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ARTICLES 28 Oh, the Humanities! Australia’s innovation system out of kilter 2 After Copernicus: Beyond the crisis in Stuart Cunningham Australian universities Federal research funding is increasingly pointed towards models of innovation derived from the sciences. And yet, argues Stuart Cunningham, Geoff Sharrock this is an increasingly outmoded model of research discovery. The humanities There’s a received view of the troubles of academia which lays the blame and social sciences – the poor relations of innovation policy – have been on a new corporate culture of soulless managerialism. Geoff Sharrock isn’t pioneering new and sophisticated paths of research and collaboration convinced. He argues that critical scholars are often ill-placed to be able to between theorists and policy-makers. But no-one in government seems to understand their own predicament. And many of the problems of the sector be looking. lie in its incapacity to adjust to the changed world of knowledge-creation in which we live. 31 How not to fund teaching and learning Future Shock: The view from the top Leesa Wheelehan It’s become a truism that Australian higher education nowadays is in a state In the increasingly research and innovation-driven landscape of higher of perpetual change. The next round of changes to research and teaching education, the Federal Government’s Teaching and Learning Fund is funding, however, will permanently alter the face of the sector. We asked five supposed to redress the balance. Leesa Wheelehan is unconvinced. She of Australia’s most prominent Vice-Chancellors to anticipate the future face argues the fund simply encourages game-playing between institutions of higher education. NTEU’s Carolyn Allport responds. in manipulating their teaching outcomes, and rewards good teaching on grounds that make no statistical or policy sense.

15 Which standards? 39 Off the radar: the problem of distance- Ian Chubb learning in ‘integrated’ degrees Monir Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 18 Esteem-powered learning Just about everyone suspects that the rush to enrol distance-learning Glyn Davis students in on-campus degrees tends to disadvantage them. Monir Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman set out to test this intuition, using accounting students as their guinea-pigs. 20 Diversity for what? Anne R Edwards ReTROSPECT 22 Regulation and markets Margaret Gardner and Julie Wells 48 Beached: The Cronulla events a year on David Burchell ponders the aftermath of the events that shook a city, and the academic literature it’s spawned. 24 The big changes are yet to be seen Ian Young Reviews 25 Unimagined futures Carolyn Allport 50 Remembering the nineties The Longest Decade by George Megalogenis Review by Andrew Nette

51 Moving with the times Making and Breaking Universities by Bruce Williams Review by Alex Millmow AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

After Copernicus: Beyond the crisis in Australian universities

Geoff Sharrock

There’s a received view of the troubles of academia which lays the blame on a new corporate culture of soulless man- agerialism. Geoff Sharrock isn’t convinced. He argues that critical scholars are often ill-placed to be able to under- stand their own predicament. And many of the problems of the sector lie in its incapacity to adjust to the changed world of knowledge-creation in which we live.

The uncertain rise of intellectual freedom for introducing the telescope and highlighting its military and commercial uses to the Venetian authorities. He turned to Observing the night sky from a cathedral turret, Copernicus astronomy and began to dispute the church authorities’ ‘pre- deduced that despite common perception and expert opin- Copernican’ dogma. In 1633 a provocative manuscript got ion, the universe did not revolve around the Earth after all. past the Censor, went into print and caused offence. Galileo In an age when a radical thinker might publish and perish, was tried and punished for teaching Copernican theory as a this view was first circulated privately in 1514. The full work Truth, not a hypothesis, and his sentence was proclaimed in appeared in 1543, the year of his death.1 every university.2 For many in the church, On the Revolutions of the Heav- For Western scholars today the lessons seem obvious. enly Spheres was too revolutionary. As a bit player in a wider Intellectual freedom is essential to the pursuit of truth, the universe, a post-Copernican world implied unthinkable things. advance of knowledge and the well-being of civilised socie- One outspoken follower, Giordano Bruno, was burned at the ties. Academia must be allowed its ‘license to kill’ what passes stake in 1600 for arguing that other solar systems might be for common knowledge, and scholars their right to ‘speak inhabited by rational, even superior beings. Goethe observed truth to power’ with impunity. two centuries later that of all discoveries, this was the hardest It took time to enshrine these principles. In a Prussian for society to accept: reprise of Galileo’s experience in Rome, the philosopher Kant Mankind was asked to waive the tremendous privilege of being was rebuked in 1794 for publishing unorthodox views on the centre of the universe…and by this admission so many things theology. In response he developed an argument for a limited vanished in mist and smoke! form of academic freedom, framed as an essential function of a university.3 Members of his own ‘Lower’ Faculty of Philosophy Almost a century after Copernicus’ death, Galileo found how (today’s Arts and Sciences) must be free to publicly challenge unshakable a shared framework of belief can be, once embed- the teachings of other Faculties, despite these being legislated ded in a society’s culture and institutions. In 1610 he had won by the government. But the ‘Upper’ Faculties of Theology, Law status, tenure and double his salary at the University of Padua and Medicine certified graduates to administer public services.

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Their professors must therefore confine such debates to the Drucker described how the very success of large-scale enter- scholarly community ‘since unlimited freedom to proclaim prises buffers their inhabitants from the impact of significant any sort of opinion publicly is bound to be dangerous’. change – until the external context shifts enough to compel Or as Q says to 007, ‘You have a license to kill, but not to a rethink. Without constant reappraisal of the outside world, disobey the traffic regulations’. For Kant, the government had members of the organisation become so steeped in their own the right to ensure that universities taught only accepted doc- way of doing things that they lose sight of its limitations: trine to students in the learned professions, based on expert as it becomes successful, an organization tends increasingly to take advice from the upper Faculties. Once in office, professionals its theory for granted, becoming less and less conscious of it…It must follow approved practice since as Kant put it, ‘innovators remembers the answers but has forgotten the questions. The theory might be dangerous’. But the government also had an interest of the business becomes ‘culture’. But culture is no substitute for in scientific progress. Kant argued that this progress was aided discipline… by a ‘conflict of the faculties’ within the university. If those Today the modern university’s ‘theory of the business’ is in in Philosophy compelled the Upper Faculties to justify their flux. But the causes are not easy to diagnose. From the out- teachings by evidence and reason alone, in time the profes- side, decades of growth in student numbers, course offerings, sional disciplines would be perfected as science and doctrine research programs and new disciplinary formations attest to converged. Kant concluded that in time the Lower Faculty the success of the sector. And in a global knowledge economy, might thus become the ‘higher’ as a source of expert advice societies value education and science highly. Yet many schol- to government. ars sense a decline in the academic enterprise – even a crisis This dual stance towards knowledge – a body of lore to be – and warn that academic values and purposes are once more preserved and a set of problems to be solved – led to a struc- at risk. tural innovation by Humboldt in Berlin in 1809. He proposed that teaching and research, once the work of separate bodies, Ideological explanations should be combined to produce what we management con- sultants call synergies and economies of scope: The problem is not that the church or government control Usually one means by higher institutions of learning the universities what scholars teach or publish. Instead, many commentators and the academies of the sciences and of the arts…the question point to a wider shift in societal values and political ideologies, (is) whether it is today still worth the trouble to found or maintain toward commercialisation and corporatism. Academic values an academy side by side with a university. And what sphere each and collegial-democratic practices have given way to business of them, as well as both together, should occupy if each is to be values and managerial practices. As Currie6 put it in 2004: activated to its greatest possible degree. If one limits the university to instruction in and communication of learning, and the academy to A number of commentators in Australia, the United States and Canada research, one obviously does the university an injustice… one could observed this shift of power from academic departments to central surely dispense with the academies and entrust research to the uni- administration…accompanied by a new kind of fundamentalism versities, provided they are properly organized toward this end…4 suggesting that managers have all the answers and that answers to managerial issues are to be found in imitating business practices. Writing on business innovation in 1994, Drucker remarked Corporate managerialism assumes that managers should make the that Humboldt introduced a new ‘theory of the business’ for most important decisions and make them quickly, leading to restruc- tured institutions… universities.5 It succeeded to the extent that in Western econ- omies today, intellectual freedom and the teaching-research Saunders7 concluded more bluntly in 2006 that: nexus are accepted as defining features of a university. The values that...academics used to have are…being replaced by those that people in business have always had...If their university The modern university in crisis? slavishly follows the market…so must they…

But as Drucker observed of US business enterprises, even out- In sum, too many people now see the university as a com- standing innovations don’t guarantee success forever. Once mercial enterprise selling commodities to consumers in the institutionalised they can contribute directly to future failure. marketplace, rather than a scholarly community pursuing Successful companies fall into crisis when the ‘theory of the truth and knowledge for the public good. business’ on which they were built no longer matches reality: This is a plausible critique. It has currency in parts of Austral- What can explain the fact that at both IBM and GM the policies, ian academia – perhaps more so in the humanities and social practices, and behaviours that worked for decades…no longer work sciences, and among those old enough to recall academic life for the organization in which …they were developed? The realities in the funded expansion of the 1970s. It argues for greater that each organization actually faces have changed quite dramatically independence for scholarly communities, not just from church from those that each still assumes it lives with… and state but from the market too. And given the lessons of vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock  AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

history, who would argue against greater independence? But for ventriloquism. In 2005 I was able to test this by engaging the critique has its problems. Few would oppose touchstone more than a dozen focus groups in an actual university com- concepts such as ‘collegiality’, ‘democracy’ and ‘academic free- munity in dialogue about what policies and strategies their dom’ in the abstract. Yet in practice these ideas can be used as institution should adopt. I used an interactive survey tool10 to alibis to prop up outdated norms and untenable assumptions. allow each group to map its responses to the institution’s out- In a time of fully-funded expansion, for example, an academic look and priorities. After rating a series of propositions about department can sustain the idea that intellectual freedom and possible policies and strategies, each group’s data was imme- democratic values imply a work culture of laissez faire inde- diately played back to prompt a differential diagnosis of issues pendence. Here everyone does their own thing, budgets and and proposals. In the event, no chorus of disapproval emerged resources are fixed in advanced, change occurs only at the mar- from academics in one corner; and no corporate-managerial gins and collegial consent is a feasible norm. But with the shift compost flowed from administrators in another. Whatever its to programs and budgets that rely on a mix of public funding, constituency, every group offered a spectrum of views on most student fees and earned income, the stakes are higher. There questions. This process was part of a wider consultation that is a larger risk that departmental finances will not balance, featured dozens of written submissions from departments and workload disparities will accumulate, standards will drop due individuals. As the summary report11 to the University’s Coun- to work intensity, and resentments will arise among staff. In cil shows, a broadly shared set of aims and values did emerge this situation it is harder to reach decisions without any painful across the institution. What didn’t emerge was any agreement trade-offs, or any pressure on individuals to shift their positions. on the policy or strategy trade-offs needed to realise them. The norm of collegial consent becomes a recipe for stalemate. For these reasons I don’t share the ‘knaves and fools’ diag- Second, historically there is evidence that the ‘corporate’ nosis of what’s wrong with Australian universities. The implied aspect of complex institutions necessarily looms larger in solution is that, afflicted as they are with ‘business values’, times of reform. Given its scope to create winners and losers, authority-figures in universities should be somehow repro- significant reform requires centralised effort. A process of grammed or simply replaced with those who have the right regime change may well disrupt the normative order and set of values.12 Once immune to the weasel wisdom of ‘Mana- threaten a community’s sense of identity and integrity. The gerial Newspeak’ these people can abandon their ‘corporate issue is whether it is core values and purposes that are at risk, agendas’ and restore academic freedom and collegial values to or just customary habits and assumptions. Adaptive change scholarly communities. Then academia can resume its normal will look like progress for some and decline for others at the programming, shaken but undeterred. same time. If a decade of critique in this vein has failed to generate The history of universities is illustrative. The rationale for workable alternatives, perhaps it is because it misdiagnoses Humboldt’s reforms in the early 19th century may seem clear the problem. The changes taking place in academic institu- and sensible today, but at the time they were not automatically tions are not finally reducible to bad ideology, and no amount embraced by scholarly communities. What Humboldt found of Academic Valuespeak will make them so. Instead, universi- dispiriting about the task of reform was the way it exposed ties have entered a ‘post-Copernican’ phase of adjustment to a him to distorted perspectives and partisan lobbying.8 Then new set of realities, some of which imply unthinkable things. there is the collateral damage of laissez faire independence when reforms are urgently needed, but fail to occur. In 1852 Structural explanations – the international scene Newman observed that throughout the 18th century Oxford ‘was giving no education at all to the youth committed to its Since the 1970s Trow has mapped a worldwide trend from keeping’; and that no remedial action took place until the start ‘elite’ to ‘mass’ participation in higher education and pre- of the 19th century when ‘the academical corporation’ pushed dicted the advent of ‘universal’ participation. He argues that for change persistently enough to win consent from the col- with each new phase the social function of higher learning is legiate bodies.9 Intent on promoting the virtue of self-guided recast. Shaping the mind and character of small ruling elites reform, Newman does not dwell on the implications of its gives way to developing the skills of wider technically trained glacial pace for generations of students. When left to its own classes, and in turn to adapting wider populations to rapid devices and desires, a scholarly community can turn inward social and technological change.13 and fail the society whose interests it supposedly serves. Consistent with this macro view of widening participa- Third, some recent critiques of ‘business values’ in Austral- tion, a shorthand list of macro-shifts in the last two decades ian academia conjure up vast constituencies of like-minded includes: scholars, all outraged at the commercialism and managerial- • The advent of new technologies allowing users to capture, ism of senior administrators. As an institutional outsider I have combine and redistribute massive amounts of information, come to suspect a selective use of evidence here, if not a talent so that codified knowledge becomes hyper-accessible.

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• The rise of post-industrial societies amid economic glo- The declaration shows how natural it is for scholarly com- balisation, with social demand for mass tertiary training in munities to profess that the creation and maintenance of the the new professions meeting the rise of global markets in good society depends on their own capacity to regulate knowl- higher learning. edge and judge what is good, true and beautiful. By deferring • Global knowledge proliferation in techno-science especially, to their specialism in such questions, societies position schol- much of it now produced outside the university sector. arly communities as ‘unacknowledged legislators’ – the ulti- • A proliferation of media channels that support mass cul- mate guardians of societal values, moral standards, and high tures and global/ tribal modes of consumption, production, culture. This archetype is now so embedded in Western ideas identification and interchange. of the university that challenging it seems unthinkable – much • The rise of postmodernism, with its tendency to liquidate as it was once to contemplate the ideas of Copernicus. all truth-claims, prefer questions to answers, and bemuse the Yet here we are, suddenly in an era of mass higher learn- public whenever solutions are called for. ing, digital archives and knowledge proliferation, with media • The demise of socialism, with its fixation on state-mediated platforms that offer the masses direct local access and global service provision, its hostility toward private enterprise, and reach in the knowledge game. Seekers of knowledge have its assumption that public goods and market mechanisms learned to ‘Google first, ask later’, sourcing information from are mutually exclusive. well beyond the limits of any local institution’s archive, more Each of these shifts is familiar, and a topic of study in its own quickly than the time it takes to go and visit one. Google itself, right. But no neat new ‘theory of the business’ has emerged. meanwhile, is busily scanning texts from major research librar- It seems impossible to join the dots definitively, whatever ies to create a universal online library15 on a larger and more disciplinary toolkit one brings. What does seem clear is that accessible scale than ever. the changes of the last two decades have created a mismatch In sum, knowledge has become globally distributed, hyper- between older forms of academic culture and identity, and the abundant and hyper-accessible for individuals. Users and strange new world that universities now inhabit. producers of advanced knowledge can now work outside At least one central assumption of the modern university academia, tap resources once readily available only in an insti- tradition, embedded in the 19th century and continuing in tutional setting, exchange and self-publish their results online, spirit today, has been dismantled. This was the promise that in and collaborate with anyone-anywhere on knowledge-inten- time, scholarly communities would create and disseminate a sive projects. Projects such as the Wikipedia can tap a vast master-discourse of universal reason on which to build more array of contributors, while remaining indifferent to where enlightened societies. By means of Bildung (education-as-cul- they come from. These players can add to, debate and edit ture) and Wissenschaft (knowledge-as-science), scholarly com- the official text via a parallel-process, multi-user approach. By munities would shape each new generation of culture-bearing virtue of its open source setup the project has grown with elites, and provide the conceptual blueprints and expert speed and resilience – not unlike the Linux software devel- advice governments needed to turn morality into social reality. opment project. This ‘bazaar’ approach to production differs In effect, universities would form an integral part of societal markedly from the centrally planned, hierarchically sifted governance, bringing wisdom to governments and culture to ‘cathedral’ approach16 that historically typifies large-scale the populace by regulating the production and distribution of knowledge projects. higher learning. Most of these developments can be attributed directly or The Magna Charta Universitatum, declared in Bologna in indirectly to the good work of universities. The irony is their 1988, expresses this idea of the university. It envisions a schol- boomerang effect. Each advance chips away at the historic arly enclave, separate from society but central to its well-being, monopoly of universities themselves, as enclaves of expertise supported by society’s resources but immune from the mun- around which the universe of knowledge revolves. Their niche dane concerns of government, industry and other institutions. in higher learning, built over centuries, has allowed them to Its main argument for occupying this privileged position is occupy a central role in regulating the canon underpinning that in the long run, civilisation itself depends on the work of national cultures; setting the boundaries between intellectual universities: disciplines; supervising the production of learned works; and The future of mankind depends largely on cultural, scientific and providing expert guidance to lay communities and govern- technical development… built up in centres of culture, knowledge ment authorities. and research…The university is an autonomous institution at the As the era of mass literacy and global knowledge interchange heart of societies…it produces, examines, appraises and hands emerges, canonical texts and higher learning no longer need down culture by research and teaching…(it) must be morally and pass through university channels. A more educated populace intellectually independent of all political authority and economic that takes free speech for granted has more information and 14 power…its constant care is to attain universal knowledge… media channels at its fingertips than ever before. Access to the vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock  AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

blogosphere gives anyone a self-authorised ‘license to kill’ pre- In 2000 Gallagher observed that the work of Gibbons and his vailing wisdom. In short, higher learning can escape the cathe- colleagues: dral and take on a life of its own in the bazaar. challenged many orthodoxies, including the linear model of sci- These shifts erode the notion that intellectual freedom and ence-driven innovation, the monopoly of universities in research, the scholarly authority are institutional privileges. They level the sanctity of disciplines, elevation of the theoretical over the practical, playing field between scholars and other knowledge profes- and the insulation of academics from commercial realities…20 sionals, and between the keepers and the users of the archives. The implication for universities is that the archetypal campus- Considering the university as a cultural institution, Read- based ‘community of scholars’ is becoming a bit player in a ings has argued that it is caught up in a wider crisis as Western wider universe of advanced learning, knowledge production, societies adjust to the new dynamics of a global economy and technological innovation and cultural transmission. To insist postmodern culture. While economic globalisation erodes that this wider universe can’t be inhabited by rational, even the independence of nation-states, postmodernism replaces superior beings begins to sound like ‘pre-Copernican dogma’. the idea of a single culture and a stable national identity with Meanwhile scholars are trained to seek paradigm shifts out multiple, shifting cultures and identities. These developments on the frontiers of their disciplines, not in their own back yard. dismantle the role of the modern university as a producer/ Inside the university, it still seems common sense that knowl- protector of citizen identity and the social fabric in a par- edge is a public good and that the university is its custodian; ticular society with particular traditions. Instead it becomes that what is good for universities can only be good for socie- just another transnational corporation offering products to ties; and that scholars are thus entitled to better support. So consumers.21 It is a view that recalls Lyotard’s 1979 essay22 when governments fail to meet their demands, some interpret on the state of knowledge and the postmodern condition. this as a failure to take responsibility for public goods more Once knowledge is as fluid and mobile as money itself, these generally.17 Moves by successive governments to make higher thinkers seem to suggest, then bye-bye Bildung and bye-bye learning itself more self-financing, industry-linked, client- Wissenschaft. responsive and business-like merely add the insult of ‘market Other thinkers have examined the effects of mass media ideology’ to the injury of funding cuts. and mass culture on the role and status of intellectuals. In There is a logic here, but its premises are no longer self- 1992 Baumann23 argued that the idea of ‘culture’ had been evident. A government seeking expert advice need not rely on articulated by modernist intellectuals in a way that gave them Kant’s ‘conflict of the faculties’. It is as likely to draw on a a privileged role in the construction of the good society. But ‘conflict of the think-tanks’ to frame the issues, and then seek the rise of postmodernism and mass culture dismantles this policy advice from private consultants. This applies even in the role, and the intellectuals’ own sense of crisis is then projected case of higher education policy, where advice to governments onto the wider society: from scholarly communities may seem no more authoritative the mass culture debate has been the lament of expropriated or disinterested than that of any other industry lobby, arguing gamekeepers…it was the intellectuals who impressed upon the once for special conditions and taxpayer support. incredulous population the need for education and the value of infor- To those who have lived their working lives in a university, mation…The market will…achieve what the intellectual educators all this may seem counter-intuitive, if not offensive. It is hard struggled to attain…it will turn the consumption of information into to ask any community to waive the privilege of being at the a pleasurable, entertaining pastime…intellectuals tend to articulate centre of the things it holds most sacred. As Goethe puts it, their own societal situation and the problems it creates as a situation of the society at large, and its systemic or social problems… ‘by this admission so many things vanish in mist and smoke!’ But the signs have been there for some time. With the mas- In institutions meanwhile, postmodernists in the cash- sive growth in technoscience for example, Clark argued in strapped humanities have been hoist on their own Lyotard. As 1997 that: recent debates about the study of history in secondary schools the knowledge produced and circulated in universities is now greatly show, by rigorously dismantling conventional ideas of truth extended by the growing array of knowledge producers located in and knowledge, intellectuals have eroded public confidence other sectors of society… internationally, no one controls the pro- in the humanities as a source of cultural cohesion. duction, reformulation and distribution of knowledge…18 How has the collapse of socialism affected academic culture and ideas of the university? It is easy to forget that in the 1970s In 1997 Gibbons argued that ‘mode 2’ knowledge projects it was plausible for many scholar-intellectuals to subscribe (as outside academia call into question the way universities have Eagleton did in 197624) to a been organised. They depart from the disciplinary norms and communist society of the future, where unlimited resources will professional interests of academia by working more directly serve an unlimitedly developing man… with a wider range of actors on solutions to social problems.19

