I N T E R N A T I O NA L CO N F E R E N C E RCIC’19 Redefining Community in Intercultural Context Bucharest, 2-4 May 2019

THE ISSUE OF THE LATIN AND DACIAN ORIGINS OF THE LANGUAGE AT THE DAWN OF ROMANIAN CULTURE. THE EMERGENT FORMS OF

Ionică CÎRCIU*, Evelina CÎRCIU**

* Department of Aviation, Faculty of Aeronautic Management, ‘Henri Coandă’ Air Force Academy, Braşov, , ** ‘Dr. Ioan Meşota’ National College, Braşov, Romania

Abstract: This paper deals with a topic as complex as it is interesting and relevant. Analyzing the issues of Latinity and Dacism as sources of the , providing an overview of the various theories addressing the Romanian ethnogenesis and defining several Romanian historiographical works as emerging forms of Romanian literature, the article provides a general perspective on the dawning of Romanian culture, its sources and specificities. The Romanian language and culture are described in a scientific way, in accordance with historical truth.

Keywords: Latinity and Dacianism; ethnogenesis; chronicles; religious writing; migrationist theory

1. THE CHRONICLERS AND . Petru Maior, the most scientific mind among REPRESENTATIVES OF THE the representative figures of the School, formulated “TRANSYLVANIAN SCHOOL” ON THE the pertinent conclusion that the native language LATIN VERSUS DACIAN DILEMMA developed on the basic patterns of popular Latin. He acknowledged the influence of Slavic on the In the introduction [Predoslavia] to Letopiseţul Romanian language, but also demonstrated that it Ţării Moldovei [The Chronicle of the Moldavian hadn’t changed its grammatical structure. Petru Country], chronicler Grigore Ureche states that the Maior envisaged the further elaboration of Romanian language is a neo-Latin language, orthographic norms required by the necessary showing that many of our words come “From the switch to the Latin alphabet and compared the Romans, who are Latin”, since “we call « pâine » vernacular with other romance languages, what they call « panis »; « carne » what they call « demonstrating that it hadn’t been altered caro »; « găina », what they call « galina »” significantly. A more radical perspective was (Ureche, 1958:67)1. All the later efforts of articulated by Samuil Micu Klein, calling for the humanists were designed to follow in the same line purification of the Romanian language of non-Latin and the idea was further developed by several elements and the artificial introduction of the generations of scholars. The issue of the Romanian ablative case. However, he justifiably advocated the ethnogenesis and of the Latin origins of the replacement of the Cyrillic alphabet with Latin Romanian language vastly preoccupied Miron lettering and co-authored, in 1780, a grammar called Costin, Constantin Cantacuzino, , Elementa linguae daco-romanae sivae valachicae and towards the end of the 18th century, the main with Gheorghe Şincai. In the context of this high- figures associated with the “Transylvanian School” spirited and often passionate cultural background, a (in Romanian, “Şcoala Ardeleană”) – a cultural few prominent theories came into shape. movement and school of thought, having authored a series of history books, grammars, and dictionaries 2. THEORIES ON THE EMERGENCE OF – reinforced these early ideas concerning the origins THE ROMANIAN PEOPLE AND of and their continuity of settlement in LANGUAGE

