the borderwouldfollowwatershed boundaryline delineate theirmutualborderunder theprinciplethat Cambodia establishedajoint commissionto Siam andtheFrenchcolonial authoritiesruling traced backto1904,whenthe formerKingdomof The borderdisputehasalong history. Itcanbe cliff fromtheCambodiansidein2003. from Thailand untiltheconstructionofaroadup front entrancefacesnorthandithadeasieraccess precipitous cliff facingCambodiatothesouth.Its Plateau innortheast Thailand andsurmountsa climbs theDângrêkMountainsfromKhorat On February4 ABSTRACT [email protected] The NewSchool,USA Lily C.Wong Design ofSoutheast Asian Polities in theSpatialConstructionand The ChangingRoleofWater 11 artillery andri exchange of despite thediscussionofwatersustainabilityatregionalscale. urban designofPhnomPenh,Cambodiaasanexample,waterremainstheblindspotfordevelopment, a technocraticallyengineeredcommoditythatissacri The roleofwatershiftsfromaheuristicdevicethatisinterwovenwithpoliticalandterritorialimaginingsto system, modernnationhoodduringthecolonialperiod,andcontemporaryglobalizedneoliberalgovernment. the reignofKhmerEmpirebetween9 sanctuary dedicatedtothegodShiva,builtduring over theclaimofPreahVihear Temple, aHindu wounded. The reasonforthiscon people diedanddozensofsoldierscivilianswere According totheNew York Times, atleastseven th centuries. The temple’s longentrystairway I understanding andcitydesignofthreeconsecutivepolitiesinSoutheast Asia: pre-colonialtributary nvestigating historicalmapsandtexts,thisessaychartsthechangingroleofwaterinspatial fi fl re atthe Thai/Cambodian border. The th e 2011, therewasaforty- fi re continuedforthreemoredays. fl ict isthedispute fi ve-minute th and
fi purporting torepresenttheoutcome ofthework were communicatedtotheSiamese Governmentas was clearfromtherecord,however, thatthemaps statement fromtheInternational CourtofJustice,“It acceptance ofthe1907map. According tothe temple belongedtoCambodia, duetoSiam’s long Court ofJustice.In1962,thecourtruledthat protested andbroughtthecasetoInternational in 1954, Thai forcesoccupiedthetemple.Cambodia After thewithdrawalofFrenchtroopsfromIndochina exercise itspower. area withinwhichanauthoritycanlegitimately zone insteadofalineonmapthatdemarcatesan understood aboundaryashinterlandecotone, was stillvaguetotheSiamese. The Siamese concept ofasurveyed,legalnationalboundaryline the mapforvariousreasons,oneofwhichisthat Siamese authoritiesatthattimedidnotinquireabout complex withinFrenchcolonialterritory. The from thewatershedline,placingentiretemple map producedbyFrenchof along theDângrêkmountainrange.However, the ced inpursuitofmodernization.Usingthecurrent The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities fi cers in1907deviated
Nakhara 11 Nakhara 12 until theturnof20 modern nationhooddidnotexistinSoutheast Asia crafted identity. Ithastobe nation’s historicalheritageaspart ofanation’s self- role ofbuilt-spaceneededfortheconstructiona are stillrelevanttoday. Second,itdemonstratesthe of the1907map,hashistoricalconsequencesthat ambivalence, asdemonstratedinSiam’s acceptance national boundaryisaconstitutiveelement. This to aWestphalian nation-state systeminwhicha a pre-colonialboundlesstributarykingshipsystem essay, Iaimtospeci of modernnationhoodinSoutheast Asia, inmy cartography andurbanplanningintheconstruction 2002; Povatong,2002)haveexploredtherolesof While somescholars(Thongchai,1994; Askew, other words,itwasboth Thai andCambodian. network withoutbelongingtoanynation-state.In shared, boundlesstributaryculturalandreligious might suggest. The Khmertemple waspartofa a coherentlinearprocessassomehistorytextbook a boundaryonmap—whatis calledthe polity. The formerconstitutesanationbydelineating the capitalcityconstitutemodern nationhoodasa government, etc.Nationalmaps andthedesignof kingship, Europeancolony, modernneoliberal different structuresofgoverningauthoritysuchas The organizationallogiccantakevariousformswith structure thatcorrespondstoageographicalbody. word “polity”todenoteanorganizedpolitical urban designsinSoutheast Asian polities.Iusethe role ofwaterinstructuringthegeopoliticslocal This disputecapturestwothings: now. between Thailand andCambodia continuesuntil kilometers territory. Thailand protested. The con Vihear Temple anditssurrounding 4.2square granted CambodiathedesignationofPreah listed. The World HeritageCommitteeinParis despite Thailand’s protestthatitshouldbejoint- applied forWorld HeritagedesignationbyUNESCO, became increasinglycon the ColdWar period. The ownershipofthetemple although itremaineduncontestedduringthebulkof Court ofJustice,1962). This didnotsettlethedispute, error vitiatingtherealityoftheirconsent”(International without investigation,theycouldnotnowpleadany the Siameseauthoritiesaccepted Annex Imap years, theymustbeheldtohaveacquiesced.…If of theSiameseauthorities,eitherthenorformany delimitation; sincetherewasnoreactiononthepart Lily C.Wong at theturnof20 the ambivalenceinshiftofworldviewoccurred th centuryinSoutheast Asia from th fi century. Itsemergenceisnot cally drawoutthechanging fl ictual whenCambodia constructed fi rst, it demonstrates rst, itdemonstrates geo-body because fl ict .
