Treaty of Lausanne in the eady perïod of theL wu Mth ~tal~?H~wetrer~ unlike his unde who was a dented commander in the field, Sawid I&s taients na more towd diplonilq. Mdpmmad ai-Zuwayyy fot instance describes him as "a good man, but no dm.He iives with bis books, 0 and the swmi does not sit well in his hand." " Itah Writem, who arr, with some justification, scadimg in their coilllflents on most members of the Sanusjrga w,speak of Sayyid Idris Mth respect '"'Ihey admit that he was intelligent, rriigious, and gifted with a profomd mdsease and political intuition. He is fkn in decisions once he has taken them and keeps his promises? The Bimsh authkty ackaowledged Sayyid Id& as a political 66 Muhpmmad Fiind ShulÙi AIS- D& au Dmvb (Caire: Dis aLFikr al- '.i,1948). p.183. " Evans-Prichard, ThS-; p. 155. Asad, Tk WhMW p. 341. " Evans-Prit-, Tbe pp 155-156- leader aiho codd act for die whole of his people in Cprea2ic2 His positim was of pasticular significance since the triïsmen would only move as a political dtunder a Sanealeadec Sayyid Idris prefmed peace to was and so he opposed Sayyid bdaL-ShiÛifs proposal to attack the British in Egypt. Sayyid Idas beiieved ktit would lead to a disaster for the derand he ans proven ngbt When he ieaiized hmfew troops he hnd left, SaWid Id& was thereupon fmdto depeace amh the BPtish and Itabns m Liiya During the pdod 1911-1932, he negotisrted the ventsof 2uwa.a(1916) and Akazm (1917), the Treaty of Rajrna (1920) and the Pact of BÜ Mnrgam (1921), a tespectively. These peace agreements were basidy "the pduct of a situation paztidarly delicate for both," Le., the Itaiians and the SanGiyya, beaiuse both were exhausted by the ordeaLfo The accord of Zuwaytjna between the SanÜsiya, the British and Italy in 1916, hacl bought no d agr;eement since the SanÜsiyya and Idy were still suspi~ousof each other. Moreover, the Italians, domade more demands than the British, were insisting upon the hand-over of Itaijan prison- and the disaaning of the SanGsiyya camps. nie fidure of the Zuwaytina negotiatims The main &€Etdgin reachhg qpxment was a British undestakhg pnsiousiy dein Rome, not to corne to trrms with the Seaussi wihtthe concurrence of theI~.Om~dd~focthe~of~um,~dDeniz to be openeci for trade without which we fàced starvaticm. k, renim, we were prepared a> hpad mer the IPlinn piisonas ia ouc hznds adexpel Todtish officers in Cpanaiu 1 bdno difEcdty in ie4ching lgrcment with the British: Co1oaelCabot,whohd~mtheSndnn.ansaverg~e~~t~1l1dingnrra Bxigami was much more didicuit md insistai upon xefeerrrgthing to the Itaiian government who reWto Wvethe ?grcement despite the fkt it had been reached locally. In view of this, it wms mipossible fm us to continue the negotiaaops and they were broken off in eady October 1916. The British ad IpliVl representatives remmeci whence theg had come.71 Sayyid Id& opared zaother series ilepthtions with the BPtish and the I&s m Akrama by Jan- 1917. The British stipulnted htail ailied and Egyptian paSoners should be handed over and dilt no armed SMÜsiyya wodd remab on Egyptian tenitocy or cm the hoatier. In retum, the Shtrade mute was to be opmed for hoci rhiprnents fiom Egypt m CyreLiaica, though only cm the condition that nothing shouid fàU into Gemim or Tudash hds. The propeap of Sayyïd Id& m Egypt wls to be inspecred and the Jaghbub oasis was to be administered by Sayyid ~dns.