1 Original fragment: ,,De la râmleni, ce le zicem latini, There are three main theories concerning the pâine, ei zic panis; carne, ei zic caro; găina, ei zic geographic space in which the Romanian galina.” Our translation. ethnogenesis took place, referring to the actual 177 Ionică CÎRCIU, Evelina CÎRCIU territories having harbored the Romanian people scientific, as the matters considered are “brought to and language during the first stages of their life” by evocative narrations and descriptions. formation. Alexandru Piru notes that as a storyteller, Grigore Ureche avoids rhetoric ornamentation, is severe in 2.1. The North-Danubian theory. Advocates : style and excels at moral portraying, as he is able Dimitrie Cantemir, Petru Maior, Bogdan Petriceicu to sketch a portrait or a wider scene in a few Haşdeu. The Romanian people and the Romanian simple, essential lines, by employing a method language came into being in the territories on the which is very similar to the technique of engraving left shore of the Danube. However, this theory (Piru, 1962; 1970). Sometimes, the characters does not account for the formation of the South- linger in the reader’s memory due to the famous Danubian dialects. catchphrases attributed to them by the chronicler (e.g., Alexandru Lăpuşneanu). Pompiliu 2.2. The Romanian ethnogenesis occurred Constantinescu notices that Grigore Ureche simultaneously on the Northern and Southern spotlights heroic elements in a way that resembles shores of the Danube. Advocates: A. D. Xenopol, Titus Livius’ (Constantinescu, 1928-1938/ 1989). , Sextil Puşcariu, A Rosetti. The When he analyzes Stephen III of ’s Northern Dacian-Romanian elements have been of eulogy, Eugen Negrici details the impact of Latin a greater importance. historians on Ureche’s writing, consisting of the 2.3. The migrationist theory. Advocates: overall presence of moral considerations, the Franz J Sulzer, Robert Roesler, J. C. Engel. The chronicler’s solemn remarks and the text’s well- Romanian people was born on the southern shores balanced organization, as well as of the factual of the Danube, in a territory somewhere between tension of determinations (Negrici, 2017). Nicolae Bulgaria and Albania, from where it migrated to Manolescu (1990) considers that Grigore Ureche’s , Moldavia and in the 13th sentences reflect the difficulties generated by the century. According to this theory, the Romanians switch from the oral to the written culture, a arrived after the Hungarians and Saxons. This polarization which gives way to anacolutha, to theory distorts and mystifies historical truth. cumbersome syntactic constructions and word- order discontinuities. 3. EMERGENT ROMANIAN LITERARY is “our first war correspondent”. TEXTS His texts are memoirist in character. In this case, the chronicler mainly provides an account of the 3.1. The Relevance of Ureche, Costin and “workings of the world” (“viiaţa lumii”), because Neculce’s chronicles. Apart from the said his purpose is to introduce the Romanian culture to approaches concerning the “Latin versus Dacian” “this type of written material called lyrics” [,,acest dilemma, the emerging indigenous culture was feliu de scrisoare, care se cheamă stihuri”] and mostly composed of historiographical literature. hence comes to articulate a treaty on prosody. Letopiseţul Ţării Moldovei [The Chronicle of the Eugen Negrici writes that in contrast to Grigore Moldavian Country] is a first turning point in relation Ureche, who frequently lacked historical data and to the previous chronicles written in Slavonic. had to research different aspects, Miron Costin, on Concision is deemed virtutes narrationis, the the contrary, felt the need to select the most most important characteristic of the historiographical important information in an immense inventory of style. The text is mainly defined by its moralizing terrible events, political mutations, and fascinating intent. “Involuntary expressiveness” (Negrici, 2017) historical figures (Negrici, 2016:47, 123-124). thus becomes a major feature of the narrative Both Iorga and Călinescu mention the fact that for discourse, and the style relates closely to the spoken its last part, Costin’s chronicle becomes a true tradition. The chroniclers approach the issue of the novel, in the sense that fantasy and the author’s Latin lexical fund of the language, they discuss emotional or personal inputs are dominant (Iorga, historical topics, describe mentalities, an therefore 1969; Călinescu, 2003). become a source of inspiration for the Romanian transcribes 42 legends which are “Forty-Eighters” – a significant group of 19th strongly impregnated with the spiritus loci (the century unionist literati. anima, the spirit of the place). The chronicler’s bet Grigore Ureche presents a dramatized version is on the sensational dimension of events. His texts of history, as seen from a moral, Christian are malicious, vindictive pamphlets. George perspective. The chronicler uses irony, antitheses, Călinescu writes, in reference to Neculce’s work, sayings, direct speech. Ureche’s style is not that “As you read Neculce’s chronicle, a name

178 THE ISSUE OF THE LATIN AND DACIAN ORIGINS OF THE LANGUAGE … pops into your mind: Creangă”2 (Călinescu 2003), Haşdeu in Latin characters. The poem contains that is to say, with Neculce, there’s a mixture of pessimistic reflections on the fate of man and the peasant wisdom and townsmen’s culture. Valeriu universe, their evanescent, precarious and Cristea similarly states that Ion Neculce is the unpredictable essence, as well as optimistic scholar who guided the first steps of cult literature musings concerning man's ability to escape fate by away from folklore (Cristea, 1974:176). Ergo, the deed and thought. The sources having inspired chronicler managed to enter the Romanian history Costin are David’s Book of Psalms and The of literature following the path of legend and folk Ecclesiastes, while the theme might have been history. Neculce mostly relied on folk narratives, provided by Quintus Curtius. Also, there are from which he collected stories, rumors, proverbs, distinct elements in the poem which can be traced superstitions. Ştefan Ciobanu demonstrates that back to folk funeral laments, to proverbs or Neculce is an extremely skilled portrayer, as the regional aphorisms. The composition is structured characters he builds are not static, but described in in four main parts: there is an introduction to the full motion and evolution (Ciobanu, 1989:290- topic, an argumentation, a lamentation (an ubi sunt 300). The personalities of rulers particularly shift sequence very similar to one of François Villon’s), in spectacular ways. and an epilogue. Dimitrie Cantemir was uncommonly erudite. Another important scholar of the period is the The style of his Hieroglyphic History [Istoria Moladvian Metropolitan Dosoftei. Striving to find ieroglifică] is allusive, ironic, sometimes gnomic, the best Romanian equivalences for the original some other times philosophical. Nicolae biblical texts, he translates David's psalms into Manolescu thinks that "Cantemir's work is both Romanian. His purpose is primarily pragmatic, naive and sophisticated, elementary and refined"3 ecclesiastic, but the translator is also preoccupied (Manolescu, 1990:77.). Elvira Sorohan notes that with the rendition of prosody and versification, the Sensus allegoricus (allegorical meaning) is with the quality of the writing style. The grounded with Cantemir on the use of different remarkable delicacy, vigor, musicality, morally significant masks. Thus, the masks do not expressivity, and solemnity of the verses, as well conceal personalities, but rather reveal typologies as their overall sententious aspect, are evident. (Sohoran, 1978:37, 105, 109, 111; 1998:294). Poetic visions are terrifying. The religious poet prefers morally infused verse, which thereupon 3.2. The religious dimension of human become true lyric confessions. Dosoftei is a bold existence (15th to 18th centuries). The experimenter and a virtuoso of rare rhymes. The emergence and development of the Romanian author of Psaltirea pre versuri tocmită [The culture was directly connected to the evolution of Versified Psalter] often follows an autochthonous religious ideas. In the Romanian principalities, like folkloric pattern, as well as the Polish model everywhere else, the medieval man was religious. provided by Kochanowschi. His existence was guided by faith and the hope of Another Metropolitan of vast erudition was salvation. The Middle Ages man had a more acute Antim Ivireanul [Antim from Iveria], the perception of the fleetingness and instability of Metropolitan of Bucharest. A pragmatic human life, of ethical and religious values. personality, he printed numerous books for priests, Predominantly religious, the medieval culture an illustrated chronograph, etc. His most important hence produced religious texts and was strongly work is Didahiile [The Teachings]. In these influenced by religious elements. Men lived their “teachings”, the author proves his awareness lives according to religious principles, but at the regarding the conventional nature of the language. same time held onto certain superstitions. He addresses his listeners directly, capturing their All these observations are also present in interest by means of special metaphors: "the toil of Miron Costin’s philosophical poem Viiaţa lumii teaching", "the bait of words"4 (Ivireanul, 2011). [The Workings of the World]. Written between Word-order is sometimes overstrung in his 1671 and 1673, in verses of 13 to 14 syllables and sentences; Greek expressions are used as a means comprising 130 lyrics written in Cyrillic lettering, of persuasion. A religious event or character is it was later published by Bogdan Petriceicu always spotlighted in the sermons in such a way as to be placed in the right light for moral parables to 2 Original fragment: " Când citeşti cronica lui Neculce, spring out of the design. Direct contact with the un nume îţi năvăleşte în minte: Creangă." Our translation. 3 Original fragment: "opera lui Cantemir este naivă şi 4 Original fragments:,,mreajă a învăţăturii”, ,,undiţa sofisticată, elementară şi rafinată." Our translation. cuvintelor”. Our translation.

179 Ionică CÎRCIU, Evelina CÎRCIU audience is achieved through portraying pamphlets made it possible for these early writings to be and panegyrics. Antim Ivireanul is not a mediocre preserved in time. theologian or compiler. He is a true scholar able to process his sources, trying to make his speech as BIBLIOGRAPHY accessible to the public as possible. Like all medieval scholars, Antim Ivireanul is a 1. Călinescu, G. [1941] (2003). Istoria literaturii man of the church. His cultural efforts as a române de la origini până în prezent. typographer, engraver and painter are all impacted Bucharest: Semne. on by the spirit of the Middle Ages. At this period, 2. Ciobanu, Ştefan. (1989). Istoria literaturii any work of art is meant, first of all, to fulfill a române vechi. Bucharest: Eminescu Publishing religious purpose. Extremely knowledgeable about House. the Bible, Antim Ivireanul is an ecclesiastical 3. Constantinescu, Pompiliu. [1928-1938] (1989). orator able to master all the keys of his instrument: Figuri literare. Edited by Gabriel Dimisianu. solemnity, familiarity, its parabolic, poetic and Bucharest: Minerva. messianic character. 4. Cristea, Valeriu. (1974). Introducere [n opera Vaarlam, the author of Cazania [The Sermon] lui Ion Neculce. Bucharest: Minerva. (1643), also called The Romanian Book of 5. Iorga, Nicolae. (1969). Istoria literaturii Learning, also uses a scholarly style in his române în secolul al XVIII-lea. 1688-1821. writings. Cazania is defined by its simplicity and Vol.I. Bucharest: Pedagogical and its concise, commonplace language. Compiling a Enciclopaedic Publishing House. series of sermons, the book illustrates the same 6. Ivireanul, Antim (the Saint). (2011). Scrieri. type of literary rhetoric. Some episodes involving Edited by Mihail Sturza & Gabriel Ştrempel. saints are narrated, so as to reach the listener's Bucharest: Basilica Publishing House. heart quickly. Legends and fairy tales of ethical 7. Manolescu, Nicolae. (1990). Istoria critică a and religious significance are also included, in this literaturii române. Vol. I. Bucharest: Minerva. case following the patterns of folk stories. 8. Negrici, Eugen. (2017). Expresivitatea Deeply involved in various fields of life and involuntară. Bucharest: Cartea Românească knowledge (social, legal, political), the Church had Publishing House. a significant impact on education in the Middle 9. Negrici, Eugen. (2016). Naraţiunea în cronicile Ages (as monasteries and convents often housed lui Grigore Ureche şi Miron Costin. Piteşti: schools), but especially on culture: most cultural Paralela 45 Publishing House. activities were hosted by monasteries, including 10. Piru, Al. (1962). Literatura română veche. the transcription and printing of books of worship Bucharest: Publishing House for Literature. or teachings. 11. Piru, Al. (1970). Istoria literaturii române. Perioada veche. Bucharest: Pedagogical and 4. CONCLUSIONS Enciclopaedic Publishing House. 12. Sorohan, Elvira. (1978). Cantemir în cartea In sum, the concerted effort to demonstrate the ieroglifelor. Bucharest: Minerva. Latin character of the Romanian language, the 13. Sorohan, Elvira. (1998). Introducere în istoria emergence of indigenous literature as a literaturii române. Iaşi: ‘Al.I. Cuza’ University development of historiographical writings, the first Publishing House. attempts at expressiveness and the consolidation of 14. Ureche, Grigore. [1642-1647] (1958). certain classical rhetoric practices in religious texts Letopiseţul Ţării Moldovei. Edited by P. were the dawn of Romanian culture and spirituality Panaitescu. Bucharest: Critica Publishing and found scriptural forms and techniques that House.

180