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Marxism offered a radical critique of industrial capitalism, a for a multitude of relations that support many kinds of trans- conceptual framework for designing an alternative, and a mor- actions. It is not a monolithic mechanism that deals only in ally impeccable mission, dedicated to improving the lives of consumers, commodities and one-off exchanges, turning all it ordinary citizens. The economic blueprint was public owner- touches to dross. In the professional services sector, for exam- ship not private ownership, planned economies not market ple, solutions to complex problems are normally co-developed economies, and production and distribution processes geared by client and consultant working in tandem, often with inputs not to corporate profits or private wealth, but to social needs from third parties. Adding value in this mode entails a degree and public goods. It was a seductive but utopian vision – mor- of trust and mutual understanding, typically built in a series of alism cross-dressing as science. dealings over time. Hence business books with titles such as In retrospect there was little risk that 1970s radicals would Customer Intimacy.26 get around to organising a revolution in Australia. At the same Second, similar kinds of interchange occur in higher edu- time, in our universities there was no great tension between cation, where the alchemy of student learning relies on vari- armchair socialism and the lived experience of academic ous modes of co-production between students, teachers, texts work. This was publicly funded work, set apart from the and other students. Whether or not students pay fees to enrol, world of industry and commerce, free from competitive risk and whether or not their teachers are paid from the public and untainted by profit motives. purse, learning is not something stu- The funded expansion of univer- dents buy, nor something teachers sities offered scholars a good mix ...calling education a ‘gift’ is donate. of autonomy, leisure and career as misleading as calling it a In sum, calling education a ‘gift’ mobility, and an anti-capitalist, anti- ‘commodity’. The notion that is as misleading as calling it a ‘com- corporate counter-culture was easy education should be considered modity’. The notion that education to sustain. On weekdays lecturers a great public good when state- should be considered a great public could profess to their students good when state-funded, but a mere funded, but a mere private that the revolution would one day private good when privately-funded, good when privately-funded, is come – and at weekends still find is obviously flawed. As Marginson time to renovate their inner-city obviously flawed. has argued, in higher education terrace houses. internationally both public and pri- But since the 1989 collapse of vate goods are produced in tandem communist regimes in Eastern Europe, even armchair social- (though in differing proportions, in his view) in both the ism has lost credence. Reflecting on the effects of this on public and private sectors.27 Australian intellectual life, Manne observed in 199825 that the ‘sediment’ of an anti-capitalist counter-culture remained, its Structural explanations - the Australian scene rhetoric largely intact: Some of the hostility to the economy of contemporary Western socie- In view of all this the complaint that governments have aban- ties, as well as to Western social and cultural forms…is the sediment doned responsibility for public goods, evidenced by their of Marxism…not that one should be uncritical of how contemporary refusal to fund an endless expansion of public provision, economics function, but the old forms of anti-capitalism, premised becomes less persuasive. Apart from the inconvenient truth on a socialist alternative, have somehow persisted without the social- that Australian governments now tax more and spend more ist alternative being available… than they did in the 1970s, current government policy at the As far as I can tell, old-left stances opposing ‘Capitalism with secondary, technical and university levels now has a common a capital C’ have given way to new-left stances opposing the thread. Its strategy for responding to rising demand, driving ‘Market with a big M’. Allergic reactions to the idea that ‘stu- institutional reform and creating more efficient provision is to dents are customers’ for example, may or may not express the create a viable private sector that competes with the public ‘sediment’ of Marxism. But they do reflect a legacy culture that sector. Recent revisions to the MCEETYA protocols – the assumes public goods flow exclusively from public money, inter-government regulations that set criteria for providers to and that market mechanisms, even if economically helpful, are use the title ‘university’ – reflect this by relaxing the rule that socially harmful. On this view the problem with the idea of a research-teaching nexus must be present as a proxy for the ‘students as customers’ is that it imposes an ‘exchange’ rela- quality of undergraduate teaching.28 tionship on their dealings with teachers, when these should The angst in Australian scholarly communities as they adjust be seen as a ‘gift’ relationship. to a new mixed economy of higher learning can be explained Given its premises all this makes sense; but the premises are in part by their recent history. In the 1970s market demand flawed. What we call ‘the Market’ is actually a shorthand term for degrees was limited, higher learning the pursuit of a largely vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock  AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Gone were the traditional “core” courses…with large lectures of middle-class minority, and funded expansion the norm. Funded several hundred students…Instead options multiplied…Many… expansion reached its height in the mid-1970s, when the Whit- were the traditional staples of literary study; others were bizarre lam Government assumed the long post-war boom would fantasies reflecting individual academics’ obsessions more than any continue, underwriting new social spending on all fronts.29 pedagogic necessity. It was a self-indulgent and appallingly expensive It was plausible for a rising class of academic baby-boomers system to operate…Each of us appeared to be acting as though we to equate the apparently endless, funded expansion of their were running our own separate universities. Large-scale differences own projects and prospects with a general expansion of the in workloads emerged…Resentments inevitably arose… public good. But in the 1980s and 1990s, with the advent of a More recently, private providers and offshore competitors post-industrial society and the rise of mass higher learning and have begun competing with Australian universities for domes- pervasive global interchange, everything changed. tic students.32 These players aim for niches in which to excel, Once an enclave set apart from the mainstream, higher edu- rather than attempt the smorgasbord of programs that many cation is now an industry. Once geared to government funding established universities now struggle to sustain. and local under-graduates, Australian universities now partici- pate in a global learning boom and a life-long learning boom. Emerging new theories of the business In the transition from elite to mass higher learning, domestic student growth has outpaced funding growth and staff growth. Internationally meanwhile, different kinds of universities have The most common response from institutions was to supple- emerged to meet the demands of mass higher education. ment funding by tapping offshore markets for full-fee students. Examples include the for-profit, internet-boosted University of This strategy added to revenues but also to costs, and ramped Phoenix in the United States33, and the British Government’s up institutional scale and administrative complexity. successful 1970s experiment in not-for-profit distance higher Sector-wide, the effect is one of ‘self-inflicted’ expansion, education, the Open University (OU).34 While Phoenix has accelerating the shift to greater reliance on private dollars, and had more attention, OU is the real pioneer. Both enterprises creating more pressure to squeeze efficiencies from econo- offer higher learning on a mass scale by combining centrally mies of scale and wider use of casual and part-time staff. Along- developed curricula with off-campus modes of delivery. side the rise of mass higher education, new disciplines and Their success reflects an ability to standardise courseware as sub-disciplines have multiplied, adding a ‘knowledge boom’ to a basis for quality, offer flexible local access and most critically, the ‘learning boom’. In a sector once geared to funded expan- manage scalability to expand or contract rapidly to meet shifts sion and collegial laissez faire, a natural response has been to in student demand. Both enterprises offset high levels of invest- keep adding new programs, employing more sessionals and ment in courseware design with lower infrastructure costs, a hoping for better funding. larger teaching-only workforce – and (I suspect) by preventing In the short term these moves are easier than rationalis- course proliferation. Lacking a campus experience for students, ing programs, initiating departmental mergers, or negotiat- both also lack a visible research-teaching nexus as their proxy ing partnerships with non-academic organisations. But as the for educational quality. Instead they offer lower course prices, documentary film Facing the Music30 illustrates, when a small more local and flexible access for students who juggle study department fails to find external support, economies of scale with work or family commitments, and student-staff ratios of or new streams of income, it risks falling into decline, dis- no more than 18 to 1 (Phoenix) or 20 to 1 (OU). tress and dollar-driven rationalisation. The weakness of work Both cases are logical responses, by the private and public cultures that emphasise academic freedom in all its guises sectors respectively, to an era of mass demand for higher learn- becomes apparent when the main strategic risks they face are ing. They illustrate that the campus-based model, the research- program renewal and resource management. More generally, teaching nexus and collegial laissez faire practices all place Academic Valuespeak can be used to block any whole-of-dis- limits on the capacity of traditional models to meet mass cipline, whole-of-faculty or whole-of-institution approach to demand for higher learning efficiently. In competitive terms planning and review. Without strong central mechanisms to student-staff ratios at Phoenix now compare favourably with guide them laissez faire work cultures in universities have many Australian public universities, in a sector that averaged responded to the knowledge explosion and the rise of mass 21 to 1 in 2003. 35 higher learning with course proliferation. Looking back on his own academic career in an Australian sandstone university, A double decline Riemer31 illustrates the point: it should have become obvious by the late eighties that the new The new emphasis in Australian universities on enterprise mode of English Studies…was insupportable in a climate of severe management and program rationalisation is a rational response financial restraint. The central platform of the anti-authoritarian, to new market and policy circumstances. The new context is democratic department…was the almost total lack of compulsion. characterised by declining public funding relative to growth,

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mass local and global markets for higher learning, program Reconfiguring the university’s ‘theory of the proliferation in response to the knowledge explosion, and business’ rising competition from other knowledge players in the new mixed economy of higher learning. In the midst of all this, on what basis does a public-spirited All this puts the modern university’s accepted ‘theory of the university stay afloat and keep its mission intact? A promising business’ under pressure. It is harder to be research-intensive recent development is the growing emphasis on ‘third stream’ and educationally comprehensive in the midst of a knowledge projects. These require academic expertise, but are not research explosion when the cost of research infrastructure is poten- or teaching as such. The fact that they constitute an emerging tially huge, but revenue growth comes primarily from students. ‘third mission’ for academia is apparent from the University of Harder still when the logic of extending student access is to Melbourne’s recently announced ‘triple helix’ strategy. Along create satellite campuses where a teaching-research nexus is with research and student learning, Melbourne now specifies supposed to be supported. And harder again when institu- ‘knowledge transfer’ as its third academic priority.38 tions face more open competition from niche providers who Reshaping the core business of an established university is don’t need to carry the same infrastructure costs. no small task. The Titanic analogy is common among strate- Over the last two decades Australian university communi- gists, since any new direction will entail some rearranging of ties, largely run by baby boomers who entered their careers deckchairs. But it is rare to be asked to rearrange the icebergs in the 1960s and 1970s, have faced a double decline. An as well. Adopting knowledge transfer as the third element of emerging crisis in the traditional role and structure of the an institutional mission previously built around the teaching- modern university has run in tandem with the local disman- research nexus poses this kind of challenge. tling of the funding assumptions of the 1970s. According to At the same time, defining a third stream of academic work surveys of Australian universities by McInnis in 199936 and opens up new strategy options. It creates space for an insti- Anderson et al in 200237 the sense of pessimism about the tution to introduce new criteria to evaluate both new and social status, conditions and career prospects of academ- existing programs, and ensure their strategic fit with external ics has been most prevalent among older and more senior developments. In programs where the ideal-typical ‘teach- groups of full-time academics. ing-research nexus’ seems artificial (and the evidence seems So far as a 1970s legacy culture persists in Australia, its local mixed on whether in practice, combining them helps or hin- ‘pre-Copernican dogma’ is that academic freedom entails not ders)39 a department or faculty might build its niche around a just free inquiry and free speech, but the right to be resourced ‘teaching-transfer nexus’ instead. by governments; that business-like aims and practices are New government policy options also arise. In a more diverse bound to subvert scholarly purposes; and that only publicly- higher learning sector, new entrants might seek recognition as funded institutions can produce public goods. universities on the strength of a suite of ‘teaching and trans- For university managers the dilemma has been that the only fer’ programs that match the local needs of a community or sustainable strategies open to them have been ones that, cul- industry. This would retain an emphasis on scholarship as turally speaking, were already ruled out by sections of their the basis for quality assurance without enshrining the teach- scholarly communities. The risk for managers who attempt ing-research nexus as its proxy. It might also create a better to push strategies through regardless is that scholars will dis- balance among researchers between peer/career interests in engage from the ‘academical corporation’ that supports their ‘extending the discipline’ and a community or industry’s inter- work, and retreat into an echo chamber of critique without est in ‘helping us solve our problems’. However, as yet there is solutions. The alternative risk for managers who defer to these no shared vocabulary among policy-makers or practitioners to constituencies is that ruling out market-oriented strategies define ‘knowledge transfer’ – a topic on which the MCEETYA simply leads to greater dependency on public funding. Even protocols are silent. where this is a small part of the institutional budget, compet- The virtue of ‘knowledge transfer’ (for some its limitation) is ing for public funding windfalls becomes both a proxy for suc- that it echoes but is not confined to the best-known example: cess and an alibi for failure. research commercialisation leading to technology transfer via For institutions the governance challenge has thus been to market mechanisms, as in the case of the cochlear implant. As blend an academic case with a business case on questions of consultants PhillipsKPA observe, the range of existing activity mission, strategy, decision-making and operations. The leader- makes definition difficult; the challenge is to be clear enough ship challenge has been to devise and install the new disci- to aid policy and program development without ‘straightjack- plines institutions need to rationalise programs, select market eting’ the concept.40 niches, capture opportunities and attract private sponsors – all While no better shorthand term has emerged, ‘knowledge without abandoning their public mission, lowering standards transfer’ seems inadequate for two reasons. Its common-sense or damaging reputation. connotations make it hard to differentiate from the familiar vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock  AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

of astronomers who transmit it to their successors through their academic tasks of teaching, lecturing and publishing. It also teaching and writing… implies a one-way, linear relationship in which knowledge is produced by scholars in universities, then applied by others elsewhere. Both these understandings invite a business-as- Leading and managing reinvention usual approach, rather than one geared to greater collabora- tion beyond the conventional boundaries of teaching and To summarise, open-minded evidence-based thinking and research communities. Other common terms such as ‘engage- strong cultural norms do not always go hand in hand, par- ment’ are less misleading, but potentially less meaningful in ticularly when a community faces a ‘conflict of the arche- common parlance. Writing letters of complaint to the newspa- types’. In the cases of corporate crisis that Drucker analysed, pers is arguably a form of ‘engagement’ – as is bagging public strong cultures built on past success had their blind spots. figures in the blogosphere. But whether such hobbies should These prevented insight into new strategic realities, in turn count as a third stream of scholarly work is debatable. preventing new approaches to sustain the work of the enter- In short, the risk of under-definition is that everything will prise. Or as they say in big business, ‘culture eats strategy for become ‘third stream’. The most beautiful minds will speak of lunch every day’.42 knowledge transfer as if they were Russell Crowe in a shed full In a post-Copernican world the familiar modes and models of magazine clippings, making more and more connections less are harder to sustain amid the new dynamics of the knowledge and less coherently. So perhaps the most useful way initially game. But with few exceptions, the response of established for institutions to differentiate knowledge transfer is to define universities so far has been mostly patching and stretching, not it narrowly: as the co-production of new understandings and a widespread adoption of new ‘theories of the business’ that solutions that tap the expertise of radically rework how they operate. non-academic partners. This could How much reinvention is needed apply whether the latter are col- Whatever the vision or strategy, to meet these new conditions? The laborators, clients, intermediaries or a large part of the leadership good news is that no single institu- financiers. task will be to engage staff tional community need address all Because these other actors will communities in working these developments at once, with bring different agendas and cul- through the challenges involved. a new ‘ideal type’ of university. A tures to the equation, clearly there more diverse sector offers scope But how? are risks in partnering with them. for each institution to articulate its However the point is not to elimi- own ‘vision eclectic’. The bad news nate all risk, but to extend the reach is that in most Australian universi- and impact of the academic mission by managing risk with ties, spare resources are scarce and any proposal for signifi- integrity. All this makes knowledge transfer projects, however cant change will be contested. No matter how much prior defined, a case by case proposition. Institutionally it implies a consultation occurs, wide consensus on any particular course more open and flexible repertoire for handling university-gov- seems unlikely. ernment-industry-community relations. Where does all this leave university managers? In Australia Once a university chooses this path, the logic is for schol- they have often been cast as culprits, either for breaking arly communities to alter their time-honoured stance. Instead with the collegial norms of a different era, or for failing to of defending historically hard-won independence to protect win better funding from government. Whatever the vision their sphere from the pressures of other spheres, their task is or strategy, a large part of the leadership task will be to to manage a matrix of interdependencies with other social engage staff communities in working through the challenges and economic actors. In parts of academia all this will seem involved. But how? counter-intuitive. The paradigm shift in organisational set- In a case study during 2000-2001 I used Heifetz’s ideas on tings implies a significant cultural shift. As Kuhn41 described how US government and community leaders tackled large- it in 1957: scale social adaptation to examine how Australian university To Copernicus the behaviour of the planets was incompatible with the leaders introduced change. Heifetz does not discuss university two-sphere universe; he felt that in adding more and more circles his leadership specifically, but does offer insight into the defen- predecessors had simply been patching and stretching the Ptolemaic sive routines that occur when a community has to adapt to system to force its conformity with observations…clear evidence that new realities: a radically new approach was imperatively required. But Copernicus’ when the society has no ready solution for the situation, the social predecessors…had little doubt that the system would ultimately be system may still try to apply responses from its repertoire…people made to work…A conviction of this sort is difficult to break, particu- fail to adapt because of the distress provoked by the problem and larly once it has been embodied in the practice of a whole generation the changes it demands…Holding onto past assumptions, blaming

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authority, scapegoating, externalizing the enemy, denying the prob- there is too much of a culture here still of people wanting to be left lem, jumping to conclusions…may…feel less stressful than facing alone, wanting to set their own standards of what’s good enough, of and taking responsibility for a complex challenge.43 them only having to account to each other, seeing the whole quality agenda as a corporate imposition, talking about the importance of Framed as action research, the case study mapped the expe- collegial governance, not really appreciating the universities where rience of a small group of middle and senior level managers you have genuine collegial scrutiny. (Pro-Vice-Chancellor) in one university. I used a series of one-to-one interviews and there’s an assumption about what life would be like…I was involved focus group sessions using the interactive survey method out- in the process where we spilled all positions and people had to lined earlier. These managers spent most of their time juggling reapply…One of them was a senior lecturer who had no idea…it three tasks: sustaining the ship, developing the mission and came as a shock to her and a shock to her colleagues, because she’d reorienting the staff communities. Many encountered a mis- been managing to float in and float out and not be around and not match between legacy systems and cultures geared to fully- be available for quite some years, and she didn’t have any publica- funded programs and laissez faire work norms, and the new tions… (Dean of Students) systemic challenges facing their institution. anybody in any university in this country will be able to tell you that For example, the governance mechanisms for creating new they can’t sort out issues like workload very easily, academic work- academic programs did not envisage institutional competition load, that what you get people to do in the non-teaching periods… for projects in an international higher education market: half the staff just seem to disappear at the end of assessment, and you Let’s say… I’m going off to Vietnam next week, and an opportunity don’t see them again… (Head of School A) comes up for us to teach a course in Vietnam…but there’s a com- petitor from the UK and I have to decide a Yes or a No on the spot. The Heads in particular struggled to engage their academic Now…if I can say “Yes”, I know it’ll save some jobs, but…I don’t colleagues in the task of devising better ways to handle School actually have the authority from the academic board to create an workloads. Some were acutely conscious of the collegial/man- academic program… (Pro-Vice-Chancellor) agerial standoff; but all found that unless they took up author- We have a dynamic external environment: an offshore course oppor- ity to reach decisions, the result was collegial stalemate: tunity, which absolutely pushes the boundaries in terms of turning what I try to do is say “OK, these are the issues” and I put it in things around…then we’ve got a whole academic approval process writing. And I ask people for responses...try and encourage them which is based on a 15 month turnaround…What’s an appropriate to see the bigger issue…try and get a consensus of opinion to try balance between responsiveness and quality assurance?… (Divi- and change people’s attitudes…So I try to do that from a collegial sional Manager) perspective – and then finally when none of that works, I just say, “I While budget responsibility had been formally devolved to think you need to do this and this and this”… (Head of School D) the Schools, not everyone had grasped the fact that their pro- So far I’ve worked pretty collaboratively here, I haven’t made any grams and salaries were no longer fully funded: decisions about anything, really. But the one time I did try to do it, a lot of people struggle with the difference between the budget as an I thought it wasn’t going to work... I wasn’t sure how to deal with estimate, and the allocation of government funds…it used to be a it…other than by saying “This is how it’s going to be”… (Head of more stable funding model: “Yes, we got the money in, and then we School B) gave you an allocation”…But that funding model has changed for I’m continually thwarted…by the arguments about consultation. about four or five years, and there are still people who don’t under- There’s a different kind of view I think among some staff…about stand…there’s an expectation, that “What we say is what we’ll get.” what constitutes consultation…I know what I want at the end, and But…“You’ll actually get what you receive and earn…” (Finance I want to see it happen fairly quickly, but it won’t, because there’ve Manager) been too many personal agendas of staff getting in the way of it. But in terms of educating the staff…about the challenge that lies before then I haven’t handled the process particularly well, because it hasn’t us, that’s something that has yet to be done…making it clear to met all the aspirations of all staff…I think the school would be better people that if you award yourself a 12 per cent salary increase… organised if we did it the way I’d like to see it happen, but that’s not you’re going to have to work 12 per cent harder by the end of the universally agreed… (Head of School C) period in order for everyone to stay the same…I hope staff are Head C was more attuned to the critique of managerialism rational about this – either they’ve made the judgement that…with- than the other Heads in the study, perhaps due to his back- out anyone doing anything different, there will be the equivalent of ground in social science. He was also the most frustrated of the 12 per cent of the total salary bill in additional money at the end of 2003…or we’ll have to generate that…Who’s we? It’s us. We’ll have Heads. His approach to initiating change in a self-consciously to generate 12 per cent more… (Pro-Vice-Chancellor) collegial-democratic School left him open to veto from any one of his social science colleagues: Many of the managers in the study group were critical of the My colleagues are not ready to accept the Gesellschaft component of disengagement and complacency they encountered among what I’ve described as my sources of authority, they think it should staff communities: be entirely Gemeinschaft. Well that’s not quite true. Sometimes they vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock 11 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

will recognise the need for managerialism …but they’ll be very quick In this case, managers’ strategies for coping and adapting to see that it’s not overstepping the bounds of what they regard as appropriate managerialism… were makeshift on two levels. Day to day they engaged in a kind of slow motion judo in response to the hydra-headed Head C’s situation illustrates how the norms and rhetoric realities that constantly arose to demand attention: that a community uses to express its values and principles can what seems like…taking control, initiating, controlling the agenda also be used to legitimise avoidance and inertia. No matter how and so on, from outside and further down the line – when you’re urgent the need for change, Academic Valuespeak provides a actually there, in that position, a very high proportion is still handy set of alibis for deferring decisions, preventing reforms responding to pressures…from outside the university, outside the and deflecting responsibility. It management group…when people say, creates a praxis trap for managers, “It must be easier because you’ve got making them hostage to staff con- ...most of the managers in more power” and so on – I’ve never felt that…the accountability is more stituencies; and it puts staff groups the case study found ways visible and sharper…the assumption at risk of disappearing up their own to initiate and sustain minor that you’re somehow more in control Gemeinschaft while their budgets reforms. Often they needed to the higher up in the organisation you go and programs collapse. While the spell out a broad direction, – although it’s true – it doesn’t feel like rhetoric is hard to crack, its underly- then allow staff communities to that…as…acting PVC I feel I have less ing logic is as follows: luxury to make decisions, to cut corners construct and negotiate detailed • The primary task of academic as a survival strategy, because the reper- leadership is to uphold academic micro-solutions that would cussions would be really problematic… (Dean of Research) freedom and collegial-democratic work with particular programs. values. In parallel, they pursued short to • Under the rule of academic free- medium term managerial agendas to dom the ‘personal agendas’ of individuals must be accom- install new structures and processes for handling these kinds of modated, and take precedence over any wider agenda. problems. While the technical aspects of these change projects • In practice, collegial-democratic processes mean ensuring were formidable, typically the cultural challenge was more so. that academic staff collectively control all significant deci- generally everyone thinks they ought to be involved in all decisions sions, and that each has a right to choose what will consti- …but even with email it’s impossible, you get The Rise and Rise of tute adequate ‘consultation’. Michael Rimmer…one of the challenges of leadership is to try and • Where these processes fail to solve an intractable problem, get clear for people…what are the decisions that actually they are the only option is to continue with further consultation properly involved in, and that there’s a focus on that, so they get time in the hope that a solution entailing no compromises will to make good decisions. And then there are the decisions that are eventually be found. properly the province of other people, and then you get to read about it on the email… (Pro-Vice-Chancellor) • This ideal solution will accommodate ‘all the aspirations of all staff’ without any trade-offs and without any shift in The leadership task in these cases was largely educative. work habits or expectations. Staff communities needed to know more about how their • ‘Universal agreement’ is necessary before any decision can institution worked financially, how the competitive environ- be made. ment worked and how to frame a business case as well as an • The Head’s own sense of urgency about a problem is insuf- academic case for any change or initiative. Overall, the insti- ficient reason to impose a deadline for reaching a collective tution needed new governance protocols that distinguished decision, or failing this, imposing a unilateral solution. different domains of decision-making. Managers needed clear • Any attempt on the Head’s part to impose a deadline or a processes for reaching difficult decisions that included staff decision is open to veto by any academic staff member, for consultation, but avoided the praxis trap of consensual deci- any of the above reasons. sion-making on issues likely to lead to collegial stalemate. Despite all this, most of the managers in the case study found Staff communities needed new work disciplines and decision- ways to initiate and sustain minor reforms. Often they needed making norms crucial to group success, but not yet part of to spell out a broad direction, then allow staff communities to their repertoire. construct and negotiate detailed micro-solutions that would To generalise from the case study, the leadership task of work with particular programs. As Heifetz puts it: engaging staff communities in strategic adaptation means sev- By adapting socially I mean developing the organizational and cul- eral things: tural capacity to meet problems successfully according to our values • Clarifying exactly what has changed in the institution’s cir- and purposes…getting people to clarify what matters most, in what cumstances and highlighting where there is a mismatch balance, with what trade-offs, becomes a central task…44 between prevailing norms and external realities.