the spatialconstructionanddesignofcity. of PhnomPenh,Cambodia,waterisablindspotin development. As showninthecurrenturbandesign push tothemarginsinfaceofeconomic contemporary transnationalorganizations,itisoften Although theissueofwatergainsimportancein design andtheorganizationalstructureofpolity. will aimatelicitingtherelationshipamongwater, city discussion ofthecomplexhistoricaldevelopments With PhnomPenh,Cambodiaasanexample,my contemporary globalizedneoliberalgovernment. system, Westphalian modern nation-state,and Southeast Asia: pre-colonialtributarykingship the roleofwaterinthreeconsecutivepolities I willchronologicallychartthehistoricalchangeof to acommoditythatistechnocraticallyengineered. is interwovenwithabroadunderstandingoftheworld polities. Itsrolechangesfromaheuristicdevicethat construction andcitydesignoftheSoutheast Asian Water doesnothaveaconsistentroleinthespatial serves asapublicfaceforthegoverningauthority. shaped bybothpoliticalandeconomicalforces, a modernnation,architectureandurbandesign, city-body architecture andurbandesign—whatItermthe The latterconstitutestheidentityofanationin map. Thongchai pointsouttwofunctionsofamap: draw theoutlineof Thailand asitappearsonthe someone todraw Thailand, sheorhewillprobably and foremost,beingdrawnona map.Imagineasking to modernnationhood,fora nation existsby, human beingsandtheirsurroundings. Itisconstitutive objectively, butitisanactivemediatorbetween scienti the geo-bodyofanationiscreated. A mapisnota bounding ofanareainrelationtootherareas,that other words,itisbytheproductionofamap, technology isamap”(Thongchai,1994,p.17).In modern geographicaldiscoursewhoseprime (Thongchai, 1994,p.17).Itis“merelyaneffect of enforcement— onpeople,things,andrelationships” creates effects— byclassifying,communicating,and of anationisman-madeterritorialde In hisbook of geo-bodyisborrowedfrom Thongchai Winichakul. Benedict Anderson— avisualtangibility. The concept inherently animagedcommunityaccordingto capital city. Capitalcitiesgivemodernnations— modern nationhoodandespeciallyresonatesina Both geo-bodyandcity-bodyareconstitutivetothe 1. GEO-BODY AND CITY-BODY fi c abstractionofsomethingthatexists . Especiallysigni Siam Mapped , heargues“thegeo-body fi cant inthecapitalcityof fi nition which fi rst outline ofacountry—signi territorial depiction,anabstractedmap—orthe (Thongchai, 1994,p.138). Taken outofitscontextual more meaningsandvaluesbeyonditsorigin” it isanobjectofreferenceinitselfandcancreate which canevencreateageo-body;asmetasign, “as asign,itisaneffective andactivemediation thus ametasign. A mapsigni necessarily refersbacktotheterritorialde it acquiresanothersetofmeaningsthatdoesnot face. stage, thecity-bodyprovides it withanexperiential map de nation’s power. Whilethegeo-body producedbya to securetheidentityofanation, andtoexhibitthe city-body isadevicetoarouse nationalbelongings, borrowed meaninginthenetworkofsigni another planeofmeaning,or, insomecases, a metasign,theimageofcityalsotakeson is thusaconstructionoftheimagenation. As “national style”. The constructionofthecapitalcity planning devicethatarticulatesasupposedlyunique is composedofspecialmonumentalarchitectureand representing thenationasawhole. The capitalcity nationhood thatthecapitalcitybearstaskof inseparable fromthepolitical.Itisinmodern it wasalsoingrainedwithacosmologicalsigni city didnotmerelyrepresenttheking’s authority, but most importantplaceofthecity. The designofthe body tothecity, theking’s palace isthehead, kingdom, withthekingashead.Projecting human bodywasusedasametaphorforthe by extensionitsimages.Inpre-colonialtime,the the term“city-body”todenotephysicalcityand articulates theself-craftedidentityofanation.Iuse also servesasamanifestationofpolityandthereby identi Using thesamesignifyingstructurethat Thongchai the nextsection. role ofwaterinthegeo-bodySoutheast Asia in new territorialgeo-body. Iwillfurtherdrawoutthe