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Analysis Among High-Level Athletes Journal of Human Kinetics volume 59/2017, 67-77 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0148 67 Motivation in Physical Education, Sport and Physical Activity and Health The Prevalence and Covariates of Potential Doping Behavior in Kickboxing; Analysis Among High-Level Athletes by Damir Sekulic1, Natasa Zenic1, Sime Versic2, Dora Maric3, Goran Gabrilo1, Mario Jelicic1 The official reports on doping behavior in kickboxing are alarming, but there have been no empirical studies that examined this problem directly. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence, gender differences and covariates of potential-doping-behavior, in kickboxing athletes. A total of 130 high-level kickboxing athletes (92 males, 21.37 ± 4.83 years of age, 8.39 ± 5.73 years of training experience; 38 women, 20.31 ± 2.94 years of age; 9.84 ± 4.74 years of training experience) completed questionnaires to study covariates and potential-doping behavior. The covariates were: sport factors (i.e. experience, success), doping-related factors (i.e. opinion about penalties for doping users, number of doping testing, potential-doping-behavior, etc.), sociodemographic variables, task- and ego-motivation, knowledge on sports nutrition, and knowledge on doping. Gender-based differences were established by independent t- tests, and the Mann-Whitney test. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were performed to define the relationships between covariates and a tendency toward potential-doping behavior (positive tendency – neutral – negative tendency). The potential-doping behavior was higher in those athletes who perceived kickboxing as doping contaminated sport. The more experienced kickboxers were associated with positive intention toward potential-doping behavior. Positive intention toward potential-doping behavior was lower in those who had better knowledge on sports nutrition. The task- and ego-motivation were not associated to potential-doping behavior. Because of the high potential-doping-behavior (less than 50% of athletes showed a negative tendency toward doping), and similar prevalence of potential-doping behavior between genders, this study highlights the necessity of a systematic anti-doping campaign in kickboxing. Future studies should investigate motivational variables as being potentially related to doping behavior in younger kickboxers. Key words: performance enhancing drugs, martial arts, task and ego motivation. Introduction Kickboxing is a stand-up martial art that (Lystad, 2015). As in other sports with a high allows both punching and kicking and includes prevalence of injury, in which athletes experience techniques from different combat sports (Nassib pain and are engaged in weight-cutting, the et al., 2011). Kickboxing competitions are consumption of performance enhancers, including organized by weight categories and athletes those that are prohibited by the World Anti- frequently engage in voluntary rapid weight loss Doping Agency (WADA) is expected to be high (weight-cutting) (Franchini et al., 2012; Pettersson (Babwah, 2014). However, to the best of our et al., 2013). With a rate of 40 injuries per 1000 min knowledge, no studies have directly investigated of practice, the risk of injury in kickboxing is high this problem in kickboxing. In the meantime, the 1 - University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Split, Croatia. 2 - University of Split, University Sports Federation, Split, Croatia. 3 - Taekwondo Club Energy, Split, Croatia. Authors submitted their contribution to the article to the editorial board. Accepted for printing in the Journal of Human Kinetics vol. 59/2017 in November2017. 68 The prevalence and covariates of potential doping behavior in kickboxing WADA has reported disturbing figures on Nowosielski and Swiatkowska, 2008; Zucchetti et potential violations of anti-doping rules in this al., 2015). sport (WADA, 2015). When studying Polish athletes, the Sports authorities are highly interested in authors reported ego orientation as being evidencing factors that could be related to doping negatively, while task orientation as being behavior in athletes for its potential to contribute positively related to attitudes toward doping (Sas- to anti-doping efforts, with the main idea: (i) to Nowosielski and Swiatkowska, 2008). While control risk-factors of doping behavior, and/or (ii) studying psychological and social correlates of to proclaim and encourage those factors doping attitudes in Italian athletes, other authors evidenced as protective against doping (Sekulic et highlighted extrinsic motivation as predictor of al., 2014). In a study conducted on international- positive attitude toward doping (Zucchetti et al., level tennis players, Kondric et al. (2013) reported 2015). Finally, task and ego