12 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

dbusinessonline.hbsp.harvard.edu/b02/en/common/item_detail. • Bringing stakeholders into the process of thinking through jhtml?id=94506 the implications of the adaptive challenge for academic pro- 6. Jan Currie, 2004, ‘The Neo-Liberal Paradigm and Higher Education’ grams, and for sustaining their institution as both a corpo- in Odin, J. & Manicas, P. (eds.), Globalization and Higher Educa- tion, University of Hawi’i Press, Honolulu, pp. 42-62 rate entity and a set of purposes (ship and mission). Generating plausible macro-solutions to provoke and 7. See Malcolm Saunders, ‘The Madness and Malady of Managerialism’ • Quadrant Magazine, vol L no 3, March 2006, accessible online at encourage staff groups to create their own micro-solutions. http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=1921 • Confronting groups at all levels with the fact that all solu- 8. Wilhelm von Humboldt put it like this: ‘The appointment of uni- tions entail trade-offs, and that change is most likely to be versity professors must be exclusively reserved to the state, and it is surely not good to permit the various faculties more influence in justified as a better set of trade-offs than the existing set. this matter than an understanding and fair-minded administrative • Gaining staff consent to impose ‘management’ solutions body will do of its own accord…the disagreements among profes- when action is called for but where full consensus is clearly sors on their specialties can, even unintentionally and without ill will, distort completely their point of view as to what is good for unachievable. the whole…’ 9. John Henry Newman put it this way in Discourse 1 of The Idea of Conclusion a University: ‘About fifty years since, the English University, of which I was so long a member, after a century of inactivity, at length was roused, Post-Copernican universities live in interesting times. There at a time when…it was giving no education at all to the youth committed to its keeping, to a sense of the responsibilities which its are more risks and pressures for institutions, programs and the profession and its station involved, and it presents to us the singu- people who work in them than in the 1970s. The transition to lar example of an heterogeneous and an independent body of men, new structures, new modes of decision-making and new forms setting about a work of self-reformation, not from any pressure of public opinion, but because it was fitting and right to undertake it. of interdependence will continue to cause distress. This requires Its initial efforts, begun and carried on amid many obstacles, were more activist forms of leadership than previously, and more met from without…by ungenerous and jealous criticisms…The course of beneficial change made progress, and what was at first effort to engage staff communities in considered adaptation. but the result of individual energy and an act of the academical But there are also exciting possibilities for public-spirited corporation, gradually became popular, and was taken up and institutions to create new ways of working, and contribute to carried out by the separate collegiate bodies…’ Accessible online at http://www.newmanreader.org/works/idea/discourse1.html their societies in more diverse and interactive modes than pre- 10. Each focus group was attended by up to 16 people. The survey viously. To work through the changes of the last two decades, presented 42 propositions under 7 themes. Participants completed institutions have begun to reinvent themselves from within. In it at the start of the session and their data was entered in a coffee break. The results presented group average scores and distributions this work, staff communities need more support in coming to for each proposition, and participants were invited to give reasons grips with the forces reshaping their lives; and managers need for their scores as a way of drawing out issues and testing propos- wider recognition of the magnitude of the leadership task. als. Details of the method are available at www.teamwisetools.com 11. The October 2005 Report on Growing Esteem Consultation to the University of Melbourne Council is accessible online at http:// Dr Geoff Sharrock is an independent consultant. His PhD growingesteem.unimelb.edu.au/2005consultation/index.html research at RMIT’s Graduate School of Business focused 12. This was the solution proposed for the University of Melbourne on leading change in an Australian university. In 2005 by John Cain and John Hewitt, 2004, Off Course: from public place to marketplace at Melbourne University, Scribe Publications, North he worked as an adviser on the Growing Esteem strategy Carlton, pp. 210-211 project in the Office of the Vice-Chancellor at the University 13. Martin Trow’s 2005 essay, ‘Reflections on the Transition from Elite of Melbourne. Comments on this paper are welcome. Con- to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education tact: [email protected] in Modern Societies since WWII’ is accessible online at http://cshe. berkeley.edu/publications/publications.php?id=183 14. The 1988 declaration at Bologna is accessible online at http://www. References and endnotes bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/880918_Magna_ Charta_Universitatum.pdf 1. A summary of the story, together with Goethe’s remarks on Coper- nicus, is accessible online at http://www.blupete.com/Literature/ 15. See http://books.google.com/googlebooks/library.html Biographies/Science/Copernicus.htm 16. Eric Raymond’s 1998 essay on the virtues of the Linux approach 2. A summary of the story of Galileo is accessible online at http:// to software development, which coins the ‘Cathedral and Bazaar’ www.skyscript.co.uk/galileo.html metaphor applied here. Accessible online at http://www.firstmon- day.org/issues/issue3_3/raymond/ . The way the Wikipedia project 3. Immanuel Kant’s essay, ‘The Conflict of the Philosophy Faculty drew on Raymond’s essay is lucidly explained by Marshall Poe, with the Theology Faculty’ was published as part of The Conflict of ‘Common Knowledge’ in Review, Australian Financial Review 18 the Faculties in 1798 (after the King’s death). Accessible online at August 2006, pp 1-11 http://www.eco.utexas.edu/~hmcleave/350kPEEreadings.html 17. See for example Margaret Thornton’s introduction to volume 2 of 4. Wilhelm von Humboldt, The Relative Merits of Higher Institutions The Journal for the Public University, 2005, online at http://www. of Learning, 1809. Accessible online at http://www.publicuni. publicuni.org/jrnl/volume/2/journal_2.html org/?doc=humboldt 18. Burton Clark, 1997, ‘The Entrepreneurial University: Demand and 5. Peter Drucker, ‘The Theory of the Business’, Harvard Busi- Response’, Paper presented at the 19th Annual EAIR Forum, Univer- ness Review September 1994. Available online at http://harvar- sity of Warwick vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock 13 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

19. Michael Gibbons, 1997, ‘What kind of University? Research and Shakespeare, Einstein, and the Bottom Line: The Marketing of Higher teaching in the 21st century’, Beanland lecture, Victoria University Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts and of Technology. Accessible online at http://www.gu.edu.au/vc/ate/ London, England, pp 185-203 pdf/gibbons.pdf 35. AVCC (Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee) Student to Teacher 20. Michael Gallagher, 2000, ‘Corporate Universities, Higher Education Ratio 2004, accessible online at http://www.avcc.edu.au/content. and the Future: Emerging Policy Issues’ DETYA (Department of asp?page=/publications/stats/staff.htm Education, Training and Youth Affairs) Accessible online at http:// 36. In a survey of 15 universities in 1999, McInnis found that ‘early www.dest.gov.au/archive/highered/otherpub/corp_uni.htm#_ftn11 career’ academics with a median age of 37 were more likely to 21. Bill Readings, 1996, The University in Ruins, Harvard University be more satisfied with their jobs (66 per cent) and less pessimistic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts about the prospects for aspiring young academics (45 per cent) than ‘late career’ academics with a median age of 55 (45 per cent 22. Jean-Francois Lyotard, 1979 ‘The postmodern condition: A report satisfied, 69 per cent pessimistic). This was despite the fact that on knowledge’, accessible online at http://users.california. ‘late career’ respondents were more satisfied with their own job com/~rathbone/lyopmc.htm security than ‘early career’ respondents, less likely to be hindered in 23. Zygmunt Bauman, 1992, Intimations of Postmodernity, Routledge, their teaching or research, and relatively more free to pursue their London, pp 1-25; 101 academic interests. ‘The Work Roles of Academics in Australian Universities’ DETYA, June 1999, accessible online at http://www. 24. Terry Eagleton, 1976, Marxism and Literary Criticism, Methuen & dest.gov.au/sectors/higher_education/publications_resources/pro- Co, London, p. 12 files/archives/work_roles_of_academics_australian_universities.htm 25. From an interview appearing in Robert Dessaix (ed.), 1998, Speak- 37. In a survey of 12 Australian universities in 2002 Anderson, Johnson ing their minds: Intellectuals and the Public Culture in Australia, and Saha found that 47 per cent of academics over the age of 55 ABC Books, Sydney, pp. 43-45 believed that ‘collegial’ decision-making in their universities had 26. Fred Wiersema, 1997, Customer Intimacy, Harper Collins Publish- declined ‘a great deal’ compared with 18 per cent of respondents ers, London under the age of 40. ‘Changes in Academic Work: Implications 27. Simon Marginson puts it this way: ‘The ownership of higher educa- for Universities of the Changing Age Distribution and Work Roles tion can be exclusively public, or mixed, or exclusively private. of Academic Staff’, DEST, accessible online at http://ww.dest.gov. But almost everywhere in the world, what is produced is a variable au/highered/otherpub/academic_work.pdf mix of public and private goods. Free state-controlled universities 38. The University of Melbourne Strategic Plan 2006 is accessible online produce certain private goods; while at the same time Ivy League at http://growingesteem.unimelb.edu.au/strategicplan/index.html private institutions contribute to public goods, collective goods 39. See Gabrielle Baldwin, ‘The Teaching-Research Nexus’. Centre and externalities...’ ‘Rethinking the public-private divide in higher for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne 2005, education’ in The Journal for the Public University, vol 2, 2005, accessible online at http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/publications. available online at http://www.publicuni.org/?doc=journal_2_pp html 28. The MCEETYA protocols, revised in July 2006, now offer a frame- 40. See ‘Knowledge Transfer and Australian Universities and Pub- work that emphasises scholarship as a prerequisite for teaching licly Funded Research Agencies: A report to the Department of quality, with research a prerequisite for supervision of research Education, Science and Training’, PhillipsKPA Pty Ltd, March 2006, degrees at postgraduate level. Accessible online at http://www. accessible on-line at http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/research_sector/ mceetya.edu.au/mceetya/default.asp?id=15212 policies_issues_reviews/key_issues/commercialisation/knowledge_ 29. See Paul Kelly, (revised 1994) The End of Certainty: Power, Politics transfer.htm and Business in Australia, Allen & Unwin, St Leonards, pp 20-21 41. Thomas Kuhn, 1957, The Copernican Revolution, Harvard Univer- 30. Bob Connolly & Robin Anderson, 2001, Facing the Music, Film sity Press, pp 76-77 Australia 42. The quote is attributed to a senior executive at Merck Pharmaceuti- 31. Andrew Riemer, 1998, Sandstone Gothic: Confessions of an Acciden- cal. tal Academic, Allen & Unwin, St Leonards, pp. 210-211 43. Ronald Heifetz, 1994, Leadership Without Easy Answers, Belknap 32. See Glyn Davis, ‘The rising phoenix of competition: what future for Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp.36- Australia’s public universities?’ in Griffith Review, Autumn 2006, pp 37 15-31 44. Ronald Heifetz, op cit, pp. 3, 22 33. For an account of the University of Phoenix and its implications, see Glyn Davis, op cit. 34. For an account of the Open University see David Kirp, 2003,

14 After Copernicus, Geoff Sharrock vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Future shock

The view from the top

It’s become a truism that Australian higher education now- adays is in a state of perpetual change. The next round of changes to research and teaching funding, however, will permanently alter the face of the sector. We asked five of Australia’s most prominent Vice-Chancellors to anticipate the future face of higher education, and NTEU’s Carolyn Allport responds.

Which standards?

Ian Chubb

It is time to give serious attention to the standards of Austral- acknowledging that little is known about the standards being ian higher education – what we mean by them, how they vary achieved: across levels and fields of education, how we know how the Has the quality of teaching improved? More important, are students quality of performance relates to them, how performance learning more than they did in 1950?...The answer to these questions standards differ among institutions, and how we communicate is that we do not know.1 effectively the range of achievements to students, employers and the community. My focus is on the standards of Australian degrees. My hunch I am referring to the need to focus on student achievement is that the best of today’s Bachelor degree graduates have supe- standards, and not only on teaching process standards. In rior knowledge, understandings and skills than the equivalent doing so, it is necessary to attend to the minimum acceptable of my generation. I am simply amazed at the capabilities of standards for the award of a degree and to the full range of young people today, and their ability to balance dynamically a student achievements above the minimum across the system. range of responsibilities and cope with challenges that former The former is necessary to safeguard the reputation of Aus- students did not face. But Bok is right, that’s just a hunch, tralian higher education qualifications, given that the system and I can’t demonstrate its validity. Perhaps there are different is only as strong as its weakest link. The latter is important trade-offs of depth for breadth, perhaps less reflective time, in signalling the diversity within the system, including its than in the past. I do not know. Nor do I know how the performance peaks, and how institutions might differentiate averages compare, whether average performance is adequate themselves from one another. or even meaningful, and how wide is the variance between Harvard President Derek Bok suggests the need to set the bottom performance rated satisfactory and the top rated higher educational standards in higher education while excellent. Also the difference in qualitative terms between vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Which standards?, Ian Chubb 15 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Bachelors and Masters Degrees can be confusing. As for the arisen too in the context of budgetary pressures, low student Doctorate, there is ambiguity about what it represents. admission scores, allegations of soft marking and instances of Degree standards depend ultimately on the evaluation student plagiarism, along with changes in the academic work and reporting of student knowledge, skills and achievement environment, including increased casualisation of teaching or performance. Academic standards are defined and safe- appointments. In the absence of information to the contrary, guarded by individual academic staff through their exercise of the impressions of some become widely accepted fact. The judgement in assessing and grading the students they teach.2 Prime Minister has recently been advised that ‘the quality of Degree standards are arbitrary in the sense that they are taken our university degrees is declining.’6 Employer groups are as stable reference points, but they are not absolute or immu- importunate in asserting that graduates lack necessary skills.7 table or purely objective; they are determined subjectively Within the sector there are concerns that significant differ- and they require periodic review and revision. The conven- ences among institutions in terms of performance are being tional practice in setting intellectual standards has relied on disguised by current reporting practices, and that metrics the internal exercise of academic judgement. This approach used for allocating resources are having a levelling-down now faces two difficulties: first, external stakeholders, who are consequence. The current process compliance approach to demanding greater transparency, find internal processes inac- quality assurance is a case in point. AUQA does not consider cessible and arcane; second ‘the informal conversations that standards across institutions or fields of study. Additionally, the once guided notions of standards within disciplines have been Research Training Scheme and the Institutional Grants Scheme eroded by pressures on academic work, the changing nature lack direct measures of quality. The Learning & Teaching Per- of disciplinary bases, and the sheer diversity and complexity formance Fund is allocated via regression equations that neu- of the current system.’ 3 tralise the effect of student characteristics in order to isolate In their thoughtful submission to the Government’s 2002 the institutional effect on student progression and completion. Higher Education Review, Craig McInnis and Richard James The resultant formula discounts for student intake quality and noted that ‘the higher education system currently lacks ade- assumes parity of educational outcomes across institutions. quate and explicit mechanisms for knowing about the stand- The current national policy framework reflects a view of the ards of degrees.’ They reported that moderation processes are system as one that is or should be uniform: almost non-existent and the involvement of external exam- Australia places great emphasis on ensuring that all higher education iners is confined to postgraduate education. Staff, they sug- awards offered by non-university private providers are of an equiva- gested, ‘often have difficulty explaining how they know about lent standard to the Australian university sector.8 the standards of their degrees and are unable to point with confidence to formal processes for monitoring standards, par- There are promising signs that diversity is gaining increas- ticularly against external reference points.’ 4 ing recognition as a policy objective. The Federal Minister has In 2002 more than half of 2000 Australian academics sur- noted that as a result of a ‘relentless pursuit of sameness, we veyed believed that ‘academic standards required for gradu- miss some of the great heights of our international competi- ation have decreased’ over the past decade, with 18 per cent tors.’9 The Minister has shown interest in Australian universi- believing standards had ‘decreased greatly’. About 40 per ties developing a template for a ‘Diploma Supplement’ along cent thought the giving of high grades had increased, and the lines developed by the Lisbon Recognition Convention, 25 per cent thought this was a change for the worse. About and now incorporated in the Bologna Process. It is conceiv- half the respondents thought quality assurance procedures able that over time the diploma supplement will evolve in a had increased, but ‘40 per cent thought it was a change for form that reports learning outcomes, as well as descriptors of the worse; only 25 per cent thought it was a change for the learning experiences. The Government is encouraging AUQA better.’5 to shift from its preoccupation with process and focus on edu- Standards are also on the agenda because of the changes cational and research outcomes, with the next round of AUQA brought about by a larger and more diverse student body in audits to focus on benchmarking of standards. There is now terms of backgrounds, abilities and engagement in university also a detailed Opposition policy framework for Higher Educa- life, together with a wider dispersal of graduates in the labour tion, Research & Innovation. Labor’s approach involves a more market and employer expectations regarding generic graduate rigorous approach to academic standards to meet the expecta- capabilities. Changes in modes of delivery along with growth tions of students, employers and the broad community: of new providers, including diploma mills, and liberalisation of Students deserve the confidence that they will receive a quality educa- trade in education services, have given rise to concerns about tion and that their degree will be recognised, in Australia and over- the need to protect students from sub-standard providers issu- seas, as a credible qualification. Employers are entitled to expect ing qualifications of no use for employment or further study. the highest standards when they hire Australian graduates…The Questions about the standards of Australian degrees have community needs to be assured that every graduate meets at least the

16 Which standards?, Ian Chubb vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

minimum acceptable standard of performance identified for a higher the fields of teacher education, nurse education and business education qualification, and to know how well we excel above that studies. It is envisaged that the reviews would establish ‘the minimum.10 minimum acceptable standards of student achievement for This apparent bipartisanship is shaping up in the context the award of different levels of higher education qualifications of several international convergences. The June 2006 meeting in each field’ and identify ‘the range of standards of perform- of OECD Education Ministers agreed on the need for reform ance across institutions.’ Examples of student work at Pass of higher education, including ‘a clearer focus on learning out- and higher grades would be published. comes’. The OECD is exploring for higher education a set of Labor’s approach is similar to that proposed by James & learning outcomes measures along the lines of the Program McInnis14 and Anderson15. It draws theoretically from the for International Student Assessment (PISA) for schooling in work of Sadler16 and operationally from the experience of the fields of mathematics, science, reading and problem solv- the NSW Board of Studies.17 It reflects the view, supported by ing. Such an exercise will not be straightforward, and it could research, that experienced examiners can identify borderline be perverse. At best it may yield little more than an instrument grade performances with considerable accuracy,18 and that stu- for measuring generic skills akin to the Graduate Skills Assess- dents benefit from clearly defined statements of expectations ment tool developed by the Australian Council for Educational and good feedback.19 In general it involves groups of academ- Research in 1999 but which has had little use subsequently. ics formed around a common field of study interests taking The Higher Education Funding Council for England, in asso- responsibility for setting and monitoring standards – formalis- ciation with the research funding councils, has issued guide- ing the informal dialogue to reach consensus on learning out- lines for ‘threshold standards’ for postgraduate research degree comes, minimum levels of achievement, and what constitutes programs to address concerns raised in reviews of research excellence. Labor’s approach also involves a central Higher policy and performance.11 HEFCE has also issued guidelines Education Quality Agency with considerable powers, and the on quality and standards in higher education, with new data details of its operation would require considerable attention collection and reporting obligations, including reporting the if it is pursued. findings of external examiners at program or subject level.12 It is necessary for us to engage in this debate about the Another development is that of the US Commission on assessment and reporting of degree standards, and it is impor- Higher Education which reported in August 2006 to Education tant that we are clear about the principles that should under- Secretary, Margaret Spellings. 13 The Commission reported that pin the development of a standards-referenced approach. I ‘many students never complete’…’many who do earn degrees would offer the following principles for consideration: have not actually mastered the reading, writing and thinking • Standards and quality are best guaranteed through rigorous skills we expect of graduates’ and ‘unacceptable numbers peer review that is undertaken as close as possible to the of college graduates enter the workforce without the skills point of delivery. employers say they need’. That report may be peripheral to • Responsibility for establishing and monitoring standards the Australian debate, but it has opened up debate by recom- should remain primarily with the academic community. mending a greater focus on student learning and development • Compliance can be established through existing processes of a more outcomes-based accreditation system: of professional accreditation and collaborative review, inter- Higher education institutions should measure student learning using national input, benchmarking, and sharing of teaching mate- quality-assessment data from instruments such as, for example, rials and good practices. the Collegiate Learning Assessment, and the Measure of Academic • Procedures ‘should encourage differences compatible with Proficiency and Progress, which is designed to assess general educa- the national goals, and the judgements that will need to be tion outcomes for undergraduates in order to improve the quality of made should recognise all diversity including diversity in instruction and learning. outcomes’.20 So, there is a momentum on standards internationally as • Moderation must have regard to institutional mission differ- well as domestically, which we would be foolish to ignore. ences. The shape of new ‘accountability requirements’ could well be • The process must not stifle diversity and innovation; it is not what we do not wish for if we do not engage and try to direct about standardisation.21 efforts in sensible directions. • The process should not impose excessive accountability In Australia, Labor proposes monitoring academic stand- cost burdens (a more rigorous approach to quality evalu- ards across the system, using established peer review proc- ation could sit alongside reduced control over inputs and esses, standards-referenced assessment and grade descriptors. process). The approach would involve student work being evaluated by groups of scholarly peers from different academic fields. Ian Chubb AC is Vice-Chancellor and President, Australian Labor has targeted initially for ‘education standards reviews’ National University vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Which standards?, Ian Chubb 17 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

13. A Test of Leadership, Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education, References and endnotes A Report of the Commission Appointed by Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings, September 2006. 1. Bok, D. (2006), Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More. Princ- 14. James, R., McInnis, C. and Devlin, M. (2002) op. cit. eton, New Jersey. Princeton University Press. 15. Anderson, D. (2002), ‘An Academic Standards Agency: a submis- 2. James, R., McInnis, C. & Devlin, C. (2002) Assessing Learning in sion to the higher education review’, Backing Australia’s Future, , Australian Universities, Centre for the Study of Higher Education, http://www.backingaustraliasfuture.gov.au/submissions/issues_sub/ University of Melbourne. pdf/1363.pdf#search. Anderson proposed that Departments in each university would retain examination scripts and other assessment 3. James, R., McInnis, C. and Devlin, M. (2002) ‘Options for a national materials on either side of the pass-fail line and from other critical process to articulate and monitor academic standards across points in the distribution of results. An Academic Standards Agency Australian universities’, Submission 11, Backing Australia’s Future, would set guidelines for numbers of scripts to be retained, select http://www.backingaustraliasfuture.gov.au fields annually for audit and establish panels. Panels would deter- 4. ibid. mine their assessment criteria, sample from the scripts and produce reports, comparing their results with those of the departments, and 5. Anderson, D. (2002), ‘An Academic Standards Agency: a submis- including examples of work representing intellectual standards sion to the higher education review’, Backing Australia’s Future, across the entire range, not only the minimum acceptable standard http://www.backingaustraliasfuture.gov.au/submissions/issues_sub/ of performance. pdf/1363.pdf#search 16. Sadler, D. R. (1987), ‘Specifying and Promulgating Achievement 6. Working Group on Asia Report to PMSEIC, June 2006, p. 27. Standards’, Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 13, No. 2. 191- 209. 7. See for instance Business Council of Australia, (March 2006), New Sadler identifies features of standards-referenced assessment that Concepts in Innovation: The Keys to Growing Australia. overcome deficiencies of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced approaches, using both verbal descriptors and exemplars that are 8. http://www.des.wa.gov.au/pages/higher_ed_quality_standards.php compatible with teachers’ exercise of professional judgement. 9. Bishop, J. (24 July 2006), Speech at the Curtin Institute Public Policy 17. http://arc.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/ (Assessment Resource Centre) Forum http://www.dest.gov.au/Ministers/Media/Bishop/2006/07/ B0010240706.asp 18. Christie, T. & Forrest, G.M. (1981), Defining Public Examination Standards, Schools Council Research Studies. Macmillan. London. 10. Macklin, J. (2006), Australia’s Universities: Building our Future in the World, A White Paper on Higher Education, Research and Innovation. 19. Rust, C. (2002), ‘The impact of assessment on student learning’, Active Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 3 (2) 145-158. 11. Higher Education Funding Council for England (2004), Postgradu- ate research degree programmes – minimum standards and fund- 20. Higher Education Council, (1992) Higher Education, Achieving ing, Circular Letter 18/2004 The minimum standards are expressed Quality, National Board of Employment, Education and Training. in terms of teaching process indicators such as for student admis- AGPS Canberra. Page 78. sion – normally at least a 2(i) degree in relevant field or Masters 21. Neither the Deming model of process control that underpins the qualification; for research environment – minimum RAE rating of quality assurance movement, nor the specifications and design 3a; 70% submission rate within 4 years; for supervision by teams of procedures of Standards Australia to ensure goods and services at least 2 supervisors, mandatory training of supervisors. consistently perform in the way they are intended. 12. Higher Education Funding Council for England (2003), Informa- tion on quality and standards in higher education, final guidance, 2003/51

Esteem-powered learning

Glyn Davis

‘The Dawkins era is over,’ Commonwealth Education Minister have seen before. It is as much the accidental result of policy Julie Bishop told a Perth audience in late July 2007. Just a as its intended outcome, and we have been moving toward it few days earlier, Labor’s new higher education white paper in an unsystematic manner for a long time. had put the same point less bluntly, ruling out a return to the In hindsight, the two changes that did most to set universi- central planning and public funding levels of the late 1980s ties on their current path were the opening of the commercial Dawkins’ reforms as neither possible nor desirable. international student market in the late 1980s, which created This turning point in Australian higher education is not – or an opportunity to recruit full-fee students, and the abandon- at least not yet – being driven by a decisive legislative change; ment of adequate grant indexation in the mid-1990s, which the rapid abandonment of the old in favour of the new that we created a need to recruit full-fee students. It is these fees that

