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American Transcendental Vision: Emerson to Chaplin Bill R Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 2002 American transcendental vision: Emerson to Chaplin Bill R. Scalia Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations Part of the English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Scalia, Bill R., "American transcendental vision: Emerson to Chaplin" (2002). LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 1165. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/1165 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized graduate school editor of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please [email protected]. AMERICAN TRANSCENDENTAL VISION: EMERSON TO CHAPLIN A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of English by Bill R. Scalia B.A., University of Louisiana at Monroe, 1994 M.A., University of Louisiana at Monroe, 1997 May 2002 Acknowledgments I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my committee members for their guidance, patience, and support during this project. Without their unique skills, this work would not have been the fulfilling experience it has been: Drs. John May, Bainard Cowan, Dave Smith, Ronald Garay, and Miles Richardson. Also, I wish to express my appreciation of the following members of the Louisiana State University English Department for their support: Drs. John Irwin Fischer, James Babin, Michelle Massé, Kevin Cope, Joseph Kronick, Anna Nardo and, again, Dave Smith for his years of timely and invaluable advice. I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge friends and colleagues who have offered generous support: Wolfgang Lepschy, Chad Rohrbacher, Alan Decker, Elena Haltrin, Brett Riley, Judi Kemerait, and Brad Bankston. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the cooperation of the Swedenborg Library, Byrn Athyn College, Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania, and to specially thank mon frère académie, Clark Davis. This work is dedicated to my wife Elizabeth and, with admiration and affection, to Jack May. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgments . ii Abstract . .iv Introduction Transcendental Visions, 1836 - 1936 . 1 Chapter 1 Sampson Reed: A Progenitor of Transcendental Aesthetics . 14 2 Emerson: Regenerating the Eye . 41 3 Nature and Visual Metaphor . 69 4 Dilating the Circumference of the Natural World . 96 5 Emerson’s Poet: A Very High Sort of Seeing . .133 6 The “Poetry of Things”: Motion Pictures . .168 7 Griffith . 195 8 Intolerance and the Aesthetics of Redemption . 231 9 An Emersonian Representative: Chaplin, or the Filmmaker . 273 10 The Kid, The Gold Rush, City Lights: Apotheosis . 296 11 Modern Times: Resignation . 325 Conclusion Adam in the Garden Again . 346 Bibliography . 349 Vita . 357 iii Abstract Ralph Waldo Emerson’s publication of Nature in 1836 began a process of creating a new condition of American thinking, severed from European cultural and intellectual influences. The subsequent lectures The American Scholar and The Divinity School Address furthered this process, calling for an original American literature. Emerson’s writing called consistently for poets with the ability to “see” past the material, apparent world to the world of eternal forms, which shaped nature in accordance with a divine moral imperative. Through this connection, man-as-poet would discover God in himself. In short, Emerson effectively transferred divinity from Unitarian doctrine to the individual, thereby asserting each individual as the center of his own moral universe. Emerson’s prose utilizes visual metaphors to express ideas which escape conventional language usage. The poet, according to Emerson, would have the ability to trace words back to their original associations with things, and thus reveal the true world of facts. His emphasis on seeing (in all aspects of that term) dominates Emerson’s writing and determines an aesthetic which is as much visual as it is verbal. Emerson’s theories found disciples in Thoreau and Whitman, but the most interesting extension of his aesthetic came with the development of the motion picture. In the early twentieth century, D. W. Griffith singlehandedly changed the status of films from sideshow amusements to narrative art. Griffith’s techniques for creating visual narrative were intuitive and inspired from his imagination, an essential quality of the Emersonian poet. Griffith’s own moral imperative was similar to Emerson’s; he envisioned a medium which could educate more effectively than language. iv Charles Chaplin was, from 1920 through 1936, the most recognizable figure in the world because of his unique screen comedies. Chaplin’s enduring character, the Tramp, evokes much of Emerson’s qualities of the poet in that he envisioned the world beyond the apparent, and creatively reconstituted this world in the way Emerson