of Southeast Asia inrelationtothede status andlogicofthehydrologicaltributarysystem the geo-bodyofnation,hedoesnotexplicate importance ofEuropeancartographyinimagining between indigenoustributaryspatiallogicandthe Although Thongchai compellingly describesthegap boundless Southeast Asian region. the introductionofEuropeancartographyto geo-body ofanation,fornationonlyemergedafter geography, itnaturalizesthearbitrarinessof by aligningitselfwiththestudyofnatureand nation anditcanalsobethesigni fi es, Iarguethatthedesignofcapitalcity fi nes anationontheinternational political fi es the national map, and es thenationalmap,and fi es whatwecalla fi ed. Furthermore, fi nition ofthis fi ers. The fi fi nition, cance cance terms offorceifnecessary. “A tributaryinevitablyhad suzerain state. The overlordexpresseditspowerin which lesserkingssentannual tributestothe metaphorically todescribeahierarchical systemin tributary politicalsystem uses thismeaning into alargerwaterbodysuch as ariverorlake. A “Tributary” literallymeansariverorstream imaginings inthepre-colonialtributarysystem. Water alsoplaysaconstitutiveroleinthepolitical Ocean ofIn encompassing thecomplexcorrespondsto symbolizes theedgeofworldandmoat correspond tothecontinents. The outerwall Meru. The othertowersthatencompasscenter of thecomplexisacentraltowersymbolizingMount model. Take Angkor Wat asanexample,atthecenter are alsodesignedaccordingtothecosmological colonial water-basedcivilization,buildingsandcities woven intopoliticalandculturalpracticesofpre- (Jumsai, 1988,p.13).Notonlyisthisworldview and urbanplanningtheirneededcardinalpoints” “an elementoforientationthereby, givingarchitecture island-continents intheOceanofIn rings. IntheBuddhistmodeltherearealsofour model hassevenrings,theHindusix rings istheOceanofIn rings ofcosmicoceansandland,beyondthe (Jumsai, 1988,p.13).Radiatingoutofthecenterare Meru, “whichtheHimalayasareinvariablyequated” his book cosmological model. According toSumetJumsaiin in thepre-colonialperiod,sharesame Hinduism andBuddhism,thetwodominantreligions of theworld;itiscentralforterritorialimaginings. demonstrates thatwaterembodiesanunderstanding The con story ofBuddha’s journey(Suárez, 1999). are Buddhistconceptsandsymbolisms;ittellsthe Instead ofgeographical“reality,” showninthemap Sri Lanka.Riversandseasdominatethemap. spans fromwhatisnowadays-northern Thailand to from the Ayutthaya periodincludestheregionthat world. Forinstance,the Traiphum map(Figure1) understanding, sometimesfusingitwiththeprofane was depictedinaccordancewiththecosmological not meanthattherewasnospatialdepiction.Space Southeast Asia beforethecolonialera. Yet, itdoes concept ofnationalboundaries,didnotexistin The modernconceptofamap,andbyextensionthe CITY INPRE-COLONIAL TIME 2. WATER, WORLDVIEW, AND THE fl Naga ation betweenreligiousandwatersymbols fi The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction nity. , atthecenterofmodelisMount and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities fi nity. WhiletheBuddhist fi nity. Itintroduces fl owing
Nakhara 13 Nakhara 14 concertina-like fashion.Eachone containedseveral for security. Mandalaswould expandandcontractin where smallercenterstended to lookinalldirections geographical areawithout precise centerbasedona with separatenetworksoflordship. A polityhada and theMalaysultanateswerealltributarykingdoms pre-colonial kingdomssuchasSiam,Burma,Lanna, Lily C.Wong with hydrologicalcyclesand of thishierarchicalworldorderthatisalsointertwined tributary systemoperatesbyacommonrecognition its owninferiorstatus”(Thongchai,1994,p.82). The to submititselfthesupremeoverlord,recognizing Tamnan MapfromtheTraiphum Manuscript.Thongchai,1994. Figure 1: unstable politicalsituationas avaguelyde “ O.W. Wolters describesa de mandala fi nable periphery, withoutany represented aparticularand often mandala fi mandala xed boundariesand fl ows. Whatwecall fi