goals along with the knowledge on sports nutrition as a protective mastery motivational climate were recently found factor of potential doping behavior. Nutritional to be predictors of attitudes to performance- supplementation is found to be associated with enhancing drugs in elite Scottish athletes (Allen et increased likelihood of doping behavior al., 2015). To the best of our knowledge, there is (Backhouse et al., 2013; Sekulic et al., 2014). Sport no study that has examined the motivational specific variables such as sport-achievement and factors as being potentially related to doping type of sport (individual vs. team-sport) are behavior in martial arts, including kickboxing. differentially associated to potential and current This study aimed to investigate the doping behavior (Rodek et al., 2012, 2013). While prevalence of potential doping behavior, and the most of the studies showed sport-specific, and factors associated with doping behavior in high socio-culturally specific associations between level kickboxing athletes. More specifically, we studied factors and doping behavior, there is a examined (i) potential doping behavior in general consensus that the personal belief of kickboxing, (ii) gender-differences in potential higher doping occurrence in sport is strongly doping behavior and associated factors, and (iii) associated with higher doping likelihood (Kondric sport-related-factors, socio-demographic et al., 2011; Rodek et al., 2013; Sekulic et al., 2016). variables, knowledge on sports nutrition and However, there is an evident lack of knowledge doping, task- and ego-orientation, as covariates of on factors specifically related to doping behavior potential doping behavior in high level in martial arts. kickboxers. The leading hypotheses of the study The main energizing force in sport is an were: (i) significant differences in potential athlete’s need to demonstrate his/hers sport doping behavior and other studied factors (age, competence (i.e. sports performance) (Baric and knowledge on sports nutrition and doping, task- Bucik, 2009). According to the Achievement Goal and ego-orientation, educational level, kickboxing Theory, the need for competence is frequently experience, competitive-weight category, realized throughout the sport competition and competitive-achievement, consumption of dietary self-perception of ability becomes the central supplements, number of doping testing, opinion variable (Baric and Horga, 2007). The athletes’ on doping penalties, opinion on main problem of self-perception of ability is directly modulated by doping, and opinion on occurrence of doping in sport achievement (i.e. sport result), and their kickboxing) would be evidenced between motivation is generally considered to be one of genders, and (ii) studied covariates (i.e. gender the most important factors that shape conditions and previously specified factors) would be and prerequisites for success (Baric and Bucik, associated to potential doping behavior. 2009). Since doping in sport is used to improve performance and consequently to achieve success, Methods it is reasonable to expect that certain relationships Participants between motivation and doping behavior exist. In this cross-sectional study, the However, only few studies actually reported participants were 130 kickboxers (92 males, 21.37 associations between motivational factors and ± 4.83 years of age, 8.39 ± 5.73 years of training doping behavior in athletes (Allen et al., 2015; Sas- experience; 38 women, 20.31 ± 2.94 years of age; Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 59/2017 http://www.johk.pl by Damir Sekulic et al. 69 9.84 ± 4.74 years of training experience) from five knowledge of hydration/dehydration (i.e. “The countries. All the participants were tested in 2014 negative side effects of excessive sweating are best and early 2015. cured by drinking pure water”), and knowledge Measures of nutrition strategies aimed at recovery (i.e. The variables were collected via four “Protein supplementation requires an increased structured questionnaires: the questionnaire on intake of water”), while four items targeted substance use (QSU) (Kondric et al., 2011; Sekulic general knowledge of nutrition (i.e. “Fresh fruit et al., 2008), the knowledge of sports nutrition and vegetables are the best source of high-quality questionnaire (KSN), the knowledge of doping proteins”) (Sekulic et al., 2014). The CTEOSQ questionnaire (KD) (Sekulic et al., 2014) and the consisted of 13 questions evidencing intrinsic (7- Croatian version of the task and ego orientation in items; i.e. “ I would like to continue practicing like sport questionnaire (CTEOSQ) (Baric and Horga, that”), and extrinsic- (6-items; i.e. “I’m able to 2007). The QSU assessed athletes’ execute the task better than my peers”) motivation sociodemographic
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