~Meanwhile, the Italians shouid give recognition to Sayyid Idris' political authdty over the Tobd hinterland, as wen as &dom of tnde for the Sans tnaes with Ben#azi, Dema and EAV.de Cadoie, Th L@ and TWdEng Mir of- (L~ndotxMohamed ben Galbon, lm),pp. 32-33. DeCandoie, Th LjF adTi, p. 34. Tobnik. The p&jm h Italhn teaeitcq would be restored to the Sulkiyya but Saygid Idns had fkst to disarm his people?3 In 1919, the pmvinces ofTripolitania and C@ca were sepmted and made self'veming. Nwertheless, when Rama* SuwayhiIi tried to asset his autharity over the fonneq the Iraliuis insisted that no fibyan was able to lead the province. By the end of 1920, however, Tzipolitanks had rejected the ideP of Itatipi sovaeignty, and duee representatives in Itdfs parliament won the support of opposition parties fa offid recognition of a fully independeat Mushstate in Ttipolitania." The ackndedgement of Sayyid Idas as the mi?of the autcmomous administiation of Jaghbub, A* Jdu and Kuh aas put of the Treaty of Rajjsigneci m November 1920 with Italy. He was also allowed to have his own estabhh his own and received a monthly allowance for himself and his fimily. However, he had to silence any political and dtayactivity by his people.'' Later, the Pact of BÜ Maryam an agreement to disband the SanSyya camps m al-Abyu, Taknis, SIanta, Aknma and M?lthili as a nist step m disnaniag Cpmican tribesmen-was reached; this however did not work troops. Meanwhile, Sayyid Idas was hced with a dilemma denTripolitanian notables pioposed him as a potedaIlam of Tripolitania even as he was trgMg to keep to bis agreement with the Idhns. Considehg himself in a diflicult position, Sayyid Idns left the county for Egppt. He said, At a coderence of Tripohtanian notables at GhnaPn in November 1921, it was decided m fmm a Tip>olitanian amirate and offer the hg'& (Oath of Ailegiance) to me. They asked me to send repmentatives to Skte a> disaiss the matter. 1 sent my cousin Safi al-Din to meet them, at the same theinfomhg the Govemor of BeaghazL The Tripolitrinians repeated th& offer for me to bec- th& Amir. Tbis put me in an extrernely ~cultposition Unce de sympathking with the Tripoli~sdesire to have an Arab at th& head, I did not wish to compromise my rrlations Mth the Itakns. I therefom rehised to give a decision but asked th IPüna pv-ent for p""m to meciiaae behaem them and the Tripolitaniam. This request was foicefidly tumed doam. The Italian gov-ent fmbdP me to take any put in Tripolitanian affiirs as they regardeci Cmand Tripolita.nia as mm separate countries.76 One of the reasms that he gave for leaoing was his unhapphess and disappoSn~nientwith the Itaiian govertlznenfs lack of hith regardhg most of th& agreements, the Treaty of Rajma which never woiked satisfictody, bejng one example. He was also cmcemed about the advances of the Fascists in himseIfqaed to lead the cesistance in the fieldn - 76 De Candole, Tk Ljrc adT~CLT, pp. 41-42. 0 3. The Rolt of 'U- &Me& Vmarwasbomin 1862inBat&,B?lpa to a fàmiiy oftheMïnifkcribe. " His fàther sent him at about the age of 16 to a Sanüsiyya @kya at Jngbbïib, to leam about ~u(ui."The Sanüsiyya leader at dint time, %Md al-Mahdi as- Suiiiéi, then appoiated bim head of qii@w aLQasiir am- the 'Am mie in JaM al-Akh* for two tams?' Hewas then shifed to %%a 'Ayn Kalak m Sudan unal his retum m 1903 to z..jYI al-Q& M Bvqe Howwer, he ans visitiag the SanSsiyya's @wya in Kufïa when the Itlliuis nrSt attacked Libya in 1911. On renimmg fbm Kuh, he leamed of the seinire of the town of hÜ Geand he joined a w&h% camp in the ara He formed a pupof these rnqu~ikand piepved to Inunch an attack estthe Itnliuis, some of them moving to Rajma, and odiers to Badanah, which is aromd 20 km. fiom BanÜ Gh-ii Theg were cm the point of attackmg the 1taI.h~when Sayyid Aipad al- Suthe spiritual and militay leader of the SanÜsiyya, appePied in Dema m * The 'Abid beibe wexe ded"the lions" because to others they seerned diflicuit io ammL Umat *imcd th& ddness by teachhg them to use thek minds to dve pmblerns. He ais0 taugbt them des of behavior (dmamads others. This enabled them to arork togethes with the Bara'asa tribe in supporting him as SanÜsiyya gu&. Set, Zirw, 'Umw abMwM&, pp. 3536. May 1913, and took over die leadership of thh operation?' Howeve der his depamue into de,Sayyid wdal-Sha;if appointed Wmu a.LMukh& as dtqleadez of the and Umv held the position continuousiy until his death, when his successor, Sadd M-d Idas, took ove. 