andavaguely xed boundary. asfollows: fi nable designs ofcitieswereshaped bynaturalhydraulic In additiontothecosmological articulation,the insolence oftheotherkings’”(Fortmann, 1965,p.33). the [moon],torefreshmankind andtodrownthe where thereislittleornone…a reservoirbeautifulas by raisingaholybarragehasmadethewaterto Marda Fortmannpointsout,it“praisestheking‘who is expressedinastoneinscription Angkor, as waters oflife atop MountMeru”(Jumsai,1988,p.21),wholetthe identi Khmer periodwasassociatedwithwater, ashewas 1982, p.16-17). The religio-political“god-king”inthe build uptheirownnetworkofvassals”(Wolters, vassal statuswhentheopportunityaroseandtryto tributary rulers,someofwhomwouldrepudiatetheir fi ed with“Indra’s slayingoftheserpent-cloud fl ow.signi The fi cance ofthe“god-king” fl ow located inthecon River citiessuchas Ayutthaya andPhnomPenhare declined. periods ofabandonmentastheirrespectivekingdom over thecenturiesduetotheirinlandlocationand transformation, astheirdesignshaveremainedintact the sacred experience.Comparedtoothercitytypes, carefully plannedtoprovidetheinhabitantswitha important. The arrangement ofbuildingswas of thegod-king,bothreligiouslyandpolitically corresponds tothecosmology. Angkor wastheseat rectangular cosmological understanding. The temples,walls,and drainage systemisadirectmanifestationofthe surface water. Inadditiontoitspragmaticuse,the hydraulic systemwasusedtocaptureandchannel thus receiveannual are locatedatthe (Figure 2)belongtothe basins ( orthogonal drainagesystemofcausewaysanddiked The model (McGrath,2007). model, therivercon Sukhothai. llustration byDavidReidelandSeher Aziz. Figure 2: along theriver, canbeidenti different citytypes,correspondingtotheirlocation “Bangkok: the Architecture of Three Ecologies”,three conditions. According toBrianMcGrathinhisarticle fl fl ood plaincitiesunderwentanorthogenetic ood plainmodelischaracterizedbyan baray baray ). Citiessuchas Angkor andSukhothai fl formanaxialrelationshipthat fl at terrainskirtingthemountains, uence ofdifferent rivers. They fl fl ood. The intricatenetworkof uence modelandthedelta fl ood plain model. Both cities ood plainmodel.Bothcities fi ed: the fl ood plain and India,entrepôtswere is situatedinbetweentwogreaterpowers:China formed inthemaritimeperiod.SinceSoutheast Asia by thedeltamodel.Coastalcitiesweremostly Closest tothecoastarecitiesthatcanbeidenti colonization. entrenched inpowertowithstandEuropean by thedesignofcity, theKingdomofSiamwas and thesophisticatedagri-urbanismthatareenabled later shaped by European during the colonial period. later shapedbyEuropeanduringthecolonialperiod. coastal areaforChineseandIndianmerchants, 1988, p.164).Fromthebene much ofthetradebetweenIndiaandJapan”(Jumsai, resulting inthecontrolofsouthernpeninsulaand well asthenortherncity-statesandopensea, gained controloveralargefoodproducingareaas military outpostandtradingnodes.“Thecitythen rivers, thuscreatingalargernetworkofcanalsfor also connectedbywaterwaystothesurrounding canals weredugtoreplaceoldones. The citywas underwent manyphasesofrestructuringasnew was dugandturnedthecityintoanisland. The city bow oftheLopburiRiveronthreesides,lateracanal Sukhothai, itwasoriginallysurroundedbytheox- at Ayutthaya (Figure3),thecapitalofSiamafter the localhydraulicconditions.Lookingspeci less ofadrivingforceforthedesigncitythan of suzerainkings. The cosmologicalsymbolismis river astributeswerebroughtupstreamtotheseats were originallyformedasstrategictownsalongthe Ayutthaya. Illustration byDavidReidelandSeher Aziz. Figure 3: The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities fi fi rst establishedinthe t ofinternationaltrade fi cally fi ed