had done with visual metaphor. Chaplin combined the humanism of Emerson with the democratic possibilities of Whitman to create a uniquely American cinema with universal appeal. Chaplin’s body of work remains America’s most logical extension of Emersonian philosophy. v Introduction Transcendental Visions, 1836 - 1936 “What we are, that only can we see.” –Emerson, Nature “The problem that confronts us in dealing with Emerson,” writes F. O. Matthiessen, “is the hardest we shall have to meet, because of his inveterate habit of stating things in opposites.”1 This is a condition of Emerson’s prose style of which he himself was aware. He writes, in Representative Men, “The world still wants its poet-priest, a reconciler who shall not trifle, with Shakspeare the player, nor shall grope in graves, with Swedenborg the mourner, but who shall see, speak, and act, with equal inspiration.”2 In fact, Emerson spent a lot of time and mental energy on the distinction between words and things, between form and content, and between intuition and intellect. In this condition of thinking and writing, Emerson seems to be trying to write about ideas not expressible through language. He is not trying to express any particular idea, necessarily, which escapes language, but rather to discover a reconciliation in terms of form, some method that will allow for such a reconciliation. If such an aesthetic can be determined, then all the questions we seek answers for will no longer need to be asked. Emerson seems to express this condition of language most often in terms of visual metaphors. Emerson’s habit of stating things in opposites, that Matthiessen finds troubling, has a positive aspect: what Emerson reveals in opposing visual terms about his attitudes, and about his expectations, for the poet-priest who might yet be able to solve this problem. Emerson’s expression of opposites in visual terms allows for the image, rather than the word, to take precedence in terms of meaning. The most often used form of Emerson’s visual metaphor will present opposing ideas in visual terms, granting the juxtaposition of images to be worked 1 upon by the imagination, which is, in itself, a component of Emerson’s ongoing philosophy. Or, he may create the image of the impossible, the image that cannot not be imaged, such as the well- known “transparent eye-ball” passage in Nature. In this instance, Emerson simply restates the original problem Matthiessen observes: he describes a visual image which cannot be imagined. Still, as prevalent as the visual image is in Emerson’s writing, he must rely on language to do the actual work. What is lacking, in a sense, is a mechanism for translating language into image. Matthiessen reminds us that “concerned as he was with every possibility of seeing, Emerson was fascinated with the developing art of photography from the time of the invention of the daguerreotype in the late eighteen-thirties. He conceived of the camera as a powerful symbol for his age’s scrutiny of character.”3 Emerson used seemingly every available term to describe seeing, the process of seeing, the processes of perception, insight, the action of the eye itself, the subject doing the seeing, and the object being seen, all in a way to integrate the visual with the intuitive, a marriage he believed would revitalize the connection between man and nature (the God in man). Charles Feidelson reminds us that Emerson’s interest is in “Man Seeing, the mind engaged in a crucial act of knowledge.”4 The term “veil” occurs often throughout Emerson’s writing (as it does in Hawthorne’s; it is perhaps important to remember that Holgrave, in The House of the Seven Gables, is a daguerrotypist), and seeing through the veil was the act Emerson most esteemed. To do so, one must have clarity and precision of vision, an intuitive sense for recognizing the eternal forms of nature imprinted on the “veil,” and the power of the symbol in order to make the eternal forms, the beauty and truth of nature, new to the world, to “create a new thing in nature.” Emerson confirms, in a sense, what Melville’s Ahab most fears - - that to 2 reach through to the truth one must “strike through the mask”; the fear is that “there’s nought beyond.” The only possibility worse than a false God is the realization of no God at all. Whitman, who was “simmering, until Emerson brought [him] to a boil,” extended somewhat, at least in form, Emerson’s visual project. Though Whitman was more interested in what he was seeing than in the way he was seeing it, he nonetheless begins the “great montage project” Sergei Eisenstein refers to; certainly many of Whitman’s verse poems have a visual component. In some, such as “By the Bivouac’s Fitful Flame” or “A Sight in Camp in the Daybreak Gray and Dim,” it is possible, almost irresistible, to annotate the text with camera setups, movements, and transitions.
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