'Umar's strategy at that tirne, both as commander of the 'Abid band and as commander-ia-chief of aIl the figbttig faces on the plateau, was to hold its southem siopes with his guearilla bands. From 1924 to 1931 the guerühs effective used hit- and - nm &CS lgynst their enemy. Th& success was due to di& knodedge of the Idhn q'smovements and the eography of the deys, aves, and tails in the Jabd d-Akh*. In 1931 alme, the guerillns anied out 250 attacks and ambushes estthe Italian atmy.= The gu& bands consisted of diffe~e~ltmtribes m Cyrenaica, and recéived volunteers from TPpolitania and ~udui.~Some of the bands induded the 'Awlaci'iir, Magharba, 82 The letter of appointment uw @ed by A&mad al-Su al-Saas dated Shad15, 1342 A.H.. (see Ho&, p. 294). ". .. to whom it may conam of our Mujahidin brotherç of the Biua'sah, 'A-, 'Abaydat, Darsa, ma, 'Abid Murabitun and to ail our bmthem and the &y& of ZlajrrP, the people of Barqah and ai-JabaI ai- Akhdv. We have deiegrted the pious ad biessed shoykh 'Umar PI-Mukhk as a representative of us, the SanÜsis and appoint him a genddeputy to admkister the Ji. PfhiiS, d 1180 foo the defense ofour mighty nation agnmSt the deceitfd enemy.. ." Hasa and 'Ahydng Bara'asa and D- 'Abid and 'AinEi respecaVely. Each band had its Sans fhg and cagaaized itself hgsimple lines of comniuid. 'Umar maintained the resistance widi sttong discipline Fm &ek slfetg, he sent the women and children to Egypt durMg the war, but lnowed them to stay Mth the watriors in times of peace?' Meanwfirle, Umar had bis foot and home groups of ikhava'n, supportexi by the tribes which paid dran tidies to dehy the expenses of battle. The collection of this fee was only one of his general administrative duties for all the bands wbich *Me Myunder hia They rnaintained commiinications and worked out to a ~0111.1~1011strategy. 'Umar had also managed to arrange for caravaas to convey supplies 6eom Egypt, and to control their distribution to the amied forces and maintained dso his conespondence with Sayyid Idns and SanUsjrga elements nad sympathizers m Egyptu The soldiers under Umar al-Mukhtar's cornmuid numbered about 1,500 in totai - 1 of them armed but only some of them on horseback. With th& old weapons they had to Eice Italy's modem dta.y force equipped with asmored eus, liicufS ndio and trucks." However, MfOrmtition about Itaiian tmop movements and phns was &y passed on to guerilh bands, for ZTmv the iesistance and kept the Italians in a defmsive position. It was especinlEg difFtCU1t for them to fo110w the pattern of the iesistuice, as Tenazi, a Goverclc~ni CyrmPca sdat that the, Tbus, mst200, 500, 1,000, 2,000 rrbels, dressecl in picturrsque rngs and badiy aamed, ofacn 5,000 or l0,ûûû of our sddiers are not sufficien& because the rebeis pn not tied down to an- ue not bound to my imegiiment, have nothlig to defend ar to pmtect and an shuw thdestoday in one phce, m~~~cxro~50 km. way, and the foiiaaiing day 100 h.wy, to mppear a WC& hber.