Nakhara 15 Nakhara 16 Figure 5)fromSukhothaiinthe13 moved downstreamalongChaoPhrayaRiver(see instance, thecapitalinSiamesehistoricallinkage ancient ruletothemorerecentcolonialperiod.For corresponds tothesuccessionofcapitalcitiesfrom position ofthethreecitymodelsalongriver It isnecessarytoemphasizethegeographical people” (Jumsai,1988,p.169). fl the canalnetwork,wassaidtocontainsome7,000 “the ChaoPhrayaRiveritself,which,togetherwith fi situated intheinnerringbetweenriverand palace andsomegovernmentalbuildingsare second canal”(Widodo,2004,p.79). The royal defensive wallsandfortresseswerebuiltalongthe became thespatialandsocialstructuringtool…later the formofabow. The half-concentricwatersystem defense ofthecitybycanalsandforti former capitalof Ayutthaya, hebuilt“astrong with anintentiontoreestablishthesymbolsof capital from Thonburi toBangkok(Figure4)in1782, forti networks ofagriculturalcanalandlateradditions in morphology ofthedeltacitiesisshapedbyforeign come, followingtheMonsoonseason. The other tradersfromdifferent partsoftheworldto They livedinthecoastalcitiesordertowaitfor Lily C.Wong Bangkok. Illustration byDavidReidelandSeher Aziz. Figure 4: oating housesora rst canal.JumsaicallsBangkoka fl uences. Whatcharacterizethedeltamodelare fi ed sectors.WhenKingRamaImovedthe fl oating populationof350,000 fl oating city, as th century, to fi cations in
By themid19 among theFrench,Portuguese, British,andDutch. the territoryinSoutheast Asia wasbeingdivided The Frenchmap(Figure6)from 1860showshow part oftheidentityanation. modern nationhood,andcapitalcitydesignbecame worldview wasreplacedbytheemergenceof of thetwentiethcentury, thisboundlesswater-based formation ofthecityinpre-colonialtime. At theturn embodied inpoliticalimaginingandthematerial What Ihavedemonstratedisthecentralroleofwater Asian citydesignlegacy. therefore agenealogicaljourneyintoSoutheast upstream fromthecoasttoinlandcitiesis come andgofollowingthemonsoons. Traveling serving asthetradingcenterswhereforeigntraders maritime periodthatthedeltacities later thantheinlandroyalcities.Itwasduring in a heterogeneousmorphology, subjecttoforeign downstream thatareclosertothecoastunderwent ontological transition”(Reed,1976,p.21). The cities inland capitalwas,inshort,anessentialpointof diffuse outwardsintothehinterland ofthestate. The power intrudeintotheprofaneworldofmanand most nearlyapproachedeachother, didcosmic or the South-East Asians envisagedasthe politico-religious precinctsofthesacredcity, which kingdoms intermsofurbanauthority. Onlywithinthe that guaranteedthecoalescenceofterritorial Robert Reed,they“actedasthemagicalcatalyst cosmological idealarelocatedinland. According to The oldestformofcapitalcitythatmanifestthe by RamaI,thefounderofcurrentChakriDynasty. Burmese forces.Lateritmovedtotheeasternbank in 1767byKing Taksin afterthefallof Ayutthaya to the westbankofBangkokwasdeclaredcapital authorities todelineate theterritorywithinwhich a Boundaries becamenecessary fortheEuropean region wasunderEuropeanpower, exceptforSiam. They surveyedthelandandcreatedscienti of national(orinthiscase,colonial)boundaries. techniques andanewnecessityforthedemarcation sixteenth centurybroughtwiththemcartographic European colonizersinSoutheast Asia inthe PERIOD AND CITY-BODY INTHE COLONIAL 3. THEEMERGENCEOFGEO-BODY Ayudhya inthe14 fl omphalos uences. They becamepermanently established wheretheearthlyandheavenlyrealms th century, almostalltheterritory inthe th Century, and fi nally Thonburi, fl axis mundi ourished, fi c maps. con a militaryinfrastructuretotransport soldiersinthe that theSaenSaebcanalbuilt in1837wasusedas part oftheregionwasundera tributarysystemand the FrenchCambodia. The mapalsoindicatesthat serves aspartoftheboundary betweenSiamand by theEnglishin1832(Figure 7),theMekongRiver between SiamandCambodia,inthemapproduced drawing boundaries.Lookingintotheboundary water-body ofSoutheast Asia becamethelogicof colonizer couldlegitimatelyexerciseitspower. The The successionofcapitalcitiesalongtheChaoPhrayaRiver. Figure 5: fl ict betweenSiam and Annam overCambodia. negotiate theirboundaries. The Siameseof British envoysentlettersto the courtofSiamto conquered thesouthernpartof Burmain1825,the division betweenpoliticalpowers. WhentheBritish boundary meantonlyalimit, without anysenseof not havetheconceptofanational boundary. A boundless tributarypoliticalandculturalspace,did Asian authorities,whoseworldviewconsistedofthe primarily meaningfultotheEuropeans. The Southeast Nonetheless, theterritorialgeo-bodyproducedwas replied: “The boundaries between the Siamese and replied: “Theboundaries betweentheSiamese and The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities fi cers