18 Esteem-powered learning, Glyn Davis vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

now bring average revenue per student up to levels that make cerned whether their credentials are approved under Austral- high-quality teaching financially feasible. ian, American, or European law. Following this financial imperative, since the mid-1990s All this means that universities must be responsive to market annual growth in overseas student numbers has sprinted demand in ways that not so long ago simply wasn’t necessary. along at double-digit rates. Though Australia has been very The days of ‘teach it and they will come’ are over. Public uni- successful in the international student market – education is versities face many more competitors than before and, impor- now Australia’s fourth largest export – it has taken universities tantly, need to compete on many more dimensions. We need to into the once unfamiliar world of markets. For international think carefully about what we teach, how we teach it, where students, Australian universities must compete not just against we teach it, which awards to confer and how much to charge. each other, but also against our traditional major rivals in the We must consider the university’s broader role as a research US and the UK and the developing higher education sector in institution and contributor to the community, and how that Asia. As more European universities offer courses in English, relates back to our teaching. they will add to the pressure. While government policy helped create this new strategic To date, the rise of India and China as source countries has environment, it is in some ways lagging behind it – though both sustained strong growth in student numbers while demand major parties now realise that change needs to occur. Major from some of our traditional markets declines. By contrast, aspects of the Nelson reform agenda continued the Dawkins- growth in Commonwealth-supported undergraduate numbers era policy of promoting conformity to government policy has hobbled behind, peaking at less than three per cent year- rather than encouraging universities to re-model themselves, to-year growth in the Howard years, and even going backwards or to respond to shifts in student or employer demand. The before new places in 2005 stopped that fall turning into a trend. funding cluster model of allocating student places has made it But those new places, in combination with declining demand, more rather than less difficult to internally re-allocate places helped create a problem rarely encountered before: public between disciplines. New places are allocated at an extraor- universities unable to fill all their student places. According to dinary level of detail; not just by funding cluster but down Minister Bishop, at least half a dozen institutions will not fill all to particular courses at specified campuses. Voluntary student their Commonwealth-supported places this year. union laws are a major new obstacle to a student experience Compounding the problem for these universities, private and student support. The Learning and Teaching Performance higher education providers now have access to the FEE-HELP Fund, while commendable in seeking to redress the historic loans scheme, removing the obstacle of up-front fees from their imbalance between research and teaching in rewarding excel- plans for expansion. In 2005, the first year of their access to lence, does so by giving all universities incentives to pursue a FEE-HELP, students at the private higher education providers single set of centrally-determined indicators. receiving Commonwealth assistance made up one per cent Omissions in policy also tend toward conformity. There is of higher education commencements recorded by DEST. With no dedicated funding for most of the ‘third stream’ activities more institutions receiving FEE-HELP approval since – indeed, that public universities see as contributing to their distinctive there are now more private providers offering FEE-HELP loans character, and as block funding has been reduced and replaced to their students than public universities – the 2006 data is with funding for specific purposes these vital activities become likely to indicate a higher market share. While these student harder to sustain. Aspects of student income support, such as numbers are still a very small share of the total, in a tight not making Youth Allowance available to students enrolled market the influence of private providers is being felt. in Master’s degrees, discourage shifts from undergraduate to It is hard to see this competitive pressure easing. Rumours postgraduate that are educationally attractive. abound that more universities from overseas will join Carn- The University of Melbourne is the first to announce a egie Mellon in the Australian market. Some may offer Austral- major institutional reform that takes up some of the chal- ian qualifications; others like Carnegie Mellon may offer their lenges in the current higher education environment. The Uni- home-country degrees. This is likely to appeal to some over- versity has re-thought its courses from first principles. The seas students. It is a chance to get an American degree with- vehicle for achieving this has been a Curriculum Commission, out some of the costs, and perhaps visa problems, of going which under the leadership of Professor Peter McPhee has to America. But American or European qualifications could examined the 140 undergraduate degrees now offered at Mel- also appeal to Australian students. Each year, 60,000 Australian bourne, and proposed instead a small number of stand-alone residents in professional or managerial qualifications leave the undergraduate degrees offering content with both depth and country on a permanent or long-term basis. Many will even- breadth followed by employment, specialist professional grad- tually return, but we now need to assume that qualifications uate courses or research training. should be internationally portable where possible. We must Starting in 2008, the ‘Melbourne Model’ will offer students a also accept that some of our students may not be too con- choice of six ‘new generation’ undergraduate degrees, in Arts, vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Esteem-powered learning, Glyn Davis 19 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Bioscience, Commerce, Environments, Music and Science. The reduce the extent to which some students may face up-front first graduate schools, in Architecture, Forest Science, Law and tuition charges. While like most universities Melbourne has Nursing will also open in 2008. Others will follow, in a transi- serious reservations about the Research Quality Framework, tion that will take about a decade. the underlying idea that we should focus on areas of excel- Allied to curriculum change is a renewed focus on the stu- lence is consistent with our strategy. dent experience. A ‘cohort experience’ – ensuring students There still remain many obstacles to a full ‘Dawkins era is spend time with peers as they progress through their degree over’ policy. In this, the ALP white paper Australia’s Universi- – is a feature of the new generation degrees. This will be sup- ties: Building our Future in the World contains some interest- ported by small group teaching, coherent undergraduate pro- ing ideas, particularly dedicated funds for innovative activities grams, and improved learning hubs and online content. and community outreach, along with proposals for flexible The Melbourne Model is part of a larger strategy called block grants for teaching and research that would give univer- Growing Esteem. It finds Melbourne’s future in the meta- sities scope to re-fashion themselves. phor of a triple helix: a public-spirited institution, defined by As with the Government’s policies, the ALP’s alternative tightly-bound strands of significant research, internationally remains a work-in-progress, with the white paper setting out recognised teaching and continuous knowledge transfer, each ‘options’ rather than plans, and with vital funding issues unre- reinforcing the other. Together the strands of the helix define solved. But at this critical point in the evolution of Australian the character and purpose of the University of Melbourne. higher education, it is encouraging that both the Minister and The response to Growing Esteem has been remarkably posi- her Shadow understand that the world has changed, and that tive, including at the political level. The Minister has set an policy must also change as a result. important precedent in allowing us to move some Common- wealth-supported places from undergraduate to postgraduate, Professor Glyn Davis, AC, is Vice Chancellor, University of to ensure equity in our new programs. Reforms to FEE-HELP Melbourne

Diversity for what?

Anne R Edwards

Contemporary commentary and policy debate about universi- the primary focus, it clearly recognises diversity and diversifi- ties in Australia is currently dominated by two key concepts, cation as also requiring attention. The paper’s proposed policy diversity and quality, both of them taken to be positive attributes changes – in particular the ‘mission-based compacts’ approach of a national higher education system in the modern world. to the institutional financing of universities – rest in consider- Diversity and quality are two of the four guiding principles able part on the need to find more effective policy drivers if (along with equity and sustainability) for the Higher Educa- greater institutional diversity is to be achieved. tion at the Crossroads Review and the Coalition Government’s A diversified higher education system is typically taken to resultant 2003 reform package Our Universities: Backing Aus- mean one where there is a substantial degree of differentia- tralia’s Future.1 The current Federal Minister, Julie Bishop, in tion between the institutions comprising that system along her Curtin Institute Address last year, reaffirmed the Govern- a number of dimensions. In Julie Bishop’s Curtin Address, ment’s commitment to these same four objectives, but she she lists ‘mission, discipline mix, course offerings, modes of sees diversity as the least developed of the four, and hence the delivery, management and academic structure’. Other dimen- objective most requiring further government attention. In her sions include size, campus location and distribution, student words, ‘the challenge for the sector is how to achieve greater profile, funding sources, reliance on government and interna- diversity’.2 tional relationships. While the Australian Labor Party’s 2006 White Paper on Australian universities operate in an environment which Higher Education, Research and Innovation,3 gives quality as contains multiple forces working in different and sometimes

20 Diversity for what?, Anne R Edwards vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

opposing directions – some exerting pressure towards diver- ent self-governing entity, and to date these governance arrange- sity and others towards uniformity. That makes it hard to pre- ments have determined that individual institutional interests dict future trends and in particular the speed and extent of take precedence over state priorities or group affiliation. change in the sector towards further differentiation. While almost everyone seems to agree on the value of diver- Overall, government agendas, economic circumstances sity as a principle, the question on which we do not have agree- and global developments set the scene. Within that context, ment is how much diversity have we got in Australia and how competition and market opportunities will inevitably push much do we want? Fifty years ago, there were eight universities Australian universities to create and pursue increasingly dif- and 30,000 students; now there are 40 universities and close to ferentiated and distinctive institutional identities and strategic one million students, with over 200,000 of them from overseas. directions. But other factors such as external regulation, leg- These forty universities vary on a range of significant dimen- islative compliance, employer and professional expectations, sions – size, geographical spread, focus, intellectual reputation, and the imposition of common standards of performance may culture, student characteristics, course types, modes of deliv- have the opposite effect. ery, research intensiveness, management model and admin- There is considerable divergence of opinion among politi- istrative structure, community identification, international cians, the business community and the public about a number connections and so on. Flinders University, for instance, while of key issues about the nature and purpose of higher educa- relatively small retains a comprehensive range of disciplines tion. Are universities self-determining organisations or govern- and courses, and research across all its areas, supports a physi- ment-regulated? Should they be run as public benefit service cal presence and activities in several regional areas includ- providers or commercial businesses? Should they be prima- ing the Northern Territory and overseas countries, as well rily orientated towards education and training, or towards as a special relationship with its local community, and is still knowledge generation and research? Is public funding for highly regarded internationally. Whether this is sustainable is universities to be seen as a conditional grant or an investment? questionable. It is more likely that given its size, location and Are the most highly valued benefits of universities economic resource base, Flinders’ future lies in moving towards a nar- or social? Should universities be serving regional and national rower disciplinary range and a greater focus on specialisation interests or aiming for international leadership roles? and excellence in selected areas. The current policy framework within which Australian uni- Further differentiation within the Australian higher educa- versities function reflects some of these unresolved issues tion sector as a whole depends on policy choices with respect and contains internally contradictory elements. For instance, to the often competing principles of quality and diversity. there is detailed specification and monitoring of compliance This can be illustrated, for example, by such current issues as with Commonwealth funding requirements, for teaching and whether quality assurance and national standards should limit research alike. However, because the amount of public fund- the types of educational programs offered by Australian uni- ing that is made available is insufficient to cover the costs of versities - which in turn determines the price to students - or that teaching and research, universities must engage in teach- whether universities should be free to respond in their own ing and research of other kinds and for other users, so as to ways to market forces. supplement their income by more commercially-oriented While diversity is a relatively settled concept within Aus- activities. And these activities in turn often compete with and tralia, it means something quite different globally. On every may actually detract from those goals which the Federal Gov- dimension conceivable, there are different models for struc- ernment is concerned to promote. There is also considerable ture, function and type of operation of higher education pro- difference in approach between federal and state jurisdictions viders and new models emerging all the time. in levels of state investment and involvement for universities I was vividly reminded of this last year at the Association of and in attitudes towards industry contributions. Commonwealth Universities conference in Adelaide. The ple- Universities in Australia with different locations, histories, nary sessions were mainly about the concerns of universities in capacities, resources and reputations in turn respond in dif- the first world countries - covering much the same issues as this ferent ways to government agendas and market opportunities. article. In other sessions, however, African and Indian Vice-Chan- One of the consequences of this has been the emergence of the cellors challenged the rest of us by pointing out that even the various groupings of universities based on perceived common models of open access mass higher education with which we characteristics and shared interests Those which have a formal are familiar do not offer models that can ever satisfy the enor- status are the Group of 8, the Innovative Research Universities mous and ever growing demand in their respective continents, Australia, the Australian Technology Network, and the New Gen- while the preferred western model of the campus-based univer- eration Universities, but there are other looser groupings based sity is totally impractical. It was a salutary lesson to us all. on location such as the regionals or those within the same state jurisdiction. However, legally each university is an independ- Anne R Edwards is Vice-Chancellor, Flinders University vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Diversity for what?, Anne R Edwards 21 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

2. Bishop, Julie (2006), Keynote Address to the John Curtin Institute of References Public Policy, Perth.

1. Our Universities: Backing Australia’s Future (2003), Commonwealth 3. Australia’s Universities: Building our Future in the World, A White Department of Education, Science and Training. Paper on Higher Education, Research and Innovation (2006), ALP.

Regulation and markets

Margaret Gardner and Julie Wells

There has been much critical comment in recent years about third largest export earner in Australia. Australian universities the tensions between the regulation imposed on public uni- have also become more flexible and responsive to changing versities and the flexibility needed to compete effectively in student and industry needs. However, difficulties have been international and national markets for students and funding. created by increasing competitive pressures between institu- In the partisan world of politics each side points the finger tions while at the same time requiring more detailed regula- at the other as the author of “too much” regulation. And yet tion of what is done and how it is done. there is a shared set of underlying assumptions about the Government funding support to private providers has encour- interplay between regulation and markets that has led to aged greater competition in the space dominated by public uni- more regulation without necessarily improving the outcomes versities. However, public universities are constrained by their for or from universities. enabling Acts and government and community expectations to What are these assumptions about the relationship between maintain a range of capabilities that provide expertise and facil- universities and government? First and fundamentally, there ities in the areas that do not attract private providers or private is consensus that government has the right and the respon- funding. Limits on the capacity of universities to compete are sibility to determine the outcomes it seeks for the funding it embedded in funding agreements with government. Universi- provides. Second – and related to the first – it is expected ties can only change the site of delivery (and the range of pro- that universities have a responsibility to maintain in part the grams offered to outlying campuses) with explicit permission intellectual and cultural fabric of the nation and of society from government, while a private provider can choose what, generally. Third, universities are also expected to contribute where and how it delivers. It is no accident that private provid- to the economic outcomes of the nation through meeting ers are concentrated in areas of high demand and profitability, industry and student needs. Finally, universities are expected such as Business, and located in major metropolitan centres. to be effective and efficient organisations, managing their Private providers can bid for government funds in profitable funds wisely and generating sufficient revenue to maintain areas, while remaining free to direct their core activity as they their operations and infrastructure. choose. Meanwhile, declining government funding for public These assumptions are each eminently reasonable. It is their universities has meant that maintenance of quality of educa- enactment in policy that has increased competition, intensi- tion, research and infrastructure in the areas expected to pro- fied regulation and driven down government funding to public vide a long-term contribution to the public good must come universities while increasing it for private providers. They from private contributions by students or others. have been accompanied by an emphasis on competition and This has given rise to two outcomes that run counter to market-like settings – usually created through regulation – to government’s stated objectives. First, building regulatory encourage universities to be efficient and responsive to eco- frameworks around market forces leads to homogeneity of nomic needs. They include a further range of regulations that behaviour in our institutions. In the vocational education and seek to ensure that universities meet the policy objectives that training sector, where competition between public and private government has defined as providing for the public good. providers has a longer history, Anderson argues that their mis- The impact of these changes has not been all negative. Aus- sions are converging. Public and private providers are increas- tralia has created a vibrant international education presence, ingly competing in similar markets and are similarly reliant on now recognised as a major contributor to the economy as the public funds for their operation, while the government’s role

22 Regulation and markets, Margaret Gardner and Julie Wells vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

in planning provision has given way to that of a market facilita- rely on a mix of public and private funding. However, the tor and purchaser of services.1 In higher education, the line overall objectives being sought from a mixed public/private between private and public universities is also blurring to the higher education sector are not clear. point of disappearing, and more salient distinctions may be One of the stated objectives of current policy – for which drawn between those that are explicitly operating on a ‘for there is bipartisan support – is greater diversity and (suppos- profit’ basis and those who are not. The implications of this edly in consequence) a higher degree of specialisation. Yet are not adequately recognised or addressed in our current there is no necessary link between specialisation and diversity. regulatory frameworks. Private providers individually tend to be more specialised, but Second, declining funding for the public good activities viewed as a totality they do not give a more diverse suite of of public universities and the need to cross-subsidise these higher education offerings since they are concentrated in par- particular activities from private funding means increasing ticular fields and locations. And yet policy discussion is focused focus on ways to attract private funding. Legislators implic- on urging public universities to specialise, as if that in itself will itly encourage such cross-subsidisation, but they commonly create greater diversity in the higher education sector. Public decry the removal of small and specialised programs or cam- universities could concentrate on their strengths, and yet – fol- puses, for example – even when those decisions are dictated lowing the model of the private sector – the overall choice and by efficiency considerations. More regulation is suggested or diversity in the higher education system could become more imposed to deal with domestic concerns, whether they involve limited as a result. In thinking about diversity, therefore, the the access of particular groups of students or of regions or objectives for the whole sector must be considered, not just professions and occupations. In this case, regulation operates the outcomes being sought from public universities. to protect governments’ interests in the context of the mar- Another focus of higher education policy is quality. There kets they have encouraged. needs to be clarity about objectives which are necessary for How might regulation and financing arrangements be the public good, and which the higher education sector as redrawn to help achieve better outcomes from and for Austral- a whole should deliver. In the United States, where a mixed ian universities? Policymakers need to reconsider the whole system of private and public higher education provision is well regulatory framework for higher education. Currently most entrenched, the accreditation of universities and other higher debate around regulation centres on the activities of public education providers is coming under increasing scrutiny. In universities. There are explicable reasons for this focus, since the face of concerns about falling participation rates among universities remain the dominant segment of higher educa- younger Americans and complaints of declining graduate skills, tion and the overwhelming majority are ‘public’ universities. lawmakers are questioning whether the current emphasis in Yet while private providers remain a relatively small part of accreditation on probity and financial viability is sufficient. the Australian higher education landscape, their numbers are The Draft Report of the US Secretary of Education’s Commis- increasing, as changes to the MCEETYA protocols on higher sion on the future of Higher Education notes that ‘accreditation, education accreditation smooth the way for new domestic once primarily a private relationship between an agency and and international providers. Under the ALP’s current policy an institution, now has such important public policy implica- proposals, the competitive advantages for private institutions tions that accreditors must continue and speed up their shifts in enrolling students into high-demand, high-return programs towards transparency where this affects public ends.’3 These would increase.2 The ALP would abolish full-fee-paying domes- ‘public ends’ include recognition of qualifications by employ- tic undergraduate student places – presumably replacing them ers, graduate outcomes and student satisfaction. So, an impor- with publicly-subsidised places – while offering a public sub- tant step in policy would be outline the regulatory framework sidy to private providers by extending a government-under- required for the whole sector, now that institutions are sup- written loans scheme to their fee-paying students. Australian ported by a mix of public and private funding. undergraduates would be able to pay fees to a small domestic There is also a need to apply a whole-of-government perspec- private provider (or an overseas university) but not to an Aus- tive to international education and research. Because universi- tralian public university. The ostensible policy objective is to ties are key components in the emerging knowledge economy, maintain ‘merit-rankings’ in Australian undergraduate places governments’ stake in their work has never been higher. As in public universities. However, making public universities Etkowitz writes, ‘[the] … “capitalisation of knowledge”… is the entirely responsible for merit-based entry ignores the issues of heart of a new mission for the university, linking universities merit, equity and quality across the sector as a whole. more tightly to users of knowledge and establishing the univer- The trend in Australia has been to encourage growth in num- sity as an economic actor in its own right’.4 Therefore, it is in bers of higher education providers, and increasingly to allow government’s interest to forge active partnerships with univer- private providers access to public funding. When private pro- sities, not as public sector agencies but as significant players in a viders are compared to public universities we find that both large and increasingly significant global service industry. vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Regulation and markets, Margaret Gardner and Julie Wells 23 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

In the international arena, the international student experi- to direct public universities to serve specific economic and ence is increasingly being subjected to a consumer protec- social goals. While the policy rhetoric is about diversity and tion regulatory focus. In this context compliance regimes quality, the interaction between these policy drivers may not are the same for public and private providers. Yet, if interna- facilitate either of these objectives. tional education is seen as a separate domain and not as part Until regulation moves away from selective interventions of the overall quality of education in Australia, then there is and an over-concentration on directing the behaviour of our little hope of building sound policy settings for the long- ‘public’ universities, the benefits of an increasingly interna- term. Around us are countries with higher education poli- tionalised and significant sector for the future of our society cies that set aspirations for their role in the region and back and economy will not be realised. that with investment. Yet in Australia, where public universities have been very Professor Margaret Gardner is Vice-Chancellor and Presi- successful in international education, there is no such sense dent, RMIT University. Dr Julie Wells is Director of Policy of national aspiration. Major policy shifts, such as voluntary and Planning, RMIT University. student unionism, were undertaken apparently without con- sideration of the impact on the quality of campus life for inter- References national students, who typically spend many more hours than 1. Damon Anderson, Trading places: the impact and outcomes of domestic students on campus. market reform in vocational education and training, National Finally, there is a need to reconsider the underpinning logic Centre for Vocational Education Research, January 2006 of the current regulatory framework. At present it uses com- 2. Australia’s Universities: Building our Future in the World, ALP White Paper on Higher Education, Research and Innovation, July petition or market-like settings to induce greater efficiency 2006. and responsiveness in public institutions. Then it uses a mix 3. Discussion Draft – US Secretary of Education’s Commission on the of consumer-related regulation and compliance to deal with future of Higher Education, August 2006 p. 23. any perceived market failure or excess in privately funded 4. Etkowitz, H, The evolution of the entrepreneurial university, Inter- areas, international and domestic. And it reserves the right national Journal of Technology and Globalisation, vol 1 no 1 2004.

The big changes are yet to be seen

Ian Young

Over the last ten years, I have given many presentations national competition and the increasing capacity to provide to staff on university or faculty directions. Although many high quality education in many of our source countries will items have come and gone over that period, one comment place our market dominance in international education under which seems to be constant in all of these presentations is threat. At the same time as student demand will be easing, pri- that ‘Higher Education in Australia is undergoing change’. vate providers will be increasing competition. Yet in many respects, the really big changes are yet to occur. Such providers will not attempt to go head-to-head with Change is not the exclusive preserve of the present Coalition universities in their traditional programs. They will selectively Government. I suspect a Labor Government may even hasten target areas where they have a strategic advantage, such as the pace of change. short courses and some business programs. Australia’s univer- Two major changes are about to impact our universities. sities would make a serious mistake if we arrogantly assumed Firstly, we are running out of students! By 2010, Australia’s that such providers will be, by definition, low quality. High demographics dictate that the number of Year 12 leavers quality, low cost and highly efficient competition will become will start to decline. At the same time, our large international common in the future. market will come under increasing pressure. I am an optimist There is no doubt that the present situation warrants atten- concerning international education, but the growing inter- tion. We presently have a situation where some universities

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are incapable of filling the government supported places allo- of duties performed by staff. Although a little further away, I cated to them, whilst others are offering full-fee paying domes- see the same drivers developing in teaching, particularly if tic places over and above their government supported places. there is a real market for students, as outlined above. If insti- So, how could the Federal Government actually drive ration- tutions have the ability to drive market position through the alisation? The Government could try and address some issues quality of their educational outcomes, then the incentives for by moving load. However, this is likely to be inefficient and outstanding teachers, as well as researchers, to demand higher really only ‘tinkers at the margins’. Allowing market demand salaries is bound to occur. to do this would be both more efficient and carry less political Although some staff may find these concepts challenging, odium. Let the market drive rationalisation, rather than govern- is greater competition, differential roles and salary rates some- ment. It is hard to imagine that this outcome has not been thing staff should fear? It seems a little hypocritical if they do. considered by a Coalition Government. After all, we feel very comfortable in grading students accord- Such an approach could relatively easily be achieved by the ing to the excellence of their outcomes. Why not apply the adoption of a voucher system whereby students, armed with same criteria to the staff and the institutions in which they their government supported places, could apply for entry to work? The vast majority of staff perform at an excellent level any university. The university would not have a cap on their and they should be rewarded for that excellence. A dynamic number of places. In a further level of deregulation, the uni- system which rewards and celebrates excellence, in all it forms, versity may be allowed to charge whatever additional fee they should be something we all embrace. Undoubtedly, however, thought appropriate. That is, the HECS add-on would be dereg- there will be industrial relations issues around such changes. ulated. Such an approach would drive competition, rationaliza- Although change is often confronting, a system which is tion and force institutions to develop their unique strengths. dynamic and striving for excellence will be to the nation’s ben- It would also remove the need for domestic fee-paying places efit. Unless Australia’s universities can embrace such changes, and the range of problems this two-class system imposes. Full- I believe we face certain decline. Despite the challenges, I am fee domestic places were a requirement in a market with a extremely optimistic. Compared to most higher education lack of places. This is now not the case. sectors around the world, Australia has a host of extremely Another major issue which will drive change across the flexible and innovative universities. Look to the remarkable sector will be quality. We are already seeing the first clear signs innovations in international education, where Australia has of this through the Research Quality Framework (RQF) and led the world. I am confident that this type of innovation will the Learning and Teaching Performance Fund. Leading up to drive the future shape of our universities. the RQF, the market for top researchers is hotting up, with institutions trying to position themselves for the audit. This is Professor Ian Young is Vice-Chancellor, Swinburne Univer- driving much greater differentiation in salaries and the range sity of Technology