~~~hforamon~t~~eb~&hlfgrmuliinarmed shep~onaptrdof~,oronamhniinwhichnlesllongtheedgeof a wood, or the foot of a hilLb Gmimi, the aext milihig Govemor of Cyiftiaica dso iepdthere were taro govemments in Cyxenaica. On the one hand, 1dia.n~were ''the Govemment of the Day" and the SanÜsiyya, "the ~~~~ent of the ~ight'~Th& * Giorgio ROdlilt, "the -011 of dtance in CJrrenaica (1927493l)) in Enzo Sanda al., Omar dMwkb&c th Ihhim RGîmpst $Li& ms.John Giik (London: Darf Publisha, 1986), p. 44. Evans-Pritchsud, Th Sarrua; p. 163. These agents were the sortonrrrJs Libylns who mdered to the Itah government They provideci inf'itiou, souers and catde, see Santadli, p. 46. Geed Mezzetti, the p"upa.I commander of operations in Tiipolitania ?fter GiPa?m, animed the Itdh govemment about tbis C'Senusiyaand the comhnce of those who have subdd,'' as %e principal source and strength of the rebellion." Therrfm he siiggestcd that Italy's dtaq operations shonld be acampmied by "an energetic, htelügent political progamme'' in orda to c.timinate tbem. Ibid. 90 Evans-Pritchard, Th Sm; p. 173. supexidty duhg that thne was pPrmdy due to th& knowledge of the terrain and the fPa that Itay's mïiitay govemors were handicapped by th& shoa- team appOmtments. Thus driring the decade 1923 to 1933 there were five such govemors, mmiting in an beffieaive aqome to the nsistance effod' The SanSyya were also fàced with pdems in that a division had appeared M th& ranks between those who fnmdnegotiations nnd those who insisted cm the militaq sbniggle. 'Umar's fimes ccmsequendy deciea~edin numk and began to suffer defat more kquentty. Itdy wls also t?king harsher measures to briog the SanÜsiyya resistuice to an end. Italian tzoops killed auyone they fowd belon& to the rnovemeot, seized th& cade and destroyed fiams and houses, leavhg Umar and his foiees without food or shelter. Barbed arke fences were Ils0 laid dong the ficmtier to limit th& movement. The latter worked wd since it hampered Sanüiyya co~~llllunicati011qlogistics and aid espakUy 6com Egypt Some experienced guda leadem had already been killed, and the number of fighters decreased sigdicantly. Vmu nevertheless contliued the scniggle, und he was wounded and captured on September 11, 1931. On September 16, he was hanged, becomMg a ~hahr'd for his nation and religion,w before thousands of witnesses 92 In the tdconducfed by Gmanl Gcazhni on 12 September 1931, when 'Umar was asked why he fought the Itaiians 'Umar uisaprad, "fm my homeland and re@o11," among the people of Cjrieaaic2 The executioa of 'Umu e&ctively ended the sesistance movement There were stiU amund 700 fjghters le& divideci Mto three pups led by the lieutenants of 'Umu. Thœe heeleaders eqeienced dinerent fates: 'Abd al-Hanid al2Abbar succeeded in breakkg throiigh the wire into Egypt; 'Usmk ShanG subsequendy surrendered himself; and Yïisuf Bü R?hil was kdied in ?n wentin ~annarica.~~ 'The Icrlta poliq-f131kers erpected to occupy Libya with limited militaq opemtiions, ,hmlmiP that die natives hated 'Ottoman tyranny and backwardness.' Instead, they faceci one of the lcmgest and mœt militant ad- colonial movements in the histoy of ilfricta in that pehd."%hmida's Grazinm then asked, "Did you dythink gou couid aiin this war?" Umar replieci: Var isadutyforusandvicmryamies noaiGod."Sae, Zkii, 'U-dW,pp. 11 and 49. When Gnzwi asked him what if Itaüan govemmt?nt aceed him and Y he muid promiseci to speud the rest of bis live in pena, Wmar ~swed,"I shaü not cew to 6ght 1&rinst thee and &y -le untü either gw kemy country or 1 leave my Jifè. And IsarrrrtodKebyHUnwhoIm~whtkinmea'shearts thatifmyhandswesemt bound diu vag moment. 1 ddfight thee with mg bace hancis, dd anci broken as 1 un-.."See,Asad, TbcRaIdteMwrqp. 343. 