Nakhara 17 Nakhara 18 Lily C.Wong boulevards andmunicipalbuildings isrepeatedin European modelofcitydesign withlargetreelined architecture andurbandesign standards. The The colonizersalsobrought with themEuropean became alineonmapinmoderncartography. heuristic deviceforabroadterritorialimagining modern territorialcartographicalspace.Water asa The pre-colonialtributarypoliticalwasreplacedby bounded withintheboundaryofnewnation-state. states andtributarykingdomswereconsequently and France,manyformersmallautonomouscity- production ofamapwiththecollaborationBritain Thongchai claims,whenSiamparticipatedinthe mutual stewardship,insteadofalineonmap. As the conceptofaboundaryasanecotone–zone 64) The Siamese’s replyshowsthattheyunderstood said tobelongeithernation.”(Thongchai,1994,p. which isseveralmileswideandcouldnotbe Burmese consistedofatractMountainsandforest, geographe. DavidRumseyMapCollection. 1860. Asie Meridionale,Inde Anglaise etIndo-Chine. Atlas spheroidal&universeldegeographiedresseparF.A. Garnier, Figure 6: I asthesiteofhispalace. According toMichelIgout’s An areawasgivenbytheFrench toKingNorodom referred toKingNorodomIas a administrative power. The French Protectorate present, itwastheFrenchProtectorate whohadthe as thecapitalcity. Although thekingremained the FrenchProtectoratereestablishedPhnomPenh kings, itwasnotuntil1866thatKingNorodomIand to variouslocationsundertherulingofdifferent invasion in1432.Since1505,thecapitalcitymoved Ponhea Yat afterleaving Angkor duetoSiamese’s established asthecapitalcitybyKhmerKing Looking speci of dispersed bureaucraticof designed bytheEuropeansischaracterized authoritative placeinpre-colonialcity, thecity royal seatispoliticallyandcosmologicallythemost many citiesthroughoutSoutheast Asia. Whilethe fi cers resided. fi cally atPhnomPenh,itwas fi ces wherethegoverning roitelet , a“kinglet”. fi rst 1832. Britishmapof“Burmah,Siam, CochinChina”byJ.Arrowsmith.DavidRumseyMapCollection. Figure 7: The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities
Nakhara 19 Nakhara 20 Lily C.Wong Plan ofPhnomPenh in1920.Igout,1993,p.82. Figure 8: geo-body andthecity-body. of modernnationhoodthatisconstituted byboththe symbolic ofEuropeanpower. This isthebeginning cosmological andtheaquatic toanewcity-body colonial modelthatisintertwinedwiththe “modernization.” The citytransformedfromthepre- according totheEuropeanstandardof The FrenchProtectoratecreatedanewcapitalcity and, inmanycases,waterwastoberidof. commodity thathastobetechnocraticallyengineered in citydesignduringthecolonialperiodbecamea (Psar Thmei) wasconstructed. The roleofthewater The formerBengDechoiswheretheGrandMarket gardens betweenthenewtrainstationandriver. was convertedintoanavenuelinedwithpublic Verneville canalwas transformed thecenterbetween1928and1933. The underwent majordrainingand As thecitydevelopedandpopulationgrew, it and thetypicalcolonialarchitectureofitshouses.” pavements soontobeborderedbytress,itsgardens urbanization withitsgeometricalstreetplan, colonial Frenchquarterwasamodelofmodern European need. According toMichelIgout,“the schools andcathedralswereerectedto Public buildingssuchaspostof designed accordingtoWestern urbanstandards. 