Unimagined futures

Carolyn Allport

Ever since the radical reforms of the Dawkins years of the gained leverage within higher education funding decisions, late 1980s and early 1990s, change has been a constant for and Australia became an international case study for its unique university administrators, as well as for university staff. In the student financing system, the Higher Education Contribution earlier years, change was driven directly by Government, as Scheme (HECS). witnessed by the huge expansion of student numbers, the Following the election of a new conservative government in introduction of tuition fees and our first real venture into the 1996, the market moved from its supporting role to become then nascent international student market. These were power- the major driver of higher education policy, and the role of ful transformative years. It was in the 1990s that ‘the market’ business models and the appointment of business leaders to vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Unimagined futures, Carolyn Allport 25 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

government reviews of higher education increased signifi- of which are accompanied by guidelines, with consequential cantly. Over the last decade, change has been driven directly increases in compliance costs), competition from new pri- by the Government using its funding levers to ensure compli- vate providers (including foreign institutions), a real lack of ance, especially in the areas of governance and staffing and understanding of institutional diversity, and the substantial employment matters. marketing disadvantages that arise from the disestablishment As in the past, government policy continued to favour the of student union services . promotion of market mechanisms as key policy drivers, as long While all these issues are important in shaping the future, as they have been consistent with the ideological and policy the vexed issue of constructing a fairer tuition fee environment agenda of the Government. On balance, from the perspective of remains unresolved, with student debt continuing to spiral. 2006, you would have to argue that the market has become sub- Current estimates of student debt show a rise from 2005/06 servient to the ideological policies of the Government. It could level of $13.1 billion to $18.8 billion in 2008/09,5 alongside not be said that current government policy is essentially market- falling student enrolments. Interestingly, tuition fees are one of driven when universities have seen a massive intervention into the issues not specifically raised by the following commentar- their policies and practices and are currently weighed down by ies from our contributing Vice-Chancellors, although there are the compliance requirements of government-funded activities, now voices calling for fees to rise to reflect increasing costs even activities that are only partially publicly-subsidised. incurred by universities. In contrast, the changing role of higher education in the Since the Dawkins era, universities have faced major gov- international environment has produced an intense preoc- ernmental reviews every two years, and the compliance costs cupation with international indices and rankings, as if per- of change have been considerable. Further intrusions by the formance in the ratings market is the key determinant for Government through the introduction of complex regula- maintaining ‘reputation’. This is a difficult area for universities, tory and assessment processes such as those required for the for there have been substantial critiques of both the Times Higher Education Workplace Relations Requirements and for Higher Education Supplement’s annual World University the new Research Quality Framework are already diverting Rankings and the Shanghai Jiao Tong index.1 Both are widely institutional time and money away from the core functions of used by Australian universities, but both offer only a partial teaching and research. reading of performance, and there has been intense debate As a response to the last extensive inquiry into universities about what they do and do not include in their measurements. in 2004, the Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee survey Most problematic is the Times Higher Education Supplement noted that: index, which Marginson claims ‘..reward[s] a university’s mar- While costs will vary according to the new system each institution keting division better than its researchers’.2 uses, findings in a recent survey of its member universities by the What does this all mean when we recognise that fundamental AVCC indicate that on average universities will expend a staggering changes are going on in the composition of international edu- $1.28 million in implementing the legislation.6 cation? More and more students are enrolled in foreign insti- tutions offering courses in their home country, and Australian The ALP has also become more actively involved in the universities are dedicating a greater proportion of their expend- debate, releasing a White Paper on Higher Education, iture to the establishment of international campuses, especially Research and Innovation in July 2006, where it argues that: in countries that offer a large potential market such as China. The policies put in place by the Howard Government are inconsist- Currently, 30% of all international students enrolled in Austral- ent and unstable. They endanger the quality of Australian higher ian universities are studying offshore.3 At one level, encouraging education and research, eroding rather than building our capacity to genuine international co-operation in international education innovate. has much to offer institutions, their staff and students. But They also reduce equity of opportunity, discouraging access from there are also quality risks in the way in which partnerships those who could benefit from higher education but who have limited and contracting with other higher education providers oper- financial means.7 ate. The Government has recognised such risks and is currently establishing a framework for quality assurance in transnational There is much at stake in determining the next steps and education.4 This is important given that the Government is also the following contributions from a number of Vice-Chancel- encouraging universities to become more active as exporters lors indicate that there are likely to be significant difficulties of education services under the trade agenda. in agreeing upon a new future for universities. This could lead Set against these international trends are a range of domes- to further divergence as to where Australian universities might tic policy concerns, including the rising level of student debt, find themselves a decade in the future. Most agree, however, community perceptions that ‘standards’ are falling, the disag- that the future environment is likely to be a highly competitive gregation of university funding into individual programs (all one, particularly if existing government policies of fostering

26 Unimagined futures, Carolyn Allport vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

and funding the role of new private providers are to continue. market, and that the voucher model would empower students The University of Melbourne’s Professor Glyn Davis has to act rationally in such a market environment. nailed his colours to the mast of becoming a truly interna- The question for all of us is: what future might we imagine? tional university, able to define itself as comparable with simi- A useful first step is to remember that in a process of intense lar research intensive universities elsewhere in the world. His change, it is critical that we first determine what aspects of plan, underpinned by the University of Melbourne’s identity the past are important to take into the future. In this sense, we as a ‘public-spirited’ institution, aims to build domestic compa- need to recognise that university education provides a valu- rability within its course structures, and to construct a clearer able opportunity for individual advancement at the same time graduate school model. In this way the engagement between as it creates social and economic benefits for our society and the international and domestic levels is self-reinforcing. The economy. Opportunity should not be dependent on ability to real challenge here, of course, is retaining equity, and an exten- pay. There is abundant evidence that university teaching and sive scholarship program is planned for the future. research delivers substantial benefits to society as a whole, His colleague from the Australian National University, while therefore there is a strong argument for public funding to no doubt equally concerned about the broader international underpin the important roles played by universities. project, chooses to remind us of the standards debate, and of Universities need also to meet societal expectations about how important it is to face the tensions created by a decade their role as ‘higher education’ institutions. While it is impor- of being driven by the market. However we see this issue, Pro- tant to build partnerships across the post-secondary sector, fessor Chubb is right to encourage us to enter the standards thus facilitating movement between higher education and debate and remind us that academic standards are defined and vocational institutions, this should not be at the expense of safeguarded by individual academic staff through their exer- meeting recognised standards of academic performance cise of judgment in assessing and grading the students that expected of universities. Standards do matter. they teach. In this sense standards are the responsibility of Finally, university staff are critical to the overall ability of an staff and university administrators. There is a sting in the tail institution to achieve excellence in teaching and research. The here. While it is true that universities are self-accrediting insti- constant restructuring of universities over the last decade has tutions, and therefore responsible for setting their own stand- sidelined the real debates over curriculum, degree structures ards, they are also accountable to their communities for the and working conditions. There can be no sustainable univer- effective communication of our quality assurance standards. It sity future without the intelligence, passion and commitment is important to succeed here, for if we do not, we are likely to of university staff. Current moves towards breaking up univer- be forced into a more instrumentalist standards model. sity staff into teaching-only and research-only categories risk There is an important policy contribution yet to be writ- undermining the unique character of universities and the high ten which might attempt to provide for a better balance of quality education that students expect and deserve. government regulation with the international standard8 of institutional autonomy for universities. The contributions from Dr Carolyn Allport is National President of NTEU. Professors Edwards and Gardiner and Dr Wells introduce the dangers associated with excessive regulation, and the use of References and endnotes such regulation to force institutional engagement with the 1. An excellent critique of these indices can be found in Simon market. All argue that current Government policy has pro- Marginson, Mission and identity for a post post-public university duced a distortion for public universities. While they receive era, Keynote Address to the 6th Annual National Conference on University Governance, 10-11 October 2006, Canberra. less and less from Government, the new private providers 2. ibid, p.3 receive more. In the end it is diversity that suffers. As Gardiner 3. IDP, International Students in Higher Education 2006, http://www. and Wells note: idp.com/research/fastfacts/article406.asp building regulatory frameworks around market forces leads to 4. DEST, A National Quality Strategy for Australian Transnational homogeneity of behaviour in our institutions. Education and Training, April 2005. 5. Senate Estimate, Senate Employment, Workplace Relations and While not specifically articulated in our feature, one future Education Committee, 01/06/06. that has been imagined by supporters of deregulation is the 6. Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee, Remove the shackles of over-regulation, Media Release 8 September 2004. ‘level playing field’ of a privatised higher education system. 7. Australian Labor Party, Australia’s Universities: Building our Future Given the level of public funding currently provided to uni- in the World: A White Paper on Higher Education, Research and versities as a percentage of their income, it may well seem to Innovation, issued by Jenny Macklin, Shadow Minister for Educa- some an attractive path , however improbable that may seem. tion, Training, Science and Research What might this mean for students? Professor Young suggests 8. See UNESCO, Recommendation Concerning the Status of Higher- Education Teaching Personnel, November 1997, Article 17, pp. 7-8. that students themselves might be willing captors of the vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Unimagined futures, Carolyn Allport 27 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Oh, the Humanities!

Australia’s innovation system out of kilter

Stuart Cunningham

Federal research funding is increasingly pointed towards models of innovation derived from the sciences. And yet, argues Stuart Cunningham, this is an increasingly out- moded model of research discovery. The humanities and social sciences – the poor relations of innovation policy – have been pioneering new and sophisticated paths of research and collaboration between theorists and policy- makers. But no-one in government seems to be looking.

The idea of an innovation system is that there is something broadened to include humanities, arts and social sciences, systematic about it. My worry about Australia’s innovation then there would be calls from many other sectors to similarly system is that its most systematic feature is its exclusion of the include their activities as being eligible and this would have humanities, creative arts and social sciences (HASS). serious cost implications for the concession’. So there – if we Too many of Australia’s policy settings overlook the poten- lower the portcullis for you types, who knows what might tial of the humanities, arts and social sciences to contribute to get in! the national economy and well-being. The R&D tax concession In our innovation system, as in most, the humanities, crea- specifically excludes research conducted within these areas. tive arts and the social sciences, at best, are thought of as a We need to change an out-dated view of innovation based on kind of ‘handmaiden’ to the powerhouses of science, engineer- the smokestack industries of the last century. It would require ing and technology, which in turn feed the growth businesses the government to revise the way allowable research is defined which deliver rising standards of living and consequential in the Income Tax Assessment Act at Section 73B 2C(f). social benefits. At best, HASS might help us to understand the In a recent response to an inquiry on this matter, the Com- consequences of moving to a knowledge-based economy, but monwealth’s position was explained. To qualify for the conces- they could never lead such change or contribute as equal part- sion, R&D must be ‘systematic, investigative and experimental’. ners with their colleague sciences. The activity must involve ‘an appreciable element of novelty’, a But the evidence suggests otherwise. Here are a few exam- ‘high level of technical risk’, and ‘be carried on for the purpose ples – some of them from precisely the kinds of ‘impractical’ of acquiring new knowledge (whether or not that knowledge areas governments seem to have given up on as sources of will have a specific practical application) or creating new or real-world innovation. improved materials, products, devices, processes or services’. NRMA Motoring and Services teamed with humanities Apparently it is believed that, although ‘the Government is researchers Sarah Redshaw and Zoë Sofoulis at the University aware that some work undertaken in the humanities, arts and of Western Sydney to develop a program that aims to promote social sciences field can be vibrant’, these criteria don’t apply safer driving practices amongst young and inexperienced driv- to them. The kicker is that ‘there is a concern that if the cri- ers by introducing an innovative cultural approach to driver teria for activities eligible for the R&D tax concessions were education. It’s called Transforming Drivers. Driver self-image

28 Oh, the Humanities!, Stuart Cunningham vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

and resultant behaviour is strongly influenced by peer culture collaboration with other disciplines, both science-based and and a saturated media and advertising environment, and stand- social-science based – contribute tangible benefits for busi- ard issue driver training has never taken these supervening ness, government and industry which any innovation system factors into consideration. needs to take into account. The focus groups and workshops – many of which are con- But a key to unlocking the black box of innovation and ducted in western Sydney – afford young drivers an unprec- R&D policy is to be able to demonstrate the degree to which edented opportunity to critically reflect upon, and possibly science-technology-engineering-medicine (STEM) and the change, the values and practices of their own driving cultures. HASS sector are interdependent. The Council for Humanities, The RTA and the Blue Mountains City Council joined in, con- Arts and Social Sciences (CHASS) has undertaken a substan- tracting the research group to develop a school-based work- tial study tracking the extent and dynamics of collaboration shop and education program at Year 11/12 level across NSW. between the two sectors for the department of education. Further spin-offs were in collaboration with the Professional We in the HASS sector have taken the initiative in seeking to Association of Road Safety Officers. demonstrate that – contrary to the The Brisbane-based games com- policy settings – the ‘two cultures’ pany Auran Technologies hired John Linguists and communication really are working together, on the Banks, an English department PhD researchers, in partnership ground, to address real problems as student, to help them deal with the with physicians, information they present themselves. new wave of user-led co-creation technologists, and psychologists CHASS believes that there are a that the games industry has stimu- collaborated on a new piece number of initiatives which might lated. Auran is an Australian pioneer undergird a rapprochement of of text mining software, in collaborating with game fans the two cultures in this country. Leximancer. Leximancer has to develop their successful online In terms of research, when the game, Trainz. This involved at times analysed and mapped texts as National Research Priorities are sharing with fans the intellectual diverse as Edward Gibbon’s reviewed, cross-sectoral collabo- property generated by the intense Decline and Fall of the Roman ration should be embedded as a co-creative process of making, mar- Empire and the full report of priority process that cuts across all keting and keeping the game active the US 9/11 Commission. the identified thematic priorities. in the marketplace. A ‘whole of knowledge’ approach As Auran’s community liaison would then support ‘whole of gov- manager, Banks worked with various fan communities as they ernment’ research priorities. The draft plans for the Research developed around the games products and assisted Auran to Quality Framework are flawed to the extent they marginal- maintain market share while the industry has been undergo- ise cross-sectoral research. The Australian Research Council ing global consolidation. Banks was able to put directly into (ARC), the National Health and Medical Research Council business practice cultural studies’ traditions of engagement and other funding bodies at national and state levels should with the ‘active audience’ and fan cultures. include cross-sectoral collaboration in their objectives and pri- Linguists and communication researchers, in partnership orities. There should be a more contemporary way to integrate with physicians, information technologists, and psychologists HASS into the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure collaborated on a new piece of text mining software, Lex- Scheme. imancer. Leximancer has analysed and mapped texts as diverse CHASS looks to more opportunities for students to think as Edward Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ‘outside the box’ of their own disciplines by giving under- and the full report of the US 9/11 Commission. graduates the opportunity to participate in cross-disciplinary The software is changing the exploitation of text and nat- courses without the fear that this will be less recognised in ural language assets in business, government, security, law their career development. Ambitious coursework which enforcement, science research, and education. It is being used spans both the sciences and the humanities-social sciences to monitor threats such as terrorist activities, and has been should be encouraged. This could take the form of the emerg- sold to the US Social Security Administration and an Australian ing ‘Melbourne model’, but it could also be of a very differ- government agency in the defence sector. Police are also using ent nature, addressing cutting-edge industry skills needs such it to cluster burglary reports. It is the brainchild of Andrew as environmental engineering or games and mobile content Smith at the University of Queensland’s Key Centre for Human development within cross-faculty double or single degrees. Factors and Applied Cognitive Psychology. These changes could be facilitated at the sector-wide level These examples are the tip of a reasonably sized iceberg. by changing the disciplinary cluster weightings to encourage The fact is that the humanities, both in their own right and in collaboration across the science/social-science divide in stra- vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Oh, the Humanities!, Stuart Cunningham 29 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

tegic areas of need, and/or at the institutional level by weight- conceived as on the narrower concept of R&D. Most tradi- ing load which crosses the same divide. In secondary schools, tional science and innovation policy risks excluding where state governments might support a balance of disciplines in most everyday innovation is occurring in the economy. Those the final two years of the curriculum, rather than allowing or sectors of the economy engaged in providing services and encouraging the sorts of specialisation that are more appropri- administration of various types make up by far the bulk of the ate for upper level undergraduate coursework. economy (75% by GDP, 81% by employment), with primary At a post graduate level, Masters and PhD students should be and manufacturing sector making up the remainder. This is offered a semester program in collaborative research, similar to where most business focus on innovation lies – in finding new that currently offered in commercialisation. Such a semester solutions and new processes to business models and opera- would train researchers to be ‘boundary spanners’ and could tional challenges rather than waiting for the serendipitous include study of communication skills, team management and benefits of laboratory science to trickle down, or out, to the leadership, different research approaches and languages. Such real world. This is also where the humanities, arts and social training would build the vital capacity of research students sciences may find perhaps unexpected but effective allies. to become facilitators or leaders who can bring the sectors together over time. Professor Stuart Cunningham is director of the ARC Centre In advocating their place in the innovation system, the of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation at humanities, arts and social sciences can benefit from an alli- Queensland University of Technology, and President of the ance with the business sector, which consistently stresses that Council for Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences. Australia needs at least as much focus on innovation broadly

30 Oh, the Humanities!, Stuart Cunningham vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

How not to fund teaching and learning

Leesa Wheelahan

In the increasingly research and innovation-driven landscape of higher education, the Federal Government’s Teaching and Learning Fund is supposed to redress the bal- ance. Leesa Wheelehan is unconvinced. She argues the Fund simply encourages game-playing between institutions in manipulating their teaching outcomes, and rewards good teaching on grounds that make no statistical or policy sense.

The Commonwealth Government’s Learning and Teaching The putative purpose of the Fund was ‘to reward those insti- Performance Fund (LTPF) is not about improving the quality of tutions that best demonstrate excellence in learning and teaching and learning in Australian universities, it is about cre- teaching’ (Nelson 2003: 29). Approximately $250 million was ating winners and losers in the higher education market. This committed to the Fund over three years: $54 million was dis- article critiques the LTPF on two levels. First, it argues that it tributed in 2006, $83 million will be distributed in 2007 and is conceptually and methodologically flawed and cannot suc- $113 million will be distributed in 2008 (DEST 2004: 5). As ceed in its own terms. The measures used are not valid or reli- well as the announcement of the LTPF, the Commonwealth able. Second, the paper argues that the primary purpose of the allocated $8 million for teaching awards from 2006 to 2008, LTPF is to further differentiate the higher education market and $22 million per year for the establishment of the Carrick through the creation of winners and losers, generate market Institute, Australia’s national institute for learning and teaching information for consumers, contribute to the culture of audit in higher education (DEST 2004: 5).1 and accountability within universities, and foster market sub- The Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and jectivities in which academics feel the need to ‘add value’ to Training (DEST) (2004: 5) explains that the LTPF was needed themselves (Ball 2003: 217). The measures used by the LTPF to raise the status of teaching and learning so that it was equal and the processes used to implement them are suited for to that of research (DEST 2004: 6). DEST explains that internal these purposes. staff promotion and staff reward systems rewarded staff for The first section of the paper outlines the aims of the LTPF, research performance (implying but not stating that this was and the way in which it is implemented. The next section at the expense of teaching performance), and that there were explains why it is conceptually and methodologically flawed no comparable processes to reward excellent teaching and in its own terms. The third section situates the LTPF as part of excellent learning outcomes. broader processes of neo-liberal reform. DEST (2004: 5) emphasised that the Fund wasn’t an attempt to create ‘teaching only’ universities, but that it would help to The putative aims of the LTPF contribute to the diversity of the sector explaining that: ‘It is envisaged that an increased focus on learning and teaching The Learning and Teaching Performance Fund was announced will foster diversity and help to ensure the ongoing quality of in 2003 as part of then Commonwealth Education Minister the Australian higher education sector’. Exactly how the Fund Brendan Nelson’s suite of ‘Backing Australia’s Future’ reforms. would contribute to diversity was not explained. Presumably vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan 31 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

this would be through identifying some institutions as excel- All institutions bidding for funds had to, as an initial require- lent in learning-teaching, and implicitly contrasting these insti- ment, submit evidence that they had teaching and learning tutions to the rest, who are, by definition, not excellent, or strategies and policies, undertook student evaluations of sub- even high performing. jects, provided professional development support for teach- The LTPF differs from research funding in some important ing staff, incorporated effectiveness as a teacher in probation respects. First, far more money is allocated to research funding and promotion policies and processes, and made all this than to teaching and learning. There are three main govern- information publicly available on their website (DEST 2005b: ment block grants that support university research: the Insti- 6). DEST (2005c) claims that this has increased the amount tutional Grants Scheme (IGS), the Research Training Scheme of information that is available, and the current Minister is (RTS) and Research Infrastructure Block Grants (RIBG). In pleased because: 2005, the Commonwealth spent $290.591 million on the IGS, This information, once collected, should be a valuable resource to $552.153 million on the RTS, and $182.982 million on the universities using negative results to drive reform and improvement, RIBG, totalling just over $1 billion (DEST 2005a: 77-78, Table and positive results to market to potential students as we have seen 3.17). 2 the University of Wollongong promote - quite unapologetically. Second, the IGS, RTS and RIBG funds are allocated and dis- In just one year of the Fund’s operation, the increase in the amount tributed to all universities on the basis of performance. This of information available for students and staff on universities’ learn- means while some universities get a lot more money for ing and teaching policies and practices has served to shift the focus research than others, all universities get some funding under onto this essential part of a university’s reason for being. (Bishop these schemes. The more a university improves its perform- 2006). ance, the greater its share of funding from the research fund- ing pool.3 In contrast, the LTPF prominently identifies losers, In other words, the key thing that matters is the increase as DEST (2004: 6) explains: in information to the market. In turn, this is used as a lever by It should be emphasised that the stated intention of the Learning and government to drive reform within universities that empha- Teaching Performance Fund is to reward excellence. This means that sise audit, and accountability defined as compliance with a performance improvement model is not appropriate. government outcomes, in which students are characterised as consumers in the higher education market. This is revealed To be eligible for funding, an institution had to be listed by the nature of the indicators, with one key set of indicators under Table A of the Higher Education Support Act 2003. This based on student (customer) satisfaction. includes all the public universities, the Australian Maritime Col- Following evidence that they published the necessary infor- lege, and the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Edu- mation on their websites, institutions were assessed using cation.4 Fourteen institutions were funded in the initial 2006 quantitative indicators. Seven elements were grouped under funding round. Five institutions (including the Australian Mari- three sets of indicators. The first set of indicators was based time College) were awarded a total of $30.38 million for dem- on student satisfaction and had three elements derived from onstrating excellence in teaching and learning, and a further responses students gave to the 2004 Course Experience Ques- nine institutions were awarded a total of approximately $24 tionnaire (CEQ), which all graduates are asked to complete million for demonstrating high achievement (DEST 2006b: 12). following graduation. The student satisfaction indicators were All funded institutions were awarded a $1 million base grant based on responses graduates gave to the generic skills scale, and the remainder was allocated by size by undergraduate stu- good teaching scale, and overall satisfaction items in the CEQ dent load (DEST 2006b: 12). Of the five that were awarded the (DEST 2005c: 5). The second set of indicators had two ele- most in the highest category, two were members of the elite ments around student outcomes, and these were derived from Group of Eight universities (Melbourne and Queensland) and the 2004 Graduate Destination Survey (GDS). Positive out- they were awarded 66.75% of the total funding in this category. comes were based on the percentage in either full-time study Four Group of Eight universities were in the second group or full-time work (DEST 2005c: 5). The third set had two ele- (Monash, ANU, Sydney and Western Australia) and they were ments around student success, and this measured the progress awarded 59% of the total allocated to this group (DEST 2006b: (pass rate) and student retention of first year undergraduate 12). In total, of the fourteen institutions awarded funding, six students, derived from DEST’s statistical collections for 2003 were from the Group of Eight, and they were awarded 63.36% and 2004 (DEST 2005c: 5). of the total funds. It is hard to see how this contributes to insti- Outcomes for each of these areas were calculated at the tutional diversity; rather it reinforces the existing hierarchy of level of the institution, and not at the level of field of educa- universities, in which those universities that are the oldest tion or faculty. Outcomes were adjusted according to a range and richest as a consequence of decades of public investment of factors, because the different student composition, location, receive the most resources, just as they do in research. entry scores, differing combinations of fields of education and