93 Evans-Pritchard, Tk S'; p. 190. statement lads us to ask what fiutors gave die SanWiyya the strength to defend th& county, then what caused the resistance to dedtre. It is obvious that the notion ofjZ&h defending th& religion and th& country wls the kebehiud the resistance. Reiigious zeal also played a put in motivating th& opponents as well. Italy for instance obused ChüstiPn Entrean troops @st the der?' According to Sayyid Id&, this aras done in order to ueate a reiigious war, indeed it was confinned somewhat by the Ddhexplomq Hoimboe, who saw the soldiers with a cross sewn on the breast of th& unitorms.% Gmzki cmhed this sentiment in his speech addressed to the Eritrean tcoops, My brave troops hmEPtrea, you who have foiIowed me ithrough the camein THpdi agrinst Mdand Fezzan, pw who with meare 6ghting in OLderth?ttheItaaul~eshplls~its~a~ewavertheoldRomuiLibya, accept the thah of pour Gend for what you have donc New batdes iie before you, but 1 know that gw will be victorious oogether 6th us Itaüans, who profas the sarne dgion as you. Let us cry EtrMtra'for Ialy and hacolony of Eiitrea. 97 In addition, the &stance was directly supported and guided by the Sana funily, especiaîly Sayyid al-Mahdi al-SanG who bdt the Sankiyya into the most pwerful Sufi organizaticm of its the, and Sa@ shawho - 95 And they anae stül used by the Itaiians in th& openhoas in 1928, mastituted the bjggest part (five batdions), compyed to four I*JiPn batGJionsYand two Libgnn battatons. See, Sanrarelli, OmuralM&&.r, p. 41. PL Knud HoImbaey Du& En- An A~~WWSJawnay thr 1916 m Egypt, iespectkely Sayyid wdShanf, also maintaked his position as the ddsspirituai leader during the resis~anceby sendmg his messages hmhis exile in the Gis. The resistance dso benefited kom the previous attempîs of the SanGiyya to the educate people of the hteriand and O-e them socigy and econcmically mder a sgstem of religious &es. One of the resuits was that different mies were integrated, puthg an end to the rapaciousness which had caused tribal disputes for yeus. In its place there ans a network of ~aMyas, 0 where zhykbs, ik6s6v or adhirente wded togeha for the resistance. Therefore we hdseveral sesistance leaders who were also Bedoiiin hybs, iüre @ih Lataiwish, 'Abd al-H-d allCAbb&, Saifat and Mu$anunad BÜ Farwa, Husayn al-Juwa.8, Brahim aCFallmih, EQil al-Mahashash, and Qtait BÜ MüsL Among the Sanüsiyya i&wan who cmstituted most of die leading figues in the resistance were Umar al-MukhG, YÜsif BÜ &diil, IChalid al-Hum& ShaÜf al-Mailud, 'Abd al-Qadir Farlcrsh, Fa@ BÜ 'Umar, Si;lio alaleAdand Mdpmad BÙ Na* al-~asmiüi.~~They wexe not ody inv01ved in the Evans-Psitchud gives an ides of thek deplogment dwbg the wac ''a a Latabwkh with bis Mnghvba tûbesrnea wete in Ajadabiyl; Ab6 al-Q-isim al-Ziod with an 'A- band tkeatened the Italioa bases nt al-Abyar, al-Rajma ad 'Umar with the 'Abid mbol band contained the ~tsin the Akj sectcq anci a detachment milirug, but they &O contributeci tithes to rnm the expenses of ary under 'Umar's arlministration. To a cemia degree, espdy in its eady phase, the iesistance &O benefiteâ Erom the idea of Mddism-ilot ktof the Sudnnese Mahdi, Mu$dAlpuad," but the version eiabcmted by the Sanüsiyya's Sayyid Mdpmmad -di al-SanÜisi (18441902). For Muslims, the Mahdi, or Hidden Imàm,has long been expected to appeaz to spmd justice in a wodd dominnted by evll and oppression Mahdism m the Sanüsiyya ans proposed by Sayyid Alpd al-SEC who knew bis people could be eady mtegrrted througà this 0 idea, although Sayyid Mahdi al-San= did not agnx entkely with this ide0 For his people, ai-Mahdi 11-SanüP had the advantage of a gre~tpersonality and the pttxadition founded by his Eidreq which befitted the figure of a Mahdi. Ziadeh describes hW as follows: 'Oo - - under his lieutenant 9% Bu Rabayyim operated against communications between al-Marj and Tainmitha; Husain JdsBaragasa bdd the -LIS at q&y al-hy& al-Fayidiyn and Slanta; adQait BÜ MÜsà with his Has? and 'Abnidat volunteers MS campai oppsite Khawalan." See, Evans-Pritdiatd, The Siamui, p. 168. ~ThS~eseMnMiinhtktotrsmd-Md-SanüGUgaltsmtosuppmt his cause, eitha bywrsirigtheijafrom his own mgion in the dLation ofEgypk or by him,celf making the blin, but the letter was never answed. See, P.M. Holt, Th Mabidlrt SM i th SIWtA 1881-1898: A S+ of I& ûn@u, D~tl~dpmcntad O~~,W ded. (Oxfd Clarieadon Press, IWO), p.113. See &O, Haim Shaked, Th we ofth SvlbMn A4h.M (New Brunswick, N.J: Tmnsaction Books, 1978). 0 =eh, Sa&&&, p. 52 Hia name, Jame otha phgsfp1 s@s, lilrt the mole on his fàce, the fict thhis Eathds name aras Mdpm.mad and hW mothds name ans %.mah, and that he muid attain his majozîty in 1300 a311 these Convinced the masses that he was the apecaed Mahdi. Sam &Mahdi W, fh hmen- any such ideas, often denied them cafegoriaUy aad emphatially, but crowds do not always accept logical matters. Thep prefei' th& own convictions. For the Bedouin, Sa* al-Maha is still alive and it is ohsaid that he rides a white hase, surmunded by white g;lzelles and antelopes. Wand&g unseea thmugh the desert, he sucidenly appenrs amag his adhemnts at certain times, somehes in two places at once. Falls reports that in May 1906, it ans officiaJly mounced htd-Mahdi had ietiimed han a seaet joumey to the oasis of SanÜsiyya cesistance ultimately depended on one strong leader, so tht when he lefi the scaie, people were legs enmunged to condinue the struggle. This mny be seen afk Sayyid Alpad al-Shlnfs dein 1916, when the EesistPace inevitably declind Um al-Mukh&, Yusif Bu Rahil ?nd 'fi Hamid 'Ubaydi were moved thereby to send a letter to Sayyid Alpad &SM cm Kjab 15, 1342 AH., reporthg hthis absence fiom the countq had demopalized the people's dmThen afk Umar's appointment as representative general of the resis*uice by Sayyid wdal-Sa people were - - 'O1 J.C.Ewald Falk, ThYcms in thr L'bps Duat, tram. Elizabeth Lee (London: Darf Publishem Lod, 1985, ktpublished in 1913). pp. 3ûû-310. p. 310. dnvigofated until hir cap- and exCCUrion, the events which red.y endcd the resistance. An added di&culty was the fâct that the SanÜii fbdy, the refmce point for the i&w& was itseif divideci into two umps: those doriesisted and those docomprded widi the Ihs.The reason for the division was the nature of their perswnlities: fbr instance Sayyid Aîpad Shnaf was desmied as "a proud and headst~ongman, mlû3 cc extmqpt and aggressive, who pfened direct involvement, activism, splendor and dires negotizticms with local and hreign fepresentative~"'~whereps his successg Sayyid Id&, uns an e introverted and sobtiuy man, who avoided dose contact with strangem ad fond it diffidt to dedecisiolhs? The hrst hsbted oa opposiog Itdy, whenns the second tried to sobe the crhb duough a political appiwch afk witnessing the SanÜsîyya's defat in Egypt This defeat in 1916 weakened the intents of the resistznce movement considerab1y. Prior to the Itahinvasion, the SanÜsiyya were a prosperous SdOrder, blessed with the lvgest amount of land in the hintedat~d,~"~die best land'* in *MEvans-Pritchard, Th Simmii, p. 77. trems of wells, dnte palms, @enq and sp-, and in addibon the profits of the caravan trade. The San= f?mily ans overwhekned by a surplus of revenue, so that they had to manage the weaith separately in hur différent &m. 108 This arrs useM for die administration of the order, but the distance seemed to deconsolidation under one direction quite diflficuIq especdly &er the petration by the Itnli2ns. lm Agbil Mobamed Bnrby, The Tarabulus (Li'byan) Resistance a> the Italian Inmmi011: 1911-1920. PhD. dissestation, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1980, p. 129. CONCLUSION Itdy's invasion and occupacion of Libya berneen 1911 and 1932 faced a religious, sdand econcmic change on the countq, and created the conditions which made it posst'ble for a Suti. oider such as the Sanusiyya to become involved in the resistance movement Its amergence on Libya's politicai stage aras inseparable the tribal situation in Cyienaica, where the tsibes had been united under the SanÜsiyya through the network of ~&ym to which they had become adherents, iXbm% or shqdh, of the Order. The Eeligous and political responses to extemai ktwere cleariy diose of a well- 0 organized movement shaped anci led by the !%USWy and its sbgh. The Saniisiyya respbnse to foreign penebration grodually evohred hm avoidance, to defice den attacked, resistance, and ultimately, negotiatioa. The order was aware of den pliacal penetration in NdMica 6Lom the verg beginning of its existence, espdy under Sayyid Mdpmmad 'AE 4- San&% and the eady period of his son, Saypid al-Mahdi d-Sanusi's nile Later in 1902 the brothdood revived its ?&&CI Bir Alali in Kanem, Chad, which had previously been cap& by the French. Sayyid Alpiad al-Shanf, the next head of the order, helped the Ottomans attack the British in Egppt, dien defknded Cpremica fkm Itaiian enc~oachmentuntil his dein 1916. Witnessjng the The SanÜsiyya resistuice movement dependecl completely on the nemrork of *y, sboykbs and ikhva'n, as wd as adherents nOm vyiws mies. It was SUCC~SSMin m?iintaining thek mutd coopemtion ùuough reiigious teachings, educatiq sociai ?nd economic activities. These aCtivities, in tum, Funiliafized the triiesmen with the call for j'QIjyi by the SanG My,its corncilofs and prominent [email protected] of the zesistance movement Thek 6ght over the course of three decades anis moaviated by a WillMgness to be &e fbm &en power and was infiuetlced by the ide? of the Mahdi, especi?lllr in the ey.19 stage ofiesistance. The resistance waged by the Saniisiyya was the longest and most dtrnt anti-colonial movement in the bistory of Afüca of htea There arere vazious Circumstances that made this so. Psychologidy, most SmÜsiyya members were a stubbom and ~ggnssivepeople who did not want th& land captured by an outside power. This resistance was thus a rebirth of th& past expeiience of ieso~pblems ove+ disputed land Mth anothe~mbe through ant. The hdcoUectivdy under the authO11ty of the z&ys. Itaiy's invasion brought th& instinct to the Gre. Jwon the other han& was &O a sigpificant Eactor in this lcmg-lasting resistance.Qdin Not ody did the Sanzyya members hdthe notion in the Holy and in the religious pLollouncernents of th& liaykh, but it was a period of bewhen the Muslim wodd was being invlded by westem, Christian nations. In Mca Ilorne, Muslims had already aiitnessed other sufi brotherhoods such as those of A& 'Abd al-Qadir in Algeri?, the QâdGyya and Sh-&8yya in Sda, etc., stand up agaïnst the invader. The 1(h& fiuthennore promised mg&bGn a blissM existence in Patadise. Thezefore they welcamed the oppdty.And dthough diey Wed Itakns did. Throupti coordination between the xfiwjus, which provided weapms and food, the SanÜsiyya leaders had their m~ahr'dr/ïpractice hit and nm tactics to cope with this imbalance. This was not enough in the long nia, however, as Italy hda lnrger supply of modem arms and more expdence in &e. 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