1920 (Figure8)showsthatPhnomPenhwas designed newboulevardsandbridges. A mapfrom in therainyseason,werealso a barracksfortheroyalguard…of throne room,adancehallfortheroyalballetdancers, description: “PhnomPenh’s ‘Versailles’ houseda Many French townwasdugforthedrainageofplain. his planningvision,theVerneville canalaroundthe Supérieur ofCambodiafrom1889to1897.Under Cambodia. HuyndeVerneville wasnamedRésident- undertaken toturnPhnomPenhintoacapitalcityof Massive amountofurbanconstructionwere administrative frameworkforurbanmanagement. established bytheFrenchin1884andoffered an ontological signi Nonetheless, thepalacewasbuiltwithout architectural traditions”(Igout,1993,p.40). buildings “triedtothepreserveoldKhmer his family”(Ignot,1993,p.40). The styleofthe workshops andprivateapartmentsfortheking The municipalityofPhnomPenhwas pre-colonial royalseat. bengs, the swampyareasthatwere fi cance thatwasprevailedinthe fi lled inanditssouthernportion fi fi fi lling worksthat lled-in. Healso ces, hospitals, fi ces, various fl fi ooded fi cially t the on sustainable futures, or mechanisms for economic on sustainablefutures,ormechanisms foreconomic extra-national agenciesarenas foranewdiscussion instead ofboundednationalterritory? Are thecurrent sustainable developmentplatform de region notascompetingnationstatesbuta provide anopportunitytorenewthegeo-bodyofa Does globalizationinpost-ColdWar Southeast Asia monitoring theecologicaldevelopmentofregion. health andeducation,aswellassistingin US hasbeeninvestingintheareasofenvironment, US, Cambodia,Laos, Thailand andVietnam. The Lower MekongInitiativeformedin2009amongthe to theGreaterMekongSubregionallianceis the IndianOcean.Whatisseenasacounterweight Vietnam tofeedChina’s thirstforresourcesbeyond are plannedinMyanmar, Thailand, Cambodiaand and newcontainerportsindustrialcomplexes highways haveconnectedSingaporetoKunming, route isexpectedtobecompletedin2020. Already different routeshavebeenproposed andthe railroad thatlinksNanninginChinatoBangkok.Four projects ontheagendaisconstructionofa facilitate internationaltrade,oneofitsbiggest Vietnam. Inadditiontochannelizing theMekongto Cambodia, China,Laos,Myanmar, Thailand, and by the Asian DevelopmentBankin1992,includes and theUS. The GreaterMekong Subregion,formed that channelthein for theestablishmentoftransnationalorganizations River region,theroleofwaterispoliticalrationale production base.Lookingspeci establishment ofanEU-stylesinglemarketand agenda thattheorganizationisstrivingfor political stabilityarealsoissuesofconcern,themain development. Whileculturaldevelopmentand Asian countriestocollaborateforacommonregional of ASEAN demonstratesaneedfortheSoutheast Laos in1997,andCambodia1999. The forming Darussalam in1984,Vietnam in1995,Myanmarand membership laterextendedtoincludeBrunei the additionofIndonesiaandSingapore. The Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations,in1967with the Philippines,and Thailand, became ASEAN, the of Southeast Asia, formedin1961amongMalaysia, with shareddevelopmentalgoals. The Association Southeast Asia belongtoalargertransnationalpolity In thecontemporarypoliticalstage,nationsin TRANSNATIONAL POLITY 4. WATER AND CONTEMPORARY The ChangingRoleofWater intheSpatialConstruction fl uence of two other powers: China uence oftwootherpowers:China and DesignofSoutheast Asian Polities fi cally intheMekong fi ned bywater fi rst
Nakhara 21 Nakhara 22 too massiveandcostlypublic worksprojects,and urbanization. Suchamethod of expansionrequires the intercedingspacetoprovide newareasfor the buildingofeverlargerconcentric dikes, is notpossibletocontinueexpanding thecitythrough the importanceofdrainagesystem,arguesthat“It fl p.126). Almost onethirdofthecityisparalyzedby fl season ratherthanrunningthroughthem,causing and rainwateraccumulateindrainsduringtherainy functioning toeasethe existing blockeddrainagenetworksarehardly to thecitycenter. Duetothelackofmaintenance, waterways were rainwater. However, sincethe1920s,bengsand canals, and climate, PhnomPenhreliesonthenetworkofdikes, (Molyvann, 