32 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

institution size affect each of these outcomes (DEST 2005b). rated above the average (Ramsden 2003a: 101). Ramsden also These three sets of indicators were weighted so that student explains that students provided different ratings within fields satisfaction indicators accounted for 55% of the outcome, stu- of education: electrical engineering students rate their course dent outcomes 22% and student success 23% (DEST 2005b: 10). experience lower than other engineering students, and psy- Ordinal rankings were allocated in each of the three areas, and chology students lower than other social science students then multiplied by the weighting for each of the three groups (Ramsden 2003a: 101). Hand et al. (1998: 3) say that CEQ to determine an overall ordinal rank (DEST 2005b: 10). results ‘are not valid for comparing different subjects/fields of A number of changes have been made for the 2007 round of study within institutions or across institutions.’ funding. Rather than deriving an overall institutional score on The Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee (AVCC) and each dimension, results will be calculated within institutions Graduate Careers Council of Australia’s (GCCA) (2001: 3) code by the following broad discipline areas: of practice for the use of the CEQ and GDS say that compari- • Science, Computing, Engineering, Architecture & Agriculture. sons should be made on the basis of like with like. The code • Business, Law and Economics. of practice states that comparisons on the basis of the CEQ • Humanities, Arts and Education. should be ‘between like courses, in like institutions with simi- • Health. (DEST 2006b: 6) lar survey response rates.’ Similarly with the GDS: compari- The seven indicators under the three broad headings of sons should be made between programs that are similar, and student satisfaction, outcomes and success will be weighted in similar institutions, with similar response rates, and similar equally rather than with the weights used to allocate the 2006 student demographics (AVCC & GCCA 2001: 3). The fact that Fund. Student retention and progress will be calculated across the LTPF will be determined on the basis of four broad disci- all undergraduate years, and not restricted to first-year. Part- plinary groupings rather than at an institutional level does not time study will be included as a good outcome along with address the concerns raised here. The groupings are too broad full-time study, but part-time work will not be included along to be meaningful and to allow like with like to be compared, with full-time work as a positive outcome (DEST 2006b). The and they do not distinguish between institutions with very Department will not produce an ordinal ranking of institu- different student demographics, very different labour markets, tions but will combine the results from each of the seven indi- and very different post graduate program profiles. cators into a single score for each discipline grouping (DEST The fact that DEST will not be allocating an ordinal rank 2006a). The Government has announced no other change to does not mean that a de facto ordinal rank will not be applied. the operation of the scheme. Ordinal ranking was problematic because it greatly exagger- ated minuscule and homogenised major differences between Why the Fund won’t work on its own terms universities. For example, one university could be one point lower than another and six points higher than another on the DEST’s tweaking of the funding method for 2007 has allayed raw score, yet they could still be ranked one, two, three. It some, but not most (and not the most important) concerns will still be possible to generate league tables, but the differ- raised by universities following the allocation of the 2006 ences will not be homogenised to the same degree (except fund. This section first discusses the methodological problems for, perhaps, in the national media which is likely to assign before discussing the conceptual problems with the LTPF. ordinal rankings). More problematic is the fact that tiny and insignificant Methodological problems differences may account for major differences in outcomes. First and foremost, aggregating results from the CEQ and In other words, results that could be the consequence of the GDS at the level of the institution is an improper use of both. standard error of the mean, or as a consequence of chance, The CEQ was designed as a performance indicator of teach- were used to distribute funds. The AVCC and GCCA’s (2001: 5) ing effectiveness at the level of the whole course or degree Code of Practice states that differences that exceed one-third and not across disciplines or at the institutional level (Wilson, of the relevant standard deviation are considered notewor- Lizzio and Ramsden 1996: 1). This is because there are, accord- thy, yet allocations in the Fund can be made on the basis of dif- ing to Paul Ramsden (2003b: 3), one of the main architects of ferences that are much smaller than this. According to Gavin the CEQ in Australia, ‘large field-of-study effects and aggregated Moodie (2006), ‘the 2006 learning and teaching performance results are of little use in making inter-institutional compari- fund purported to distinguish between institutions on 1/270th sons.’ Ramsden (2003a: 100) explains that ‘students’ percep- of a standard deviation.’ While these differences are so small tions of the relative quality of teaching varied by field of as to be meaningless, the consequences are dramatic, and can study.’ Medicine and engineering students were more likely to make the difference between one institution getting funded, give lower ratings in the CEQ, while natural science students and another receiving nothing at all. In contrast, if there is a gave average ratings, and humanities and visual arts students small error in the results in research funding, a university may vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan 33 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

receive a little bit more or a little bit less than they should, but In its submission to DEST on the future of the LTPF, The they won’t be denied all funding all together. Moodie (2006) Carrick Institute (2006: 1) said that the selection of indicators explains that the GCCA, the AVCC and twelve universities rec- reflected the requirements of the LTPF, and indicators that ommended ‘that results be reported by grouping universities were available and could be compressed into a single ordinal into bands or clusters’ because many of the reported results figure, rather than those that reflected educational excellence. used to rank universities were not significant. He continues: In other words, what can be measured becomes important, ‘Furthermore, as some universities pointed out, where there and what is important but can’t be measured becomes unim- is little difference in universities performance there should be portant. This is a similar criticism made of other university little difference in their funding’ (Moodie, 2006). rankings (Stella and Woodhouse 2006: 10). Response rates are another problem. The AVCC and GCCA’s When the funding available under the LTPF reaches its (2001: 4) code of practice states that the desirable response peak in 2008 it will still be only 11 per cent of the funding rate for the GDS and CEQ is at least 70%, and response rates currently allocated to institutions under the research block lower than 50% should not be publicly disclosed. Yet, accord- grant schemes, and therefore it will never seriously rival the ing to Griffith University (2006), in its submission to DEST fol- prestige of research. Nonetheless, it is still enough to drive lowing the allocation of 2006 funding: institutional behaviours and to encourage institutional game- Of the institutions placed in the top 10 in the learning and teaching playing, games that often have nothing to do with improving performance fund rank, half had a response rate of <50% to the teaching and learning. For example, an internet search using course experience questionnaire (University of Wollongong, Univer- the terms ‘course experience questionnaire’ and ‘strategies’, sity of Melbourne, University of Queensland, University of Canberra, and restricting the domains searched to ‘edu.au’ returns 1680 and Australian Maritime College, which with 36 responses gives it hits. While many of these provide advice to academics on a response rate of 32.1%) and the Australian Maritime College also ways they can improve their teaching, many are university had only 38 responses to the graduate destination survey, giving it a strategy documents focussed on increasing response rates very low response rate of 33.9%. and positive outcomes in ways that don’t impinge on teach- The University of Wollongong received $5.108 million, ing and learning at all. Ramsden (2003b: 2) refers to this as the University of Melbourne $9.853 million, the University ‘the process of winning without actually cheating.’5 The of Queensland $10.424 million, the University of Canberra lack of fit between the LTPF and the outcomes it purports $1.898 million. The Australian Maritime College received to measure encourages this sort of gaming behaviour, and $1.143 million or just over $30,000 per respondent (DEST as Moodie (2005: 10) argues in a paper critiquing current 2006b: 12). university rankings, can lead to a misallocation of resources Finally, the method universities use to collect this data and because institutions focus on the indicators rather than seek- to account for missing data varies. Guthrie (1998: 44) explains ing to implement measures that may improve outcomes, but that some universities impute responses from non-respond- not performance against the indicators. ents by adding graduates who continued studying in another The LTPF may also drive institutional behaviours that reduce program at their university (which improves the graduate out- institutional diversity, by encouraging universities to drift from comes). This is not necessarily a problem, and neither is gath- their mission to provide access to higher education for their ering data from other sources (such as relatives) as long as it communities, particularly universities that serve traditionally is accurate (Guthrie 1998: 44). The problem arises because not disadvantaged communities. The Group of Eight dominate all universities do this, and so the method of collecting data the winners and accounted for almost 43% of the institutions differs, making reliable comparisons difficult. awarded funding under the LTPF, but 63.36% of the funds. Of In their paper on university rankings, Stella and Woodhouse the remainder, most were relatively small institutions, when (2006: 9) from the Australian Universities Quality Agency, draw compared to the rest of the sector.6 Student outcomes and on wide ranging research to argue that the great majority of student success at the Group of Eight universities is higher university rankings fail tests of validity and reliability. The LTPF because they recruit the highest performing students from the is no exception. highest socio-economic backgrounds, who are already privi- leged because they come to university with the highest levels Conceptual problems of cultural capital, and the highest levels of social capital. Such The LTPF Advisory Group (DEST 2006b: 4) said, in its report students are more likely to continue to further study and to to the Minister, that: obtain jobs with higher salaries after graduation. Although there are limitations with the existing performance indicators Weighting raw data to reflect different student demograph- – including that they can only be regarded as ‘proxy’ indicators – the ics does not provide a level-playing field between universities, indicators are still the only feasible ones available at a national level. because it does not account for the emergent properties that ensue when large cohorts of extremely privileged students

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attend the Group of Eight universities, and large cohorts of more attention on the use of the results than on the results extremely disadvantaged students attend the new universi- themselves’ (Ramsden 2003b: 7). ties and regional universities, particularly those universities Moreover, Ramsden (2003b: 1) questions whether we in these categories with multiple campuses, who must as a should be focussing on student satisfaction or whether we consequence, spread their resources more thinly. A Griffith should be focussing on quality of student learning outcomes, University (2005: 1) paper to DEST explains that: because they are not necessarily synonymous. His paper is …according to the bivariate regressions reported in appendix C of not written in response to the LTPF, and I am extending his the Characteristics and performance indicators of Australian higher argument in applying it this way, but his argument is relevant education institutions, 2000, from as little as 0.42% to 4.97% of the because of the emphasis in the LTPF on student satisfaction. variance in the performance indicator data is explained by institu- It is also important because the CEQ is not primarily about tion and from 80.17% to 99.03% of the variance in the data is not student satisfaction, even though these elements of it are explained by factors for which the Department of Education, Science privileged in the fund’s indicators. Ramsden cites the work of and Training adjusts. Richardson concerning student satisfaction, who says that the Jacqui Elson-Green (2006: 11), in an article in Campus satisfaction approach: Review, cites John Dewar, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Aca- Privileges satisfaction as a notion that is coherent, homogenous and demic) at Griffith University to the effect that universities unproblematic. The limited amount of research on this topic suggests can be penalised for fulfilling their mission in trying to serve that student satisfaction is a complex yet poorly articulated notion under-privileged communities with low participation rates that is influenced by a wide variety of factors which are not intrinsi- in higher education. A purely market-based ‘rational’ decision cally linked to the quality of teaching. (Richardson, cited in Ramsden would be to pursue students who normally go to the Group 2003b: 2) of Eight universities. Universities will try to emulate the win- Ramsden asks if it makes sense for student satisfaction to ners, rather than differentiate themselves. However, they be an important goal of higher education in its own right, and cannot win this game, because apart from the accumulated whether it tells us ‘enough about the quality of the core busi- social prestige that is a consequence of decades of public ness of a university’ (Ramsden 2003b: 2). He makes the point investment in the Group of Eight universities and the social that we don’t ask questions about academic satisfaction and capital networks these universities have developed over this nor do we think it ‘a tangible correlate of research perform- time (Marginson 1993, 1997), is the fact that the Group of ance, as a criterion for measuring research outcomes’ (Ram- Eight are resource rich, whereas most of the other univer- sden 2003b: 2). sities are not. A table compiled by Campus Review (2006) Finally, while it is clear that the CEQ (and GDS), if used shows that the total revenue per equivalent full-time student appropriately, may measure something, and that this some- unit is many thousands of dollars higher at the Group of Eight thing is related to the quality of teaching and learning, it is not than at other universities. Moodie (2005: 9) argues that per- altogether clear what the something may be. Neumann et al. formance on current university rankings are a direct measure (2002) argue that the process of teaching and learning that of institutional resources at each institution. This reflects the occurs across different disciplines is not the same. They argue LTPF outcomes as well.7 that ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ and ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ disciplines are It is clear that the use of the CEQ and the GDS in the LTPF (broadly speaking) distinguished by the social purpose of the are extended beyond that which is appropriate. The CEQ discipline, the structure of knowledge, the cognitive demands and the GDS may be appropriate as one source of informa- made on students, the kinds of outcomes that are expected, tion, but this must be contextualised by broader forms of and associated teaching and learning and assessment prac- evidence, and this is the only valid way in which it can be tices. They argue that: used. Ramsden (2003b: 7–8) argues that the CEQ and GDS The clear implication is that to ignore disciplinary differentiation – a results should not be considered ‘in isolation, but always in seemingly inevitable tendency in institution-wide assessment regula- association with other sources of information.’ This includes tions – may serve seriously to undermine the main learning objectives qualitative data from students, employers, accreditation and the intrinsic requirements for effective educational programmes bodies and overseas partners. He says comparisons must be in particular knowledge areas. (Neumann et al. 2002: 414) appropriate, for example, through benchmarking with other, They argue that blindness to these differences across dis- similar universities. Only substantial differences should be ciplines can result in inequitable or false judgements, yet reported, which ‘can be explained with reference to some standard questionnaires (such as the CEQ) are based on the specific intervention’ (Ramsden 2003b: 7). This enables uni- assumption that the questions seem to be asking the same versities to understand the impact of specific changes. He thing of students, regardless of their discipline. In contrast, says that his most important rule is this: ‘Whether writing an they argue that observed outcomes across the disciplines may account of a QA process or assessing its effectiveness, focus be a consequence of epistemological and cultural factors asso- vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan 35 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

ciated with the intrinsic differences between the disciplines. disciplines because of intrinsic differences in knowledge Survey instruments that measure graduate outcomes similarly structures, academic identities, orientations to knowledge, fail to take into account disciplinary differentiation, because cognitive demands, and teaching and learning and assessment there is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that employability practices. In other words, we need measures that account for, and job status are affected by ‘the characteristics of the related explore and promote diversity, not measures that exclude all degree subjects, [yet] quality assessment agencies continue to that it is important from consideration. treat them as valid indicators of the intrinsic merit of degree programs’ (Neumann et al. 2002: 415). The marketisation & surveillance of higher Clegg and Ashworth (2004) also explore the relationship education between learning outcomes and disciplinary understandings. Their focus is on the idea (firmly entrenched in policy in Eng- The LTPF may not be a valid or reliable instrument to improve land and in Australia) that the notion of learning outcomes teaching and learning in higher education, but it is very can be universally applied in ways that are transparent and effective as part of a broader suite of strategies and reforms unproblematic. However, their argument also applies to qual- designed to increase the marketisation of higher education, in ity assurance mechanisms that homogenise the disciplines, which relations between students and universities are based and arguments that quality assurance outcomes provide us on a consumer/service provider model. As well as the LTPF, with ‘objective’ and transparent data about those disciplines. universities must implement quite detailed staffing and qual- Induction into the disciplines and into inter-disciplinary pro- ity assurance arrangements that meet the Commonwealth’s grams results in the formation of quite different academic requirements. The Commonwealth has also introduced public identities and epistemological approaches (Bernstein 2000). funding to private higher education providers, income-contin- Clegg and Ashworth (2004: 58) explain that the ‘customer ori- gent loans schemes for private higher education fees and other ented judgements’ that underpin newer fields in higher educa- competitive arrangements that force universities to compete tion ‘are not necessarily at odds with disciplinary knowledge’, with each other and with the growing number of private pro- but they ‘do represent a re-ordering’ of disciplinary knowledge viders. The Commonwealth has also tied funding increases and the way it is used. A universal discourse of quality assur- to detailed regulation of universities’ governance and their ance and learning outcomes is based on positivist notions that employment relationship with their staff, and this includes the different kinds of outcomes and disciplinary ways of knowing requirement that universities offer their staff individual work- can be represented in universal, transparent, and unproblem- place agreements as an alternative to collective bargaining. atic ways. They explain that: Ball (2003: 215) explains that education reform in England Academics as scholars in the humanities and social sciences have (and in Anglophone nations such as Australia) is: ‘…embedded been grappling with issues of representation and epistemology for in three interrelated policy technologies; the market, manageri- centuries, yet in their pedagogical practice they are being invited to alism and performativity.’ Together this ‘package’ overrides the set aside these concerns and operate within crude positivist formula- ‘older technologies of professionalism and bureaucracy’ char- tions based on ideas of transparency. (Clegg and Ashworth 2004: 60) acteristic of public systems and the ‘state-centred, public wel- To summarise the argument thus far: the indicators in the fare tradition of educational provision’ (Ball, 2003: 215-216). LTPF are not valid and they are not reliable. They do not meas- He argues that these three technologies ‘play an important ure what they say they measure, and we may get quite differ- part in aligning public sector organizations with the methods, ent results should the exact same process be repeated because culture and ethical system of the private sector’ (Ball, 2003: differences that are not significant and could have been the 216). This helps us to understand that market mechanisms are result of chance are used to construct lists of winners and being used to discipline universities, to elicit competitive and losers, where the winners take all. The existence of the LTPF entrepreneurial behaviour. Ball (2003: 216) explains that: will not raise teaching to the same status of research, because Performativity is a technology, a culture and a mode of regulation the amount of money expended on the Fund is only a fraction that employs judgements, comparisons and displays as means of of the funds allocated to research. However, the amount is suf- incentive, control, attrition and change based on rewards and sanc- ficient to drive institutional behaviours to compete for funds, tions (both material and symbolic). sometimes through game-playing, and at other times through fostering behaviours that reduce rather than increase diversity Neoliberal reform to higher and other areas of public pro- within higher education. vision is based on the belief that markets are the only way There may be a limited role for measures such as the CEQ to overcome the problem of ‘producer capture’ in which aca- and GDS, but only when the data is used in appropriate ways demics run universities for their own interests and not in the and as it was intended. We need to consider the possibility interests of students, employers, government or the economy that the CEQ and GDS measure different things in different more broadly (Olssen and Peters 2005). Student evaluation of

36 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

teaching, the specification of learning outcomes (so the ‘cus- and Moore (1995: 81) explain that educational policy must be tomer’ knows what they are buying), performance appraisals, located within the political context in which it arises. While and quality assurance mechanisms are part of a transformed educational policy may draw from educational theories, includ- institutional culture oriented to markets, measured through ing progressive, student-centred approaches this is always external performance indicators, and associated with visibility selective: the ‘political and policy context act selectively upon and audit (Avis 2000: 41). They all result in indicators that can the realisation of the various possibilities suggested by differ- be homogenised, compared, ranked, made ‘transparent’, and ent approaches …Whether it is the controlling or emancipa- summarised as part of providing ‘the market’ with the informa- tory possibilities that come to be realised will be settled not tion it needs to make informed purchasing decisions. by theoretical or definitional debates but within real world, Government policy changes have resulted in securing the institutional contexts…’ (Jones and Moore 1995: 81-82). The right of ‘management to manage’ in a policy environment of real world, institutional policy context acts by selectively bor- external accountability, audit and targets. This has resulted in rowing from other discourses and constructs ‘an approach transformed relationship between academics and university appropriate to the particular objectives of the agency assem- managements, based on conditional trust for those who are bling it’ (Jones and Moore 1995: 83). ‘successful’ and performance management for those who are This is what has happened in Australia with the LTPF. It not (Avis 2003: 326). Those who embrace the new market has transformed student-centred notions of evaluating teach- orientation are rewarded through individual performance ing, improving outcomes and helping disadvantaged students appraisals or awards for ‘best’ performance through compet- access the structures of disciplinary knowledge into measures ing with others, while those who lag behind are disciplined that are quite different. Student satisfaction is now a proxy for through processes of audit and accountability mechanisms. quality of teaching and learning. Student outcomes such as Avis (2003: 322) explains that ‘All staff across an institution access to further study and full-time employment reflect the should share a similar ‘vision’ and ‘buy’ into and accept unre- background students have when they enter university, and the flexively, given notions of excellence and continuous improve- extent of institutional wealth of the university they go to. Suc- ment.’ This includes the construction of students as consumers, cess and retention are similarly measures of students’ cultural and the notion that students and employers can articulate stu- capital and social capital, as well as institutional resources. dents’ learning needs (Avis 2003: 322). However, we are not just expected to (however reluctantly), comply with external Conclusion requirements, we are meant to internalise and ‘own’ these goals as our own. Ball (2003: 217) explains this as follows: The LTPF will do little to improve teaching and learning in Within this ensemble, teachers are represented and encouraged to Australian universities. Indeed, it is more likely to foster insti- think about themselves as individuals who calculate about them- tutional game-playing and conformity between universities. selves, ‘add value’ to themselves, improve their productivity, strive for The Fund is designed to stratify and differentiate the higher excellence and live an existence of calculation. education ‘market’. The indicators used to measure teach- ing and learning performance are not valid, and they are not The marketisation discourse has also co-opted progressive reliable. The CEQ and GDS have a place in improving teach- student discourses of student-centred learning and recontex- ing and learning, but only as an element contextualised by a tualised these as part of a discourse of customer responsive- much broader and richer framework that draws on multiple ness. Practices that sought to make learning more transparent sources of evidence. If the Government were serious about for students who do not have generations of cultural capital creating differentiation amongst universities it would reward behind them have been transformed into tools of surveillance universities for focussing on their specific institutional mis- and control. Formative and collaborative student evaluations of sions, particularly when this includes providing access for stu- teaching have been transformed into compulsory and public dents traditionally excluded from higher education. However, evaluations used in performance reviews and other account- the LTPF punishes universities for having these students, and ability frameworks. For example, at one university I know of, rewards the already privileged Group of Eight universities for staff are required to include the outcomes of student evalua- their good fortune in recruiting students who already have tions of their teaching in their course outlines, and to explain high levels of cultural capital and social capital. the measures they are planning to implement to improve their teaching. This is a ‘confessional’ culture intrinsically linked to Leesa Wheelahan is a senior lecturer in adult and vocational continuous improvement discourses. education in the Faculty of Education at Griffith University. Jones and Moore (1995) provide insights into the way in Her main research interests are lifelong learning, the rela- which progressive, student-centred learning discourses have tionship between the sectors of post-compulsory education, been transformed into a customer-service orientation. Jones and the role of knowledge in the curriculum. vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan 37 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Clegg, Sue and Ashworth, Peter (2004) Contested practices: learning Acknowledgements outcomes and disciplinary understandings, in Satterthwaite, Jerome; Atkinson, Elizabeth; and, Martin, Wendy (Eds.), The Disciplining of Edu- I am extremely grateful to Gavin Moodie for his advice, suggestions, cation: New languages of power and resistance, Staffordshire: Trentham information, ideas and discussions in writing this article, although I take Books. full responsibility for the paper’s argument. I am also grateful to the reviewers for comments they made on an earlier draft of this paper. Department of Education Science and Training (2004) Learning and Teaching Performance Fund Issues Paper, April, Canberra: DEST Department of Education Science and Training (DEST) (2005a) Higher Endnotes Education Funding Report 2004-05, Canberra: DEST, http://www.dest. gov.au/sectors/higher_education/publications_resources/profiles/high- 1. The Carrick Institute is not involved in implementing the Learning ered_annual_report_2004_05. and Teaching Performance Fund, as it is administered as a DEST DEST (2005b) Learning and Teaching Performance Fund 2006 Admin- program (DEST 2004: 5). istrative Information for providers, Canberra: Teaching and Learning 2. An additional $3.029 million was allocated under the Regional Pro- Unit, Higher Education Group, DEST. tection Scheme in 2005 to protect small, regional universities from DEST (2005c) Learning and Teaching Performance Fund Future Direc- losses they may incur under the other schemes. tions Discussion Paper, December, Canberra: DEST. 3. Although, there are safety nets for the IGS and the RTS, which DEST (2006a) Learning and Teaching Performance Fund Administra- mean that even if a university’s performance falls, they will not tive Information for Providers 2007, August, Canberra: Teaching and lose more than 5% funding under the IGS and the RTS for that year Learning Unit, Higher Education Group, DEST. (DEST 2005a: 77). DEST (2006b) Learning and Teaching Performance Fund Advisory 4. Bond University, the University of Notre Dame, and the Melbourne Group Report to the Minister June 2006, June, Canberra: DEST. College of Divinity are all Table B providers under the Act. Griffith University (2005) Contextual Statement to the Learning and 5. Ramsden uses the term ‘gamesmanship’ here, and cites Stephen Teaching Performance Fund, Brisbane. Potter as the originator of the term. Griffith University (2006) Submission to the Learning and Teaching Per- 6. Of all the non-Group of Eight universities awarded funding, none formance Fund Discussion Paper - Future Directions, Brisbane. were in the top half of the biggest universities. In 2004, AMC had 340 EFTSL, Canberra had the smallest number of EFTSL of all universi- Guthrie, Bruce (1998) CEQ methodology, in Hand, Terry and Trembath, ties, Ballarat the 5th smallest, ACU the 8th, Murdoch 10th, UNE 11th, Kerry (Eds.), The Course Experience Questionnaire Symposium 1998, Swinburne 12th, and Wollongong the 18th smallest number of EFTSL. Canberra: Evaluations and Investigations Programme, Higher Education Moreover, most of these universities had most of their students on Division, Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. their main campus. The average for the sector was 78% of students Hand, Terry; Trembath, Kerry; and, Elsworthy, Phil (1998) Enhancing on the university’s main campus. With the exceptions of Swinburne, and Customising the Analysis of the Course Experience Questionnaire, which had 73% of its students on its main campus, and Ballarat, October Canberra: Evaluation and Investigations Programme, Higher which had 76%, UNE 99%, Canberra 98%, Murdoch 93% and Wol- Education Division, DEETYA. longong 92% of students on their main campus. ACU is in a different category, as its campuses are spread across states, and they are not Jones, Lynn and Moore, Rob (1995) ‘Appropriating Competence: the required to share resources in the same way, as are other multi- competency movement, the New Right and the ‘culture change’ project,’ campus universities. A Griffith University (2005: 2) also points out that British Journal of Education & Work 8(2): 78-92. universities with highly dispersed student populations did relatively Marginson, Simon (1993) Education and Public Policy in Australia, poorly in the LTPF. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 7. Or, as illustrated in footnote 5, a reflection of small size and a rela- Marginson, Simon (1997) Markets in Education, St Leonards: Allen & Unwin. tively high concentration of students on the university’s main campus. Moodie, Gavin (2005) What’s wrong with university rankings, Australa- 8. See Bernstein (2000) for the most theoretically developed account sian Association for Institutional Research 2005 forum, Melbourne. of these differences. Moodie, Gavin (2006) ‘Highlight diversity’ in The Australian Higher Education Supplement, July 19, p. 31. References Nelson, Brendan (2003) Our Universities Backing Australia’s Future, Canberra. Australian Vice-Chancellors’ Committee and Graduate Careers Council of Australia (2001) Code of practice - for the public disclosure of data Neumann, Ruth, Parry, Sharon and Becher, Tony (2002) ‘Teaching and from the Graduate Careers Council of Australia’s Graduate Destination Learning in their Disciplinary Contexts: a conceptual analysis,’ Studies in Survey, Course Experience Questionnaire and Postgraduate Research Higher Education 27(4): 405-417. Experience Questionnaire, January, Canberra: http://www.avcc.edu. Olssen, Mark and Peters, Micahel A. (2005) ‘Neoliberalism, higher edu- au/documents/policies_programs/graduates/2003/COP_2001.pdf. cation and the knowledge economy: from the free market to knowledge Avis, James (2000) ‘Policing the subject: learning outcomes, managerial- capitalism,’ Journal of Education Policy 20(3): 313-345. ism and research in PCET,’ British Journal of Educational Studies 48(1): Ramsden, Paul (2003a) Learning to Teach in Higher Education, 2nd ed., 38-57. London: RoutldedgeFalmer. Avis, James (2003) ‘Re-thinking trust in a performative culture: the case Ramsden, Paul (2003b) Student Surveys and Quality Assurance, Pro- of education,’ Journal of Educational Policy 18(3): 315-332. ceedings of the Australian Universities Quality Forum 2003. Ball, Stephen (2003) ‘The teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativ- The Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education ity,’ Journal of Education Policy 18(2): 215-228. (2006) Response to the Learning and Teaching Performance Fund Bernstein, Basil (2000) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity, 2nd, Future Directions Discussion Paper, Sydney. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Stella, Antony and Woodhouse, David (2006) Ranking of Higher Educa- Bishop, Julie (2006) Opening Address to the Higher Education Research tion Institutions, Melbourne: Australian Universities Quality Agency and Development Society of Australasia, 10 July, Perth: Commonwealth Wilson, Keithia L.; Lizzio, Alf; and, Ramsden, Paul (1996) The Use and Minister for Education, Science and Training, http://www.dest.gov.au/ Validation of the Course Experience Questionnaire, No. 6 Brisbane: ministers/media/bishop/2006/07/b002140706.asp. Griffith Institute for Higher Education, Griffith University.

38 How not to fund teaching and learning, Leesa Wheelahan vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Off the radar

The problem of distance-learning in ‘integrated’ degrees

Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman

Just about everyone suspects that the rush to enrol dis- tance-learning students in on-campus degrees tends to disadvantage them. Monir Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman set out to test this intuition, using accounting students as their guinea-pigs.

Introduction and background teaching/learning process’, including writing course materi- als, and teaching through a combination of independent study The recent higher education reforms have seen many Austral- for external students and face-to-face instruction for internal ian universities actively repositioning themselves to achieve students. Figure 1 (p. 42) shows how the integrated system greater competitiveness in terms of attracting good quality works in these Australian universities. students and government funding. The immediate result has Distance education under the integrated system should not been the widespread recognition of the distance education be confused with the ‘open learning’ system. While there is no mode as a way of attracting good quality students who will acceptable definition of open learning, some features of this otherwise not be able to attend formal lectures for a vari- mode of education noted in the literature include the follow- ety of reasons. Many Australian universities have therefore ing (Webberley and Haffenden, 1987, p. 138): adopted an ‘integrated’ model for delivering their programs 1. Study whenever it is convenient, whether at home or at and courses.1 Under the integrated model, external (distance/ work. off campus) and internal (on campus) teaching are integrated 2. Enrol at any time without worrying about previous quali- (i.e. courses are offered both on-campus and externally). The fications. model requires not only the same course material to be cov- 3. Study at a pace which suits the learner. ered but also the same assessment methods utilised to deter- 4. Leave the system in a manner which suits the learner. mine students’ academic performance. However, internal 5. Have access at his/her own discretion to instructor support students get more contact and interactivity with their instruc- and guidance. tors compared to their external colleagues. While open learning deals with students who study entirely Australian universities that have adopted the integrated through the distance education mode, the distinctive feature system have developed a unique staffing structure that pre- of the integrated system is that the external and internal teach- serves much of the on-campus provision for students as well ing is combined. For some courses ‘Residential Schools’ are as meeting specific needs of external students (Keegan and organised for external students to experience some interactiv- Rumble, 1982, p.18; Keegan, 1986, p.156). The academic staff ity with their instructors, albeit, only for a short period of time members of these universities are responsible for the ‘total (usually the entire course material is covered in two or three vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 39 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

ON CAMPUS STUDENTS

Lectures, tutorials, workshops

Learning materials, study guides EXTERNAL FACULTY DEPARTMENT LECTURER STUDIES Assignments DEPARTMENT

Visits, residential school, telephone

Assignments, visits, residential school, telephone

Admissions, records Learning materials, study guides

Services OFF CAMPUS UNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATION STUDENTS

Figure 1: The Australian Integrated Mode (Source: Keegan, 1986, p. 157, slightly modified)

days).2 The Residential Schools take the form of lectures and students whose facial expressions are difficult or impossible tutorials or workshops led by the instructor with the view of to observe. Similarly, Brown and Atkins (1988, p. 10) argued bridging the gap between the two groups of students in terms that a student’s response to a lecture is not only a set of intel- of interactivity with the instructor. ligent notes which may be understood, it also consists of reac- The initial arguments for the Residential Schools derived tions to the lecture and lecturer. from the education literature which argues that the quality The immediate reactions are usually non-verbal signals and of a teacher’s explanations in the classroom (or face-to-face) these may be received, interpreted, and perhaps acted upon teaching would influence both the students’ interest and by the lecturer. A study conducted on the experience of the their ability to develop accurate concepts (see for example external students of the University of Southern Queensland, Entwistle, 1987). Entwistle argues that part of a teacher’s skill Australia, revealed that learning packages prepared for the involves recognising (from facial expressions) when a student external students are not equivalent to or a replacement for does not understand a particular concept or procedure and lectures (NBEET, 1992, p. 15). From these observations it then provide an alternative explanation. This implies that could be argued that internal students should be expected to internal students generally have an advantage over external perform academically better than the distance students.

40 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

The advantage of internal students over external students mode. Given the distinctive features of the integrated system, becomes more pronounced when a subject involves a large we argue that such studies may not fully reflect this unique amount of quantitative problem-solving activities. Moncada and novel learning environment. The theoretical resource, and Sanders (1998, p. 53) in their study on the available aca- that guides our way of seeing in this paper, therefore draws demic support system for accounting students found that heavily on the prior literature and attempts to extend such all forms of direct contact with instructors were perceived discussions as they relate to the integrated system. as the most beneficial type of help available. Teachers can In particular, we start with the equivalence theory of dis- explain different ways of solving a quantitative problem in a tance education in Simonson et al. (1999, p. 70) which, lecture and thereby help students who are facing difficulties. arguably, has major implications for the integrated system On the other hand, a ‘study guide’ prepared for external stu- of distance education. The central argument of equivalency dents will not include different ways of solving a quantitative theory is that education at a distance should be built on the problem. In addition to the advantage of additional contact concept of equivalency of learning experiences of internal hours, internal students have access to the study materials and external students. Drawing on this theoretical position, prepared and designed for external students in an ‘integrated’ distance education system. Therefore, it is also expected that, Table I: Distinguishable Features of Face-to-face generally, the internal undergraduate accounting students and Distance Teaching should outperform external students in terms of their grade achievement. Our objective in this paper is to investigate FACE-TO-FACE EDUCATION DISTANCE EDUCATION whether the grades of internal undergraduate accounting Immediate, personal contact between Contact through communica- students under the integrated system are higher than their learner and teacher tions media external counterparts. Teacher can readily adapt to learner’s Adaptation delayed Our study is motivated by the paucity of studies which immediate behaviour have investigated the difference in academic performance of Learner’s environment is primarily Learner’s environment is the two distinct groups studying under the integrated system. designed to support learning activities designed to serve other purposes (distractors) A literature search (covering the last five years) revealed only two relevant research papers in this area. Waldmann and De Metacommunication between teacher Metacommunication is difficult Lange (1996) investigated the difference of academic perform- and learner is possible ance of distance, open learning and on-campus undergraduate Personal relationships can moderate Personal relationship is of little accounting students at Monash University. Based on the grades learning importance of a first-year financial accounting subject, they observed that Direct control of learner by teacher Teacher’s influence is indirect on-campus students obtained higher examination scores than is possible those obtained by the open learning and distance education Learning materials can be of low Learning materials must be of students. In a later study De Lange et al. (1997) found that didactic standard high didactic standard (well organised, clear, etc.) there was no significant difference between a student’s prior education level and results achieved in open learning. This Learners experience limited degree Learners experience a high of freedom degree of freedom study aims to extend the existing research through investigat- ing the performance implications of the physical separation Wide opportunities exist for imitation/ Few opportunities exist for imita- identification learning tion/identification learning of accounting undergraduate students under the Australian integrated system. The impetus for the present study came Communication need not be planned Communication is usually highly about when the researchers were involved in teaching inter- to last detail planned nal and external students under the integrated system in an Information is provided by a mixture Information is mainly provided Australian university. of cues (personal, content-related, by content and organisation organisation-related) Theoretical issues and the formulation of A high degree of evaluation and feed- A comparatively low degree of back from the teacher is possible evaluation and feed-back from hypotheses the teacher is possible Internal motivation, self-direction, Internal motivation, self-direc- While attempting to provide a theoretical framework for dis- self-evaluation, planning, etc. can tion, self-evaluation, planning tance education, researchers mainly have viewed the teach- be low ability, etc. must be high ing methods from two perspectives, i.e., the distance mode Willingness and ability of learner to Willingness and ability of learner 3 of education and the campus-based system. These prior work without direct supervision may to work without direct supervi- studies have generally examined institutions which are solely be low sion must be high. involved in providing programs under the distance education (Source: Keegan, 1986, p. 124) vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 41 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Previous Orientation to educational studying experiences

Perception of task APPROACH OUTCOME requirements

CONTEXT OF LEARNING: l Teaching l Curriculum l Assessment

Figure 2: Student Learning Context (Source: Ramsden, 1992, p.83)

we contend that whether universities are successful in their ing and performance include the task requirement, orienta- attempt to provide equal learning experience for both internal tion to study and the context of learning (i.e. teaching modes, and external students under the integrated system of distance curriculum and assessment). education is quite debatable. In an earlier work, Keegan (1981, The key question is whether internal and external students p. 116-119) argued that most organised formal education is under the integrated system are differentiable in terms of the carried out in classroom or lecture halls with an individualised above-mentioned aspects or variables of learning outcome. teacher in person imparting knowledge and skills to a group For example, historically, distance education (external studies) of students. Whereas, an essential feature of distance educa- was meant for mature age part-time students who were also tion is that the teaching acts are separated in time and space working. Therefore, the expectation has been that external from the learning acts of the students. Drawing on a German and internal students diverged in terms of their respective study, Keegan (1981, p. 124) provided a list of distinctions educational experience and orientation to studies. However, between face-to-face (campus-based) teaching and distance increased accessibility and availability of distance education teaching (see Table I, p. 43). in recent times have contributed to diminish the differential The table identifies many features of face-to-face education characteristics of internal and external students. The methods that may facilitate enhanced academic performance and learn- of distance education and the methods of mainstream educa- ing outcomes of internal students over their external coun- tion are converging or becoming less distinguishable (Kelly terparts. Therefore, we argue that the proposed equivalency and Smith, 1987, p.2). For example, many fresh high school theory may not fully elucidate distance education under an leavers now opt for distance-based education although they integrated system. may not be working full-time. Students’ academic performance and learning outcome We observe the current scantiness of studies on learning also depend on the students’ learning approach that in turn approaches and outcome in the accounting and finance litera- is significantly influenced by the teaching modes and meth- tures. A review of the recent (during the last five years) litera- ods. Ramsden (1992, p.83) distinguishes between two main ture revealed three studies in this area. Gow et al. (1994) in approaches to student learning: the ‘deep approach’ and their study of students of Hong Kong Polytechnic found that the ‘surface approach’ (see Figure 2). The main difference students’ deep approach to learning declined between the between these two approaches is that students who adopt start of year one and year two but gradually rose in year three. the deep approach to learning seek to gain a clear understand- Sharma (1997) investigated accounting students’ learning ing of the task, concept, or procedure while those that adopt conceptions and approaches to learning and concluded that the surface approach only seek to complete the task require- students’ perceptions of the learning context influence their ments. Ramsden (1992, p. 53) argued that deep approaches learning approaches. Similarly, Booth et al. (1999) observed are related to higher quality outcomes such as better grade relatively higher surface and lower deep learning approaches performance. Other variables that impact on a student’s learn- among accounting students.

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According to Ramsden’s (1992) model, ‘teaching’ is one of the lected for three different years for each level. For example, contextual variables that affect students’ learning approaches. grade information for the 100 level subject was collected for Ramsden (1988) argued that good teaching methods includ- the year 2000; for 200 level subjects for the year 2001 and for ing good rapport with students encourage a deep approach the 300 level subjects for the year 2002. It is expected that to learning. Therefore, as internal students are provided with those accounting students who were doing their 100 level interactive teaching in terms of student teacher communica- financial accounting subjects in 2000, were also most likely tion and interactions (see Table 1) compared to the external doing 300 level accounting subjects in 2002. This would facili- students, they are expected to adopt a deep approach to learn- tate the comparison of performance across the years of the ing and achieve higher performance (Ramsden, 1992, p. 57). same cohort of students. In terms of the demographics of the In the accounting literature, Booth et al. (1999) also observed two sub-groups, while external students included some more an association between a surface approach to learning and experienced matured-age full-time employees, the large major- less successful academic performance. ity of internal students were High School leavers with almost The theoretical issues raised in this section are summarised no previous work experience. as follows: However, we also noted from our interviews that some exter- • The increased accessibility and availability of distance edu- nal students were recent High School graduates who opted to cation in recent times have contributed to diminish the dif- pursue their degrees externally in order to avoid relocating ferential characteristics of internal and external students. to University towns. Similarly, there are also some mature age Especially, student profiles of both the internal and external students that have opted to study full-time internally so the students are similar under an integrated distance education demographics are unlikely to play a significant role in explain- system. ing the differences between the two groups. This changing • As the student profiles under the integrated system are con- demographic trend is elaborated by Jevon (1987, p. 22) when verging, there is little difference of learning approach (i.e. he observed that: deep and surface approach) adopted by the internal and …it is no longer generally accepted that distance education is not external students. That is, the proportion of students adopt- for school leavers. Differentiation by age group shows signs of break- ing deep approach and surface approach will be similar ing down, and this boundary line, which once seemed to separate between internal and external students. distance education quite sharply from campus-based education is • The difference which still exists is the physical separation becoming hazy… of the students from the teacher which affects communica- In all the four universities that provided data for this study, tion and interactivity between students and teachers. Inter- the entry requirements were identical for both groups, includ- nal students have advantages over external students in this ing the general English Language and Mathematics require- regard. ments that applies to all Australian universities.4 There were In translating these theoretical issues into testable forms, no special mathematics requirements for accounting students the null hypotheses are provided as follows: versus students in other disciplinary areas or internal versus H1: Face-to-face teaching supports have no significant impact on external students. the academic performance of internal and external undergraduate In order to identify the universities for the grade informa- accounting students in their financial accounting subjects i.e. teach- tion, the Australian Good Universities Guide was consulted. ing mode and academic performance are independent. Six universities were identified from the list of 38 Australian universities on the basis of their integrated mode of teaching H2: Face-to-face teaching has no impact on the academic perform- of financial accounting subjects. Letters were sent to six Heads ance of internal and external undergraduate accounting students in their financial accounting subjects as they proceed from basic level of the accounting department/school explaining the purpose to higher level subjects. of our research and requesting grade summaries to enable us to achieve these objectives. Assurance was given concerning anonymity of the universities providing data for this research. Data collection and research method All the Heads of Accounting disciplines of these six universi- ties provided the researchers the required information. How- To test these hypotheses, data was collected from six Austral- ever, two of these responses were partly complete, as they do ian universities who offer the integrated mode of teaching not offer 200 and 300 level accounting subjects in a distance for undergraduate financial accounting subjects. The primary mode. Therefore, only grades of the four Universities who have data source was grade summary of one financial account- supplied the complete information were analysed. To ensure ing subject of three different levels i.e., first year – 100 level, anonymity, we avoided using specific university names in our second year - 200 level and third year – 300 level subjects. data analysis (the universities are assigned numbers (e.g., Uni The grade information of these three different levels was col- 1, Uni 2, Uni 3 and Uni 4, for data identification purpose). In all vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 43 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

the four universities, assessment methods were identical for Figure 3: Summary of Grades Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 & Uni 4 combined both internal and external students. Indeed, a single course Level: All 100, 200 & 300 level combined. Year: All 3 yr combined outline is prepared for each course with the same assignment and exam requirements for both internal and external students in all these universities (see also National Board of Employ- ment Education and Training, 1994, p. 104). Our final source of data for this research involved inter- views with students who have experienced both modes of instructions. We identified a number of students who have switched from internal to external and vice versa at one of the universities studied. These interviews ranged from fifteen minutes to one hour in length and were transcribed verbatim to aid our analysis. It is evident from the chart that external students have a Results lower pass rate or higher failure rate than their internal coun- terparts. Therefore, we argue that face-to-face teaching sup- To test our hypotheses we started with chi-square tests to deter- ports do have significant impact on the academic performance mine whether there are any significant differences between of internal and external accounting undergraduate students in the academic performance of internal and external students. their financial accounting subjects. We note that a significant chi-square does not indicate the nature of the difference between the observed and expected Hypothesis 2 Test Results frequencies. In other words it does not indicate which group Tables III, IV, V provide the combined summary of grades of students is performing better. We therefore, developed for financial accounting courses at each of the three differ- charts from the data to achieve this latter objective. ent levels (i.e. introductory, intermediate and advanced). Table III provides grade summary for 100 level subjects, Hypothesis 1 Test Results Table IV for 200 level subjects and Table V for 300 level Table II (below) provides a summary of grades obtained by subjects of all four universities. At the introductory level internal and external students of all four universities in all students are introduced to the double-entry principles their 100, 200 and 300 level subjects combined. with particular attention given to the recording and sum- While a visual inspection suggests some similarities in marising financial transactions in a business environment. grade performance between the two groups, a chi-square test Most of these universities emphasize financial statement revealed a statistically significant difference between the two preparation including computations of cost of goods sold groups at, χ2 (4, N = 3007) = 30.852, ρ < .05, using alpha level and derivation of operating income and an introduction to of .01. The result suggests a rejection of the null hypothesis cash flow statements. H1. Figure 3 (above) provides a graphical presentation of the Topics covered at the intermediate level include account- grade performance (in percentages) of the two groups over ing for assets, liabilities expenses, and owner’s equity cen- the three-year period. tring mainly on issues of recognition and Generally Accepted Accounting Principles’ (GAAP) requirements. Advanced level courses in all the four universities focused on Table II: Summary of Grades accounting for foreign currency transactions and Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined translations, accounting for investments, and con- Level: All 100, 200 and 300 level combined. Year: All 3 years combined solidations of financial statements among others. GRADES INTERNAL EXTERNAL TOTAL At all three levels, highly quantitative skills and No % No % No % procedures are involved with some exposure to theoretical foundations of accounting practice High Distinction 141 8.4 89 6.7 230 7.6 provided at the advanced level. Distinction 25 15.4 207 15.5 464 15.4 A chi-square test was performed on the rela- Credit 303 18.2 250 18.7 553 18.4 tionship between internal and external teaching Pass 566 33.9 364 27.2 930 30.9 modes and grades at 100 (see Table III, p. 48) level subjects and found to be statistically insignificant, Fail 402 24.1 428 32.0 830 27.6 χ2 (4, N = 1355) = 6.537, ρ < .01, using alpha level TOTAL 1699 1338 3007 of .05.

44 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Table III: Summary of Grades Although chi-square test shows there is no sig- Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined nificant difference (statistically) in academic per- Level: 100 level Introductory Accounting Subject formance of internal and external students in their Year: 2000 100 level accounting subjects, Figure 4 indicates GRADES INTERNAL EXTERNAL TOTAL that internal students still have a lower failure rate No % No % No % or higher passing rate compared to the external students. High Distinction 104 12.8 62 11.4 166 12.2 We also performed a chi-square test on the rela- Distinction 147 18.1 106 19.4 253 18.7 tionship between internal and external teaching Credit 158 19.5 111 20.4 269 19.9 modes and grades at 200 level subjects (see Table Pass 200 24.7 108 19.8 308 22.7 IV) and found to be statistically significant, χ2 (4, N Fail 201 24.8 158 30.0 359 26.5 = 917) = 17.773, ρ < .01, using alpha level of .05. Figure 5 (below) provides a graphical presenta- TOTAL 810 545 1355 tion of the grade performance (in percentages) of the two groups over the three-year period.

Figure 5: Summary of Grades Figure 4 (below) provides a graphical presentation of the Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined grade performance (in percentages) of the two groups over Level: 200 level Accounting Subject the three-year period. Year: 2001

Figure 4: Summary of Grades Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined Level: 100 level Introductory Accounting Subject Year: 2000

A visual inspection of Figure 5 indicates that internal stu- dents have a lower failure rate and higher pass rate than their external counterparts. A chi-square test was then performed on the relationship between internal and external teaching modes and grades at 300 level subject (see Table V, p. 49-+) and found to be statistically significant, χ2 (4, N = 728) = 19.342, ρ < .01, using alpha level of .05. Table IV: Summary of Grades Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined Level: 200 level Accounting Subject Year: 2001 GRADES INTERNAL EXTERNAL TOTAL No % No % No % High Distinction 29 6.2 24 5.3 53 5.8 Distinction 60 12.8 76 16.9 136 14.8 Credit 75 16.0 76 16.9 151 16.5 Pass 190 40.6 128 28.5 318 34.7 Fail 114 24.4 145 32.3 259 28.2 TOTAL 468 449 917 vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 45 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Table V: Summary of Grades that as the majority of students taking first year Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined accounting courses are likely to be in their first Level: 300 level Accounting Subject year of university, a period of transition, which Year: 2002 requires significant guidance and counselling, GRADES INTERNAL EXTERNAL TOTAL internal students should perform better because No % No % No % of the interactivity with teachers and colleagues. Indeed, the face-to-face instruction serves as a High Distinction 8 2.0 3 0.9 11 1.5 medium for reducing uncertainty and a source Distinction 50 12.8 25 7.4 75 10.3 of confidence building for first year students. Credit 70 17.9 63 18.7 133 18.3 Our results however, suggest that this was not Pass 176 45.0 128 38.0 304 28.2 the case. A counter-argument is that external stu- Fail 87 22.3 118 35.0 205 28.2 dents’ motivation level is higher when they first enrol for tertiary education. Given that financial TOTAL 391 337 728 accounting courses at the introductory level are not that complicated (compared to intermediate Figure 6 (below) provides a graphical presentation of the and advanced levels), this higher level of motiva- grade performance (in percentages) of the two groups over tion makes up for the lack of interactivity. the three-year period. Nevertheless, the face-face interaction at the introductory level provides the internal students with a relatively stronger Figure 6: Summary of Grades foundation for further studies. With this solid foundation in Universities: Uni 1, Uni2, Uni 3 and Uni 4 combined their university studies, internal students are able to perform Level: 300 level Accounting Subject even better in subsequent years at the university, which again, Year: 2002 is supported by our statistical analyses. As a student remarked: …one of your major problems is the uncertainty regarding the course requirements. You are not sure whether your interpretations of course requirements are right or not and you generally feel inse- cure especially when you are doing it for the first time…Yes, your performance is affected in some sense. You will find that you could always do better. While this observation may apply to distance education more generally, the respondent’s comments are even more important for accounting courses which involve quantitative analyses of scenarios. The differences in foundation between the two groups mirror the performance gap (which remains A visual inspection of Figure 6 also indicates that internal virtually the same) over the three-year window as observed in students still have a lower failure rate and a higher pass rate the results of the statistical analyses. than their external counterparts. Our paper has significant policy implications for university The above analyses suggest a rejection of the null hypoth- administrators. One of the major considerations will be the esis H2. We conclude that face-to-face teaching does impact differential tuition that is charged to internal and external on the academic performance of the internal and external students. We argue that the tuition should reflect the benefits accounting undergraduate students in their financial account- received by these two groups. While it could be argued that the ing subjects as they proceed from basic level to higher level course materials for external students more than make up for subjects. As these two groups of students progress to higher the lack of class room interaction (i.e. the equivalence theory), level accounting subjects, internal students outperform exter- we believe that the substitution is not exact and should be nal students. carefully re-examined. The Residential School concept could be improved through spending more time with external stu- Discussion and conclusion dents, particularly in their first year at the university when the uncertainty and insecurity are at their peak. However, the cost Our analyses suggest that while there is a significant differ- implications and student availability are critical factors in this ence in the performance of internal and external students, policy issue. Increasing the length of the Residential School this is less pronounced in their first year at the university (cf.. would have significant cost implications for universities and Waldmann and De Lange, 1996). It will generally be expected may also create motivational problems for academic staff who

46 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Gow, L., Kember, D. and Cooper, B. (1994), ‘The Teaching Context are already overstretched in terms of their workloads (Kelly, and Approaches to Study of Accounting Students’, Issues in Accounting 1987, p.180). On the other hand, external students may not Education, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 118-130. be able to attend the extended Residential School because of Holmber, B. (1989), Theory and Practice of Distance Education, Routledge, London. work commitments. As a student respondent noted: Jevons, F. (1987), ‘Distance Education and Campus-based Education: …I personally like the Res school. It helps a lot but getting time off Parity of Esteem’, in Smith, P. and Kelly, M., eds., Distance Education at work is the main problem. …Your employer may want you to gain and the Mainstream: Convergence in Education, Croom Helm, London, the necessary skill and university education but they find it difficult pp. 12-23. to let you leave work for long periods since this is usually paid leave. Keegan, D. (1986), The Foundation of Distance Education, Croom I know some students whose employers don’t give them any study Helm, London. leave at all. They attend Res school with their annual leave days…. Keegan, D. and Rumble, G. (1982), ‘Distance Teaching at University Level’, in Rumble, G. and Harry, K., eds., The Distance Teaching Univer- The above observation suggests that there may be a multiplic- sities, Croom Helm, London, p.15-31. ity of explanatory factors for the differences in performance Kelly, M. (1987), ‘Barriers to Convergence in Australian Higher Educa- between the two groups observed. The lack of interactivity is tion’, in Smith, P. and Kelly, M., eds., Distance Education and the Main- stream: Convergence in Education, Croom Helm, London, pp. 175-200. argued in this paper but other demographic factors such as Kelly, M. and Smith, P. (1987), ‘Introduction’, in Smith, P. and Kelly, M., age, marital status, work status and level of commitment are eds., Distance Education and the Mainstream: Convergence in Educa- equally important and cannot be downplayed in a study of this tion, Croom Helm, London, pp. 1-11. nature. However, such factors were not captured in the data Moncada, S. and Sanders, J. (1998), ‘An Assessment of the Academic Support System Available to Principles of Accounting Students’, set that was made available to us because they were either Accounting Educator’s Journal, Vol. 10. No. 2, pp. 44-55. deemed confidential or not collected by the Heads of School. NBEET (1992), Changing Patterns of Teaching and Learning: The Use of Future studies may like to incorporate these variables to fur- Distance Education Materials and Methods in Australian Higher Educa- ther our understanding in this area. Finally, this study might tion, Commissioned Report No. 19, National Board of Employment, Education and Training (NBEET), Australian Government Publishing also be replicated in other discipline areas (particularly those Service, Canberra. that emphasize quantitative or numeric skills) to determine NBEET (1994), Costs and Quality in Resource-Based Learning On- and whether the conclusions drawn here could be generalized Off Campus, Commissioned Report No. 33, National Board of Employ- ment, Education and Training (NBEET), Australian Government Publish- across disciplinary areas. Such an endeavour would certainly ing Service, Canberra. extend the current knowledge in this area. Ramsden, P. (1992), Learning to Teach in Higher Education, Routledge, London. Associate Professor Monir Zaman Mir is a Senior Lecturer Ramsden, P. (1988), ‘Context and Strategy: Situational Difference in in the School of Business & Government at the University Learning’, in Schmeck, R., ed., Learning Strategies and Learning Styles, Plenum, New York, pp.159-184. of Canberra. Sharma, D. (1997), ‘Accounting Students’ Learning Conceptions, Approaches to Learning, and the Influence of the Learning-Teaching Associate Professor Abu Shiraz Rahaman, Haskayne School Context On Approaches to Learning’, Accounting Education, Vol. 6, No. of Business, University of Calgary, Canada. 2, pp. 125-146. Simonson, M., Schlosser, C. and Hanson, D. (1999), ‘Theory and Dis- tance Education: A New Discussion’, The American Journal of Distance References Education, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 60-75.

Booth, P., Luckett, P. and Mladenovic, R. (1999), ‘The Quality of Learn- Smyth, J. (1989), ‘When Teachers Theorise Their Practice: A Reflexive ing in Accounting Education: the Impact of Approaches to Learning Approach to a Distance Education Course’, in Evans, T. and Nation, On Academic Performance’, Accounting Education, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. D., eds., Critical Reflections on Distance Education, The Falmer Press, 277-300. London, pp. 197-233. Brown, G. and Atkins, M. (1988), Effective Teaching in Higher Educa- Waldmann, E. and De Lange, P. (1996), ‘Performance of Business Under- tion, Routledge, London. graduate Studying Through Open Learning: A Comparative Analysis’, Accounting Education, Vol. 5, No.1, pp. 25-33. De Lange, P., Waldmann, E. and Wyatt, K. (1997), ‘Personal Characteris- tics and Academic Achievement of Undergraduate Accounting Students Webberley, R. and Haffenden, I. (1987), Skills Training and Responsive- Studying Through Open Learning’, Accounting Education, Vol. 6, No. 4, ness Management, In Thorpe, M. and Grugeon, D., Eds., Open Learning pp. 295-306. for Adults, Longman, pp. 137-146. Entwistle, N. (1987), Understanding Classroom Learning, Hodder and Stoughton, London.

vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Off the radar, Monir Zaman Mir and Abu Shiraz Rahaman 47 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

RETROSPECT Beached

The Cronulla events a year on

David Burchell

David Burchell ponders the aftermath of the events that shook a city, and the academic literature it spawned.

I grew up on the beach. When I was still quite young my and threats, they drove off in the direction of home. An hour family would pack ourselves into the car (an old orange Ford or so later they returned, only to discover I hadn’t realised Cortina) and drive the short distance down to the ocean they’d gone. beach at Manly on the southern fringe of Sydney’s northern On Australia Day this year I found myself back on Manly beaches. Even then finding a parking-spot was difficult, and Beach again. Our family was in Sydney for the day, and while my father would park some blocks away from the beach- my wife and daughter were away visiting friends I took my front, perhaps half-way up the hill. The vinyl seats would be nine-year old son down to Manly in the afternoon – no doubt, burning, and our feet would scald on the burning tarmac as in some sense, to communicate those mysteries of lost youth. we’d gather up our towels and bags. The air was heavy with Nowadays we live in the mountains to the west of Sydney, and salt and the smell of Coppertone. the kids don’t see the water often. When he visits the beach Then as now the beach-front at Manly had a lazy, slightly my son becomes enraptured – somewhat to the amusement of dilapidated air. The Victorianate picnic-huts were peeling the beach-hardened locals. He’s not a strong swimmer, but he back to raw wood, and even then the pine trees looked old hurls himself about in the expiring waves at the water’s edge and baked. When we got to the Esplanade, overlooking the like a chip off the old block. beach, the bitumen would turn into a zig-zag of crazy paving, When I was a kid Australia Day was just another public holi- on which we’d jump from one shape to the next. The con- day, with the added convenience that it stood in late summer, crete steps leading down to the beach always seemed to dis- providing an extra opportunity for a family beach outing. This appear mysteriously into the sand. On the beach itself the year, on the other hand, Australia Day seemed loaded with myriad family groups had gathered their possessions around emotional freight – perhaps even with a touch of menace. them, with orderly lines of towels marking their territory. Half- After we’d parked the car at the foot of the hills above Manly, expired sandcastles subsided in the tide, and eddies of white my son and I waited to cross the road, and watched several car water sparkled on the sand. fulls of young men darting by, with the national flag billowing I was in love with the ocean, and my parents had a singularly from their windows. The young man in the front passenger hard time of it getting me out of it. I’d throw myself against seat of the last car looked at me intently, as if trying to divine the waves, as though tackling a footballer, and dive under my response to the sight of the flag. Was I a patriot or not? them through the sandy water to the other side, keeping my We walked across to Manly’s ocean beach through the obsta- eyes open to watch the shadows of the waves and sun on the cle-course of a roadside fair, the carts brimming with local ocean floor. From an early age I was caught up in the mystery knick-knacks, home-made goods and tourist fare. Little national of why one wave would carry you in to the shore, while the flags buffeted on the breeze above each of the carts, and on next would simply melt away behind you. I’d be in so long my their extremities. Some Japanese tourists passed us heading skin would be wrinkled. One day, tired of repeated injunctions away from the beach – and each of them was carrying a little

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flag, too, held upright at chest height like an offering. On the tempt of the more worldly professions, just as were Burton’s Corso, the main drag, many of the young people had their contemporaries in the ragged Oxford cloisters. cheeks painted with the flag, and a few had tied flag-pole sized As Burton also well knew, intellectuals are also not uncom- copies around their necks like a cape, in the approved Big Day monly preoccupied with a sense of dread. It may well eat into Out manner. It was a veritable festival of flags – variously rever- their souls, as philosophers have claimed; it certainly eats ent or menacing in intent, according to your point of view. into their analyses. They dread the return of past horrors, or The beach-front was the same old beach-front, and the sand the coming of future dystopias. They are haunted by the geo- the same old sand. The pine trees looked sicker than they once metrical creations of their sometimes too-orderly imaginations had, but they were still living. And the Pacific Ocean hasn’t – ‘neoliberal’ societies cleansed of all morality and beauty, like changed, thankfully. There wasn’t much of a swell, but it came glistening operating-theatres, or bleak security states where in gracefully enough to the shore. civil liberties have been reduced to an empty shell. Their fears Yet there was already a hint of autumnal chill in the air. And not infrequently lack specificity and nuance, because they are in the water I felt another troubling sensation. Several of the shaped not out of humdrum changes of life-style, or altered young men around us had decorated their torsos with patri- daily habits, but rather out of this overpowering sense of gen- otic slogans: ‘100% Pure Aussie’, ‘Made in Australia’, as well as eralised dread. some others best shielded from the eyes of a nine-year old Finally, intellectuals – like artists, poets, and bohemians of boy. Some of the inscriptions seemed almost aggressive, as all shapes and styles - are drawn, more than can possibly be if designed to draw up corporeal battle-lines in the water. I healthy, towards a psychological position of disaffection with worried for some of the young Japanese tourists floundering the mundane world around them. They exercise the weapon about us in the waves. of criticism like a scourge. Too easily they can come to alien- After the traditional cold shower I led my son over to the ate themselves from the sphere of unthinking instincts and fish shop for some traditional battered fish and chips. The fish beliefs, quotidian calculations and worldly goods, and to value shop’s walls were lined with old historical photos of the neigh- only that which appears to cut against the grain of the untu- bourhood in the early years of amateur photography – the tored perception. In their hearts they cleave to the dissident, windy uncultivated sand hills, the bathers clambering through the outsider, the so-called ‘Other’ – but in a manner that itself the waves in their neck-to-knee dress, the grand old houses too often becomes reflexive, as if Otherness itself were a kind on the uncluttered streets. In retrospect it seems a promising of virtue. time, when the national identity was still inchoate and ten- The academic controversy that has unfolded since the Cro- tative, and when a militantly defensive assertion of national nulla events of a year and a half ago has demonstrated each of feeling was as yet unnecessary, because the nation was still these impulses in varying degrees. The intuition that racism coming into being. I felt a curious pang of nostalgia for an age is always lurking beneath the surface of the human psyche, which expired long before I was born. always threatening to irrupt. The fear that it is the untutored who are most subject to this affliction. The dreadful memories A sense of dread of the early twentieth-century dictatorships, retained in the mind’s eye so that they seem almost to hang over our bleached Some four hundred years ago the English vicar and Oxford beach-fronts like a grey cloud. The emotional cleaving towards scholar Robert Burton mused upon the ‘humours’ that have the ‘subaltern’, the subordinate, the ‘other’ – those who, it is caused so many scholars to assume an unusually bleak view of believed, also experience society as outsiders, albeit in a way the world. Some of his reflections have been overtaken by the that is equally instinctual rather than cultivated. passing of the ages. The late-medieval academy knew noth- The asylum-seeker controversy of a few years ago was per- ing of performance measurement, research quantums or the sistently haunted by the spectre of Nazi Germany. As critics myriad other small thorns under the contemporary academic voiced their despair over the state of public opinion – of the saddle. (On the other hand, we know nothing of studying in ‘infantilised’ masses, and the spineless politicians who ‘pan- smoky candlelight.) dered’ to them (in one prominent commentator’s words) – it Yet a surprising number of Burton’s symptoms persist. was if they had always in their mind’s eye those nightmarish Too many scholars, as in Burton’s day, still oscillate restlessly scenes out of Triumph of the Will where earnest and sensibly- between the poles of ‘overmuch study’ and ‘discontent and dressed German citizens scream their support for Hitler like idleness’. Too many, now as then, ‘live a sedentary, solitary participants in some Aztec cult of sacrifice. Australia Day 2007, life… free from bodily exercise, and those ordinary disports with its sullen displays of flag-worship, could easily arouse the which other men use’ to free themselves from the mental bur- same nightmares. Look at any of your fellow-citizens at such a dens thrust down upon them by their work. Too many are time – particularly those with bleached hair and suntans, almost troubled by the discomforts of shabby gentility, or the con- too healthy-looking – and at a pinch you can see the same faces vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Beached, David Burchell 49 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

again. Their bland confidence, so far from defusing the compar- Intellectuals, like politicians, love battle-lines: they clarify a ison, only seems to strengthen it. Didn’t those hearty Nurem- disorderly world. And yet to enter a war like this as a friend or berg hausfrauen look just as untroubled and innocent? enemy doesn’t make you a Resistance-fighter. More likely it And so on the way home from the beach on Australia Day I simply serves to give those fleeting lines drawn in the sand a wrestled with my emotions, just as my son struggled with his kind of spurious permanence. The flag-cult of 2007 isn’t nec- dissolving ice-cream. Manly was no longer ‘seven miles from essarily a harbinger of some dark future. More likely it’s merely Sydney, but a thousand miles from care’, as the old-time tour- a waystation on the route to some more complicated image of ist posters had it. Rather, our troubles and anxieties about the national identity, in which even the meaning of a public holi- nature of ‘true’ patriotism, and the meaning of the flag, were day on the beach may have to be renegotiated. just as visible there as they were seven miles away, at the turn- stiles of the Big Day Out concert, where organisers and patrons David Burchell is a senior lecturer in humanities at the Uni- seemed to have set each other at war over that same antique versity of Western Sydney and is Chair of the AUR Board. ensign. And yet, albeit with some difficulty, I succeeded in quell- ing my fears sufficiently to enjoy my battered calamari.

REVIEWS Remembering the nineties

The Longest Decade by George Megalogenis Scribe, Melbourne, 2006, 352pp, ISBN 192076979X Review by Andrew Nette

I must confess to having a particular fascination with how good vantage point from which to offer insights on how we Australia changed in the nineties. This is a result of spending as a nation have changed or makes him particularly divorced most of the decade overseas and hence observing events in from the recently re-discovered and much hyped ‘everyday’ my home country as a stranger for much of that time. Even so, concerns of ordinary Australians. I am now starting to wonder whether there is anything left There is certainly nothing particularly unique about The to say on this period that has not already been covered in the Longest Decade. Megalogenis concludes that despite some myriad of books that have appeared on the subject by political key differences in areas such as reconciliation and the repub- insiders and broadsheet commentators. lic, Keating and Howard had more in common than not. The Longest Decade by George Megalogenis is the latest Both were firm believers in upward economic mobility and in this long line of books attempting to chart the break neck supported engagement with the region, and supported the pace of social, economic, cultural and political change that has economic deregulation as a purifying force. The book draws occurred over the last ten years and divine their portents for heavily on contemporary interviews with Howard, Keating the future. Megalogenis views these shifts through the prism and Kennett but they add little. of the highs and lows of the two dominating individuals of Much of the book is a sort of greatest hits compilation of the political landscape, Paul Keating and John Howard. While the significant moments over the decade. There is the reces- a number of supporting characters get their fifteen minutes of sion ‘that Australia had to have’, Keating’s victory over Hawke fame along the way, chief among them Victorian Premier Jeff and the clash between the Coalition’s ‘Fightback’ package and Kennett, it is the Paul and John show that remains the central Labor’s ‘One Nation’ strategy, which was really about degrees focus for most of the book. of deregulation and how these were sold. This is followed Megalogenis spent nearly the entire nineties working for The by the 1993 election which was lost to the Coalition after Australian newspaper in the Canberra press gallery. Depend- Hewson failed to correctly answer how much a birthday cake ing on your perspective, this is either gives him a particularly would cost with GST.

50 Remembering the nineties, Review by Andrew Nette vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

There is an extensive section covering the fight over Mabo tualise what they mean. While the economic causes of the and Native Title, which illustrates just how morally duplicitous recession of the early nineties have been well documented, and venal many in the Coalition were and continue to be in less written about has been the way in which it helped break deliberately misrepresenting the debate in relation to these down gender roles in Australian society and saw women start vital issues. Howard’s 1996 victory and his first budget are to outpace men in the labour market, even if they continued dealt with extensively. Megalogenis is nothing if not self-reflex- to be paid less. ive, however, and is quick to point out how the media’s obses- For Megalogenis, this is symbolised by the passing of Hawke, sion with the issue of the broken election promises completely ‘the last Prime Minister to resonate as a typical Australian male’ blinded them to the Budget’s wider ramifications, particularly and films like Muriel’s Wedding and its subversive comments increased funding to private schools (with funds diverted from on male and female gender roles. As for the blue collar men cutting $1 billion from higher education), and tax rebates for retrenched during the recession we had to have, many took families and singles that chose private health insurance. their pay-outs and used them to set themselves up as inde- There is too much detail in some of the events, such as pendent contractors, shifting their voting allegiance to the the political and economic horse trading over the GST, and Coalition in the process. Among the other trends to which the nuances involved in various tax and spending policies. the book brings genuinely fresh angles, are the rise of Bris- Howard’s actions in relation to the Tampa, East Timor and Iraq bane and what this has meant to for the ritualised competition are also examined, but Magalogenis has little new to add to the between Sydney and Melbourne, our shifting attitudes to race, deluge of writing that has already appeared about these more and our obsession with real estate. contemporary events. What emerges from the book is a nation more complex in In the process, the book charts the rise of some of the more terms of ethnicity and gender, one that has enjoyed a 15-year eco- unfortunate developments in our parliamentary culture, the nomic boom that has delivered unprecedented personal wealth emerging consensus among our political class that the ‘punters’ to many but failed to secure either social cohesion or a personal either can’t or won’t engage with too much policy detail, and sense of well being. Megalogenis agrees with many commenta- the ruthless use of incumbency to cement political domination tors when he concludes that hanging over all of this is an almost through throwing buckets of money at key voting groups. palpable fear of a repeat of the recession similar to that of the Where the book does come into its own as a history of the early nineties and the wipe out impact that this would have, last decade is the snapshots analysing various social trends that given how over extended we are in terms of domestic debt. are interspersed throughout the book. Megalogenis mostly plays to his strengths when he is synthesising large bodies of Andrew Nette is the National Tertiary Education Union’s statistical and other sources of data and attempting to contex- Policy and Research Coordinator.

Moving with the times

Making and Breaking Universities: Memoirs of academic life in Australia and Britain,1939–2004 by Bruce Williams Macleay Press, Sydney, 2005, 329pp, ISBN 1 876492 14 7 Review by Alex Millmow

Vice-Chancellors are a peculiar lot. Some are as remote as tsars; the long distinguished career of Bruce Williams who was Vice- others have been knock about blokes. Some have been insti- Chancellor of the University of Sydney during the tumultu- tution builders while others engage in micromanaging. What- ous years of the seventies and resumed his association with ever they are, Vice-Chancellors do what Vice-Chancellors have Sydney when he became a member of the Senate in 1994. to do, and that is usually to guide their university onward. For Of all the secular professions economics has, certainly in such a maligned breed there have been precious few books of post-war Australia, provided more than its fair share of univer- Vice-Chancellors, particularly of the Australian vintage. Even sity leaders. Names like Copland, Hytten, Coombs, Madgwick, rarer then is it to have a memoir by one. This book celebrates Black, Melville, Isles, Crawford, and Karmel and, in more recent vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 Moving with the times, Review by Alex Millmow 51 AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

times, Deane Terrell come to mind. It was another economist, over the controversy in a dispassionate narrative defending too, Richard Mills, who held a chair at Sydney University that his stance on the grounds that a new PE department would was at the forefront of an official report into the financing and have led to some economics talent leaving the University. He expansion of Australian universities. That report, recommend- believed that ‘the unstable equilibrium within the Faculty of ing Commonwealth grants as the means to do so, met with the Economics’ was still an equilibrium and should be left undis- approval of Menzies. Bruce Williams falls into that long line turbed. It could be arguably said though that it will be for this of celebrated economist-cum-administrator types and, indeed, and the student militancy of the seventies caused by Vietnam might be the very last of them. that he will be remembered. Certainly the dust-jacket suggests As one of D B Copland’s brightest students, young Williams so, showing Williams surrounded by student protesters and saw his mentor rolled in his bid to become Vice-Chancellor of the effigy of a professor going up in flames. It is hard to recon- Melbourne University in 1938 even after winning the Council cile those stormy times some 30 years ago to now when the vote. It was felt that for all his impressive academic achieve- union building and quadrangle are usually bereft of students ments Copland was not top drawer and because, unlike his by mid afternoon. young protégé, he did have the required amount of ‘charm’. In 1978 Williams mollified student anger by jointly author- Williams, however, was burnt by having a brother killed in a ing the (Williams) Report on Education, Training and Employ- bombing mission during wartime. In the post war age Williams ment which rejected the idea of fees even though Williams, was ‘a lucky Jim’ – and he looked it with the pipe, bouffant was privately receptive to the idea of cost-based fees where and spectacles - and rose quickly to the professoriate with an students made some contribution towards their tuition. He oeuvre in applied economics, especially the role of science has been, of course, proved right in that regard as we have and technology in economic growth. The early part of the gone full circle with the return of the market to university book discusses Williams’ contribution to the literature and education. Williams’ approach to the financing problem of uni- his involvement with British policy making apparatus. It was versities was all about introducing efficiency and economy to experience that he would gladly give to his native country university operations. So proficient was Williams in this area from 1968 onwards. that he could give conference papers on cost benefit analysis An émigré economist for the bulk of his academic career, on the allocation of resources to higher education. He was also Williams won his chair at the red-brick University of Keele in interested on the link between effective management systems England quickly followed by being offered the more prestig- and the nature of the production process. It could be said that ious Stanley Jevons Chair in Economics at Manchester. Williams he successfully put these theories to the test at Sydney. even played a junior part in Harold Wilson’s ill-fated campaign Williams is particularly good on giving the reader an entrée to harness the ‘white heat of the technological revolution’ and and also a history lesson on the grand perennial issue of how modernise the British economy. Williams would later ask the to fund higher education in both Australia and Britain. He pregnant question whether British attitudes to technological offers his views on the policy formulae of the likes of Dawkins, change had retarded their economic growth. He was then Kemp and Nelson. Basically he believes that federal ministers invited to become the sixth Vice-Chancellor of the University have too much power with no cautionary advice flowing to of Sydney in 1968. Undoubtedly, Williams’ background in eco- them from bodies like the old Tertiary Education Commission. nomics helped in making his Vice-Chancellorship a pioneering The university system becomes the plaything therefore of a one but it would also entrench him in some controversy. It all minister with something to prove. Williams has lots of reflec- seemed terribly democratic as Williams as head honcho even tions on the Byzantine world of university governance if that gave lectures in economics and engineering economics. He is your poison. If not, skip to the next digestible chapter. Those swept aside the old fuddy duddies on the Professorial Board intrigued by the background to the Leonie Kramer saga will with a democratically elected Academic Board. find more revelations here though Williams was squarely on However to the political economy (PE) movement still at the Chancellor’s side. Sydney, Williams, 87, is still the arch-villain who refused them Williams also offers his views on the role of the university in any support not least in establishing a department to run the 21st century. He remains optimistic believing that universi- alongside the mainstream economics department. It could be ties have a ‘protean’ quality that makes them adapt to change. argued that Williams brought the troubles upon himself by ini- The scholastic traditions, values and independence of univer- tially appointing a conservative economist to a chair. The con- sities will endure though academe should not act as the con- servative appointee proceeded to appoint another of his ilk to science and critic of society. a second empty chair. Williams then added to the controversy by later rejecting the PE movement’s own candidate for a Dr Alex Millmow is a senior lecturer in economics at the Uni- third empty chair. The PE movement got most of their wishes versity of Ballarat and a member of the AUR Editorial Board. granted but only under a new Vice-Chancellor. Williams skates

52 Moving with the times, Review by Alex Millmow vol 49, no 1 & 2, 2007 THE AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW

Style Style should follow the Australian Government Publishing Service Sub-headings should be typed in lower case, ranged left, with relative Style Manual, Sixth Edition, 2002. importance indicated by A, B etc. References in the text should be given in the author-date style: Single quotation marks only should be used, except for quotes within McCallum (1990) argues... or as various authors argue quotes. All quotes of more than 50 words should be indented and (McCallum 1990; Kenway 1989). placed in a separate paragraph. Page references should be thus: (McCallum 1990, p. 41). Two spaces at the end of sentences. Page references should be used for direct quotations. Dates thus: 30 June 1990. The reference list should placed in alphabetical order at the end of the paper, utilising the author-date system. For a reference to a book: ‘ise’ should be used rather than ‘ize’, eg: organise not organize. McCallum, D 1990, The social production of merit, Falmer, London. Abbreviations should be explained at their first use, when necessary.

For a reference to a chapter in a collection: Male nouns and pronouns should not be used to refer to people of either sex. McCollow, J & Knight, J, ‘Higher Education in Australia: An Historical Overview’, in Bella, M, McCollow, J & Knight, J (eds), Higher Education Figures should be provided in EPS or Excel format, numbered in Transition, University of Queensland, Brisbane. consecutively in the order in which they appear (or are cited). Figures should be drawn precisely and boldly. For a journal reference: Zappala, J & Lombard, M 1991, ‘The decline of Australian educational Photographs and illustrations may be submitted for possible salaries’, Australian Bulletin of Labour, 17(1), pp. 76-95. inclusion. AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES REVIEW UNIVERSITIES AUSTRALIAN

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