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Lessons from Children's Television Applied Developmental Psychology 24 (2003) 275–335 Lessons from children’s television: The impact of the Children’s Television Act on children’s learning Sandra L. Calverta,*, Jennifer A. Kotlerb a Children’s Digital Media Center, Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, 309 White Gravenor, 37th and O Streets, NW, Washington, DC 20057 1076, USA b National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA This special issue of the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology is dedicated to our friend and colleague, Rodney R. Cocking. Among the many contributions Rod made to developmental science, one was to advance the media research field. Rod understood the importance of media in the lives of our developing youth as well as the need to embed this research into a broad theoretical context. Although his life was over all too quickly, Rod’s legacy continues. We are grateful for the indelible mark he left on our field. Abstract The 1990 Children’s Television Act (CTA) requires broadcasters to provide educational and informational television programs for children. A multimethod, multidisciplinary approach, utilizing both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, was used to investigate the degree to which the CTA has had an effect on children’s viewing experiences and learning. Second- to sixth-grade children’s pre- ferences and comprehension of content from prosocial and academic programs broadcast by the four major commercial networks (ABC, CBS, NBC, and FOX) were compared to those for similar programs broadcast by PBS and Nickelodeon. Overall, girls and younger children liked educational and informational television programs more than boys and older children did. Girls and older children understood the programs best, particularly the prosocial ones. Over the course of 9 months, however, viewing educational and informational television programs declined, particularly for older boys. Nevertheless, lessons were reported more often after viewing favorite educational than favorite entertainment-driven programs. Results suggest beneficial effects of many commercial educational and informational children’s television programs as well as the value of protections, such as requiring broadcasters to provide 3 h of educational and informational programs each week, to ensure that educational television programs survive in the competitive market place. Such policy decisions * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-202-687-3968; fax: +1-202-687-6050. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.L. Calvert). 0193-3973/03/$ – see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(03)00060-1 276 S.L. Calvert, J.A. Kotler / Applied Developmental Psychology 24 (2003) 275–335 provide our children with access to quality television programs that can improve their social, emotional, and cognitive well-being. D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Children’s Television Act; Educational television; Learning; Social policy Contents 1. Why should we support children’s educational television programs? . 277 1.1. The Children’s Television Act ................... 278 1.2. Educational and informational programming before and after the Three-Hour Rule .......................... 278 1.3. Children’s learning from television programs............ 279 1.4. Developmental differences in children’s comprehension of television content .......................... 279 1.5. Visual and verbal measures of comprehension ........... 280 1.6. The value of program choice in learning: Naturalistic versus experimental paradigms....................... 281 1.7. Summary .............................. 281 1.8. The present research ........................ 282 2. What are children watching on TV? A naturalistic longitudinal study of children’s viewing patterns......................... 282 2.1. Hypotheses for the naturalistic study ................ 283 2.2. Method ............................... 283 2.2.1. Participants ........................ 283 2.2.2. Materials and procedures ................. 284 2.3. Results and discussion ....................... 287 2.3.1. What E/I shows were popular? Reported viewing patterns and reported favorite shows ....... 287 2.3.2. Genre: Animated comedy/dramas, live comedy/dramas, news/magazine....................... 293 2.3.3. Kind of lessons learned .................. 294 2.3.4. Report strength: Clarity, consistency, engagement, and generalizability....................... 296 2.3.5. Relation between the kind of lesson reported and report strength .......................... 299 2.3.6. Viewing information from Nielsen Media Research .... 300 2.3.7. Summary: What we know about the natural television viewing experiences of children after implementation of the Three-Hour Rule...................... 302 3. What do children experience from E/I programs? ............. 304 3.1. Popular and unpopular educational programs: Children’s interest and learning............................. 304 3.2. Method ............................... 305 3.2.1. Participants ........................ 305 3.2.2. Materials and design: Television shows as experimental stimuli ........................... 305 3.2.3. Procedure ......................... 308 3.2.4. Motivation and comprehension measures ......... 308 S.L. Calvert, J.A. Kotler / Applied Developmental Psychology 24 (2003) 275–335 277 3.3. Results and discussion ...................... 310 3.3.1. Motivational measures .................. 310 3.3.2. Free recall scores..................... 313 3.3.3. Comprehension of explicit and implicit content (multiple-choice items) .................. 314 3.3.4. Picture sequencing .................... 315 3.3.5. Relation between educational strength of programs, children’s viewing patterns, and strength of children’s reports ..................... 316 3.3.6. Summary/discussion ................... 317 4. Do children learn more lessons from favored educational than from favored noneducational programs? .................... 318 4.1. Hypotheses ............................ 319 4.2. Number and kind of lessons reported ............... 319 4.3. Summary/discussion........................ 320 5. Lessons from children’s experiences with educational television..... 321 5.1. Developmental and gender differences in children’s interest in educational programs ....................... 321 5.2. Creating an audience for educational television programs .... 322 5.3. Methodological innovations .................... 323 5.4. Policy implications ........................ 324 6. The challenge of sustaining a quality media environment ........ 326 Acknowledgements .............................. 327 Appendix ................................... 327 References ................................... 333 1. Why should we support children’s educational television programs? Beneficial effects of television programs with academic and prosocial messages have long been documented. Preschool children who view academically oriented television programs are often better prepared for school (e.g., Linebarger, Eskrootchi, Doku, Larsen, & Kosanic, 2001; Wright et al., 2001), and are often even better students when they attend high school (Anderson, Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger, & Wright, 2001). Similarly, children who view prosocial television programs are often more altruistic (see meta-analyses by Mares, 1996). For example, children who viewed a prosocial episode of Lassie were later more likely to help an animal presumed to be in distress (Sprafkin, Liebert, & Poulos, 1975) and in another study (Collins & Getz, 1976), children who saw a constructive compared to a destructive model from Mod Squad were more likely to help a peer who was working on a task in another room. In spite of these cognitive and social benefits, commercial broadcasters have overwhelmingly broadcast strictly entertainment programs as their venue for children (Calvert, 1999a). Years of debate and attempts to implement voluntary compliance policies, by which broadcasters were expected to regulate themselves, led to little change in the quality of children’s television programs (Kunkel & Canepa, 1994). This failure and 25 years of pressure by public advocacy groups led Congress to take action and pass the Children’s Television Act of 1990 (Kunkel & Wilcox, 2000). 278 S.L. Calvert, J.A. Kotler / Applied Developmental Psychology 24 (2003) 275–335 1.1. The Children’s Television Act The Children’s Television Act (CTA) linked the renewal of the local broadcaster’s license to airing educational and informational children’s television programs. The FCC commis- sioners defined educational and informational programming as those that have content that ‘‘furthers the positive development of the child in any respect, including the child’s cognitive/ intellectual or social–emotional needs’’ (Federal Communications Commission [FCC], 1991, p. 2114). Broadcasters decided which of their television programs were educational and informational, and indicated that identification on their license renewal forms. The flexibility of the FCC guidelines, in keeping with their dual obligation to enforce the law while protecting freedom of speech, immediately led to controversy about the quality of the programs being broadcast to meet the requirements of the CTA. Researchers who examined broadcaster reports to the FCC often discovered distorted and inaccurate classi- fications of educational and informational television programs (Kunkel & Canepa, 1994). For example, the license renewal form for WDIV-TV in Detroit, MI, listed GI Joe, a
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