2003,p.112). Situatedinthemonsoon expansion is,inasense,hydraulichistory” fl major constraintsonthecityofPhnomPenhare Cambodian architectVann Molyvannwrotethat“the Phnom Penh. has becomethedrivingforceofurbandesignin steel skyscrapersandwestern-styleshoppingmalls, “economic prosperity”,representedbyglassand trade andinvestment. The globalization imageof Phnom PenhisnowCambodia’s centerforglobal 2008, p.191). Twenty yearsfromSesser’s Benz andBMWcarstravelingthestreets”(Osborne, at PochentongairporttotheabundanceofMercedes- the ‘Welcome toCambodia—Heineken Beer”sign that “embracedcapitalismwithavengeance—from impression thathegotfromPhnomPenhasacity December 1991(Sesser, 1993),describesthe Journalist StanSesser, whovisitedPhnomPenhin became thetenetforCambodiangovernment. subsequently pouredin;laissez-faireeconomy restaurants andshops.Foreigninvestments entered andtriggeredtheopeningofmanynew Cambodia inSeptember1989,foreignNGOs Since Vietnam withdrewallofitstroopsfrom development ofPhnomPenh. development. Suchisthecaseincurrentcity of waterstillremainsablindspotinurban issue ofwater. However, atthelocallevel,status discourse, weseeanincreasingemphasisonthe Initiative seemoptimistic.Inthetransnational Greater MekongSubregionandLower development alone? The promisesmadebythe Lily C.Wong ooding anddrainage. The history ofPhnomPenh’s ood duringheavyrain.Molyvann,whopointsout ooding inmanypartsofthecity”(Molyvann,2003, bengs fi lled intocreatemorelandclose tochannelanddischargethe fl ood. “Used household water ood. “Usedhouseholdwater fi rst visit, fi lling in fi rst complexes of spot. local levelofurbandevelopment, itremainsablind is beingdiscussedinvarious organizations,atthe transnational leveltheissueof sustainabilityofwater a meredigitalimagerendering feature.Whileatthe City, welearnthatthereisnotsomuch,oratbest, From thedevelopmentsofCamkoCityandNewEast What istheroleofwaterincurrentcity-body? city” (Barta,2010,WSJ). plan, Idon’tthinkit’s aproblem.Itwillbene an opportunitytogrow. Ifyouhaveagoodmaster for alongtimeandnowthey’regivingPhnomPenh Street Journal,“PhnomPenhhasbeenleftbehind Charles Vann isquotedinanewarticlefromtheWall spokesperson oftheDiamondIslanddevelopment forward-looking modernizednation. The identity ofCambodia,vis-à-visthecity-body, asa shown inhisstatementisadesiretoconstructthe and Ithinkwecandoit”(Reuters2010).Whatis the oneinDubaiandtallerthananybuildings Asia, the PrimeMinisterannounced,“Itwillbeshorterthan enthusiasm. According toanewsreportbyReuters, Phnom Penh,inSeptember2010withgreat will belocatedhalfamilefromtheRoyalPalacein Prime MinisterHunSenapprovedthebuilding,which plan ofa555-metertallbuilding,thetallestin Asia. a modern“metropolis”. This hope isampli transform theleastdevelopedcapitalcityin Asia to economic andrealestateboomisexpectedto Cambodia’s neoliberalgovernment. The current by laissez-faireeconomythatisnowthetenetof signi the city. The city-bodyrepresented bytheimages (Figure 9),trophiesofglassandsteeltowers Looking atthedigitalrenderingsoffuturecity shopping mallsandhotels. projects plantoturnthenewland Chinese venture,continuedto and theNewEastCity, ajointCambodianand construction ofCamkoCity, aKoreandevelopment, current large-scaleddevelopmentprojects. The Molyvann’s opinionislargelyignoredinthetwo the futureurbanlandscape”(Molyvann,2003,p.115). reservoirs, willbeanintegralandattractivepartof that largeareasofwater, servingasstorage respect thenaturalenvironmentwhilerecognizing expansion ofPhnomPenh. This newplanmust necessary todevelopanewapproachthe will alsodestroyPhnomPenh.Itistherefore fi es theborrowedlegacyof“prosperity”driven fi ce spaces,residentialtowers, fi ll inlakes.Both fi lls intolarge fi ed inthe fi fi t the lled Re Anderson, Benedict.(1983) REFERENCES Rendering ofthemasterplanCamkoCity. Source:http://www.camkocity.net/. Figure 9: 15 1962. 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