Oceanus Volume 30, Number 3, Fall 1987

New Calculations Point Again to San Salvador, Not Samana Cay Oceanus ISSN 0029-8182 The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy Volume 30, Number 3, Fall 1987

Paul R. Ryan, Editor James H. W. Main, Assistant Editor Michelle K. Slowey, Editorial Assistant T. M. Hawley, Editorial Assistant

Peter ). Buehler, Summer Intern 1930 Editorial Advisory Board

Henry Charnock, Professor of Physical , University of Southampton, England Edward D. Goldberg, Professor of Chemistry, Scripps Institution of Oceanography Cotthilf Hempel, Director of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar Research, West Germany Charles D. Hollister, Dean of Graduate Studies, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Imbrie, Henry L. Doherty Professor of Oceanography, Brown University John A. Knauss, Professor Emeritus, University of Rhode Island

Arthur E. Maxwell, Director of the Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas Timothy R. Parsons, Professor, Institute of Oceanography, University of British Columbia, Canada Allan R. Robinson, Gordon McKay Professor of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Harvard University David A. Ross, Chairman, Department of Geology and Geophysics, and Sea Grant Coordinator, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

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COVER: Painting of Columbus' ships the Pinta, Santa Maria, and Nina by Richard Schlecht, courtesy of Society. Map illustration by E. Kevin King.

Copyright 1987 by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Oceanus (ISSN 0029-8182) is published in March, June, September, and December by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 93 Water Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Second-class postage paid at Falmouth, Massachusetts; Windsor, Ontario; and additional mailing points. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217.

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Subscription correspondence, U.S. and Canada: All orders should be addressed to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217. Individual subscription rate: $22 a year; Libraries and institutions, $50. Current copy price, $5.50 25% discount on current copy orders for 5 or more; 40% discount to bookstores and newsstands. Please make checks payable to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Subscribers outside the U.S. and Canada, please write: Oceanus, Cambridge University Press, the Edinburgh Building, Shaftesbury Rd., Cambridge CB2 2RU, England. Individual subscription rate 20 a year; Students, 17; Libraries and Institutions, 37. Single copy price, 9. Make checks payable to Cambridge University Press. When sending change of address, please include mailing label. Claims for missing numbers from the U.S. and Canada will be honored within 3 months of publication; overseas, 5 months. 2 The Columbus Landfall: Voyage Track Corrected for Winds and Currents by Philip L. Richardson, and 'Roger A. Goldsmith

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by Robert D. Ballard, Christopher von Alt, and William /. Hersey III

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COVER: Painting of Columbus' ships the Pinta, Santa Maria, and Nina by Richard Schlecht, courtesy of National Geographic Society. Map illustration by E. Kevin King.

Copyright 1987 by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Oceanus (ISSN 0029-8182) is published in March, )une, September, and December by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 93 Water Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543. Second-class postage paid at Falmouth, Massachusetts; Windsor, Ontario; and additional mailing points. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Oceanus Subscriber Service Center, P.O. Box 6419, Syracuse, N.Y. 13217.

1 The first known portrait of Columbus, from the Town Hall,

Genoa, . (The Bettmann Archive) The Columbus Landfall: Voyage Track Corrected for Winds and Currents

-Where did Columbus first land in the ? Two oceanographers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution join the debate. Their calculations point to .

by Philip L Richardson, and Roger A. Goldsmith

Wednesday, October 10, 1492: The 34th day at daylight, and for Columbus to step ashore for the sea, sailing westward from the Canaries. The crew is first time in the New World. complaining bitterly of the long voyage, urging their The island Columbus landed on was called captain to head for home. Columbus promises that by the Indians. But just which island is it? they will go another 44 leagues, no more. Despite the historical significance of Columbus's first Thursday, October 1 1: Birds and floating landfall, the identification of Guanahani has sticks are sighted, hinting that land could be near. remained uncertain for nearly 500 years. The The lookouts keep an especially sharp watch ambiguity of the written description of the island that night. combined with the uncertainties of 15th century 2 A.M., Friday, October 12: A sailor, Rodrigo navigation has made it difficult to determine on de Triana, first spies land at 2 leagues distance. The which of the many possible Bahamian Islands Sanfa Maria, Nina, and Pinta lay to waiting for Columbus landed.

Portugal -

North America

Sept 24

Sept 14 Departure Sept 19 September 6 1492 Africa

Caribbean Sea

Jamaica c. ) Puerto Rico

20

With corrections for winds and currents, the computer-generated track of the 34-day voyage from the points to a landfall at San Salvador. overcoming the terrors of the ocean. (Engraving by Johannes Stradanus, printed by Adrianus Collart about 1580. The Bettmann Archive)

The most recent addition to the controversy applied corrections consistently along the whole over the identity of Guanahani is a study reported by track of the Santa Maria, Columbus's flag ship. These Luis Marden and Joseph Judge in the November historical data sets were already in hand, and have 1986 National Geographic magazine. Using three been used for several years as part of our ongoing main lines of reasoning, they argue persuasively that investigations into the currents and circulation of the Columbus landed first on present-day Samana Cay. world's oceans. All that was needed was to extract They claim that 1) Columbus's transatlantic voyage from previous compilations a detailed subset for the when corrected for wind and current ends at region to be studied. Samana Cay, 2) Columbus's description matches The most significant finding is that, when features of the island, and 3) Columbus's description winds and currents are accounted for, the end of the of his subsequent voyage toward Cuba and among voyage falls within 25 kilometers of San Salvador the West Indies matches real islands and sailing Island. No adjustments were applied to decrease the passages only when one starts at Samana Cay. cruise track length to match a possible first landfall as However, many earlier geographers, including R. T. other investigators have done. The effect of the wind Gould, Samuel Eliot Morison, and John W. McElroy and current is rather small wind shifts the cruise concluded that the first landfall was San Salvador endpoint only 8 kilometers northwestward; current (Watling Island). Others have argued that Columbus shifts it 135 kilometers westward. first landed as far southeast as Grand Turk Island, or as far northwest as Egg Island. Luis Marden, however, was the first to Columbus's quantitatively apply corrections for wind and current Log to Columbus's transatlantic voyage; this shifted the To hit his expected landfall, Cipangu (Japan), and to endpoint of the cruise from San Salvador to Samana later chart his cruise track and discoveries, Columbus Cay. There were, it seemed to us, two flaws in paid very careful attention to his navigation; he Marden's corrections. He applied wind corrections maintained an accurate log of the steered magnetic for the first part of the voyage in the Northeast courses of the Santa Maria and the estimated Trades, but not for the latter part in the Southeast distance in leagues travelled through the water. Trades. Second, he used speed and direction of Although the original log is lost, an abstract of a copy currents given in the modern U.S. Pilot Charts. The of it by Bartolome de Las Casas, who was on the velocity on these charts is rather schematic, but cruise, is extant. The navigation data was published more importantly, the charted speeds are about and plotted by John McElroy in 1941, and more three times larger than the appropriate values of recently by Marden in 1986. We used Marden's average velocity (for explanation, see box on value for a league, which is equal to 2.819 modern page 8) the result of the charted speed being nautical miles, as well as his listed courses and calculated using only those observations in the same distances. The departure point of the cruise was general direction as the average velocity. These flaws identified by McElroy as being located near 28 suggested to us that Marden's result could be degrees North and 17 degrees West, southeast of incorrect. the Canary Island of Gomera. For consistency with To test this idea, we assembled the best previous investigations, we used this point (as did historical wind and current data available and Marden). m^s^smKiAaK^m^.^M':i:

H. B. Hall. The Bettmann The landing of Columbus in the New World. (Painting by Vanderlyn, engraving by Archive)

Current, Wind, and Magnetic Variation measurements in each 2-degree latitude by 5-degree for and October Even though at least some of the navigational longitude quadrat September values were then information is on hand, reconstructing the ship's separately. Average velocity to a 1 1 -degree grid in order track, and landfall, depends heavily on external interpolated -degree by to have a field for factors the wind, currents, and magnetic variation uniform, closely spaced correcting the track. (Figure 1). We assumed that winds and currents encountered by Columbus in September and * not match October of 1492 did not differ appreciably from The original Julian calendar did appropriately 1 500 historical compilations for September and October the astronomical year. During the course of years, the calendar became out of about 10 taken during the last 50 years. Part of the justification therefore, step by The seasons were out of skew with the calendar, for this is the consistency of the general days. for the and harvesting of crops. climatological circulation patterns in this tradewind affecting, example, planting Therefore, in 1582 Pope Gregory XIII decreed that the day region of the North Atlantic. We did, however, October 1582, should be Friday, the dates of the 9 to match following Thursday, 4, adjust voyage by days reforms. October 1 5, 1 582 along with other calendar the modern Gregorian calendar* used in the Since Columbus sailed 90 years before the decree, we compilation of the modern wind and current values. advanced the date of the voyage by 9 days, instead of the The current field was calculated using full 10. historical drift data obtained from the Naval ship ** Under direction of Matthew Fontaine Maury, the U.S. Office.** Each Oceanographic ship-drift Naval Oceanographic Office began compiling wind and measurement of surface current consists of velocity current measurements in the mid 1800s. Maury studied the vector difference between the of a velocity ship ship's logs and developed charts and sailing directions that determined from two fixes and the position average were issued as a series of publications including the first the estimated velocity of the ship through water Pilot Charts. He was instrumental in systematically 12 to hours. during the same time interval, usually 24 collecting logs from U.S. Naval ships as well as domestic Because of their method of derivation, these and foreign merchant vessels. Free copies of the charts measurements are especially appropriate for were given to each vessel furnishing Maury with an abstract entire correcting the track of the Santa Maria. Vector log. The pilot charts issued today are based on the averages were calculated from all velocity suite of data collected since the time of Maury. ad. a) Magnetic variation for 1500 30 N

,' /' ' y / N N N ----- . \\ x^ v ^ >\ N x v "--- '\-\ ^ x a \ <:----.--. 20 N 0.4 m/sec b) Autumnal current 30 \\

V. X. V. V, 20 10 m/sec c) Autumnal wind 50

20 80 W 40 W 30 W 20 W

variation for the f/gure /. Corrected trac/c ofColumbus's flag ship Santa Maria superimposed on maps showing a) magnetic year 1500 as charted by Van Bemmelen in 1899, b) the autumnal current field, and c) the autumnal wind field. Negative values of magnetic variation correspond to westward variations. The historical current and wind fields were vector averaged for the combined months of September and October. Wind and current measurements were obtained from ship's logs.

Historical winds for the North Atlantic have cruise; however, we applied leeway consistently been compiled at the Woods Hole Oceanographic throughout the whole voyage. Even though our Institution by Andrew F. Bunker and author Roger exact numerical value of leeway could be in error, Goldsmith. The data were obtained from the the approximate magnitude and direction are National Climatic Center, a branch of the National correct. Further, subsequent tests, discussed later, Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which show that the cruise endpoint is not very sensitive to of wind acts as collection agency for the many observations the leeway factor. Lastly, the component since it would made by ships of opportunity and the merchant parallel to the course was ignored vary marine. The results of that study were further the speed of the Santa Maria, but not the leeway, at of the was included in Columbus's processed by Hans J. Isemer, the University and speed already Kiel, West Germany, to produce the data set on the log. the difference between 1 -degree by 1 -degree grid used in this study. The Magnetic variation, winds were computed using the vector averaging true North and magnetic North, was different in method for each month, September and October, 1492 than it is today. To correct Columbus's logged variation separately. magnetic courses, we used the magnetic in The effect of the wind blowing on the Santa for the year 1 500 compiled by Van Bemmelen Marden. Maria is leeway, the sideways drift of the hull 1899, and as used by both McElroy and through the water. The leeway is a complicated function of the wind velocity, sea-surface condition, and the characteristics of the vessel. Today, 495 the exact is unknown. * years after the voyage, leeway Leeway can be expressed either as a sideways drift veloc- therefore estimated the a steered course We leeway by calculating ity or as the angular difference between component of wind at right angles to the steered and a course through the water. Our leeway factor value of course and by multiplying this component by an 0.014 for sideways drift was calculated to be equivalent to empirical factor of 0.014.* This correction for leeway Marden's 1.5 degree angular course difference in the north- is similar to Marden's during the first part of the east tradewinds off the Canary Islands. Track of the Santa Maria and First Landfall 27

We calculated the track by starting near the Canary Islands at 28 degrees North and 1 7 degrees West on Septembers, 1492 (old calendar), and advanced the Santa Maria in half-hour steps following the logged KEY and distances. Every half hour, magnetic 26 - headings o) no corrections to variation, wind, and current were interpolated b) magnetic corrections + Santa Maria's and corrections were applied c) b autumnal current position d) c + autumnal wind to the next half hour of the cruise. The small time steps are necessary to reduce errors that could be and introduced in interpolating wind, current, 25 - magnetic variation over daily intervals. At two hours after midnight, on October 12, ,50 km 1492, land was sighted 2 leagues (about 10 kilometers) ahead. For that time, our best replotted Santa Maria Y position (point d on Figure 2) places \ A Watling Island 094i7 about 24 kilometers southeast of the present island 24- Jr (San Salvador) of San Salvador. Another possible island, Rum Cay, O has been excluded from consideration because it b does not match Columbus's written description; researchers that Rum is not most previous agree Cay V Marden (1986) the first landfall. 23- SomoncMCay This result is exciting, and merits emphasis when the Santa Maria's voyage is corrected for wind All and current, it ends very close to San Salvador. earlier attempts to replot the voyage resorted, by to Santa Maria's speed to make necessity, adjusting 22 the end point come out right. Usually the endpoint 76 75 74 73 72 was much too far (about 500 kilometers) to the west, to shortened to and the cruise had be artificially Figure 2. Endpoints of Columbus's transatlantic track showing make the end match a possible landing site. the effect of successively adding corrections for magnetic Marden's overrun of 10 percent of the total distance variation, current, and leeway. Also shown are endpoints for or was due primarily to the inflated current speeds that plotted by McElroy, who used no corrections leeway the he used. McElroy's overrun was apparently the result current, and Marden, who corrected for current along whole cruise, but corrected for leeway only for the first of his using an incorrect length of a league. In our of the cruise. Both McElroy and Marden resorted to reconstruction, the cruise length matches almost portion backtracking the endpoint about 500 kilometers to make it perfectly with San Salvador. By perfectly, we mean match a landfall. Vertical axis is latitude in degrees within several kilometers out of a total cruise length possible North, horizontal axis is longitude in degrees West. of about 5,500 kilometers. It is difficult to know if this match is the result of chance, or due to Columbus's very accurate log coupled with modern corrections. Considering Columbus's careful attention to navigation, we favor the latter. The effect of wind and current on the latitude of the endpoint is rather small. This is because the track cuts across the southern half of the North 24.5 Atlantic gyre, and northward and southward deflections of the Santa Maria by wind and current nearly compensate for each other. Wind and current blond velocities are directed toward the Southwest during (\ Wotling 24.0 / / (San Schrtv) the first part of the voyage, but they swing around through West and are toward Northwest during the Leeway and current Rum Cay Leeway only second part (Figure 1). Leeway alone shifts the end Current only of the cruise 8 kilometers toward the Northwest No leeway or current 23. 5 - (Figure 3). Current alone shifts the end 135 kilometers westward. Overall, the combined wind

current shifts it westward 140 kilometers, but and Samana Cay northward only 16 kilometers. The small deflections as the result of wind and 23.0 75.0 745 74.0 73.5 730 725 current are in agreement with the conclusions of Marden McElroy, but in disagreement with Marden. Figure 3. Expanded scale plot of cruise endpoints showing the found a much larger, 52 kilometer, southward shift. effects of currents and leeway. Magnetic correction was We attribute this to misuse of the pilot charts as a applied for all cases. Vector average wind and current fields basis for wind and current corrections, and omission for the combined months of September and October of leeway corrections west of 40 degrees West. (autumnal) were used to correct the track. Current Calculations

I wo terms "prevailing current" and "vector Random errors, which can be large in ship drift average current" can be used to describe ocean measurements, tend to cancel out in vector currents. In practice, the numerical values of averages of velocity, but may not cancel in these are calculated differently. The resulting averages of speeds. Thus, part of the difference values can also be very different. between the speed of prevailing currents and that Pilot Charts show prevailing currents, of vector averages could be due to measurement which indicate the most likely direction in which errors. a current will flow, and the average speed of scaled for current in that direction. The prevailing current length percent frequency direction is the direction of the largest number of velocity observations in a certain region. The speed of a prevailing current is an average of only those observations lying within a 45-degree sector containing this direction. On the other the current is a vector of hand, average average c. all velocity observations in a certain region Current a) "Current rose" representative of without regard for their direction. depiction: the mid-Atlantic portion of Columbus's track. The Consider a hypothetical example, which is variability of currents in this region is shown by representative of currents in the mid-Atlantic displaying the percentage of current velocities lying in portion ofColumbus's track. In this example, the each of the 8 principal directions, and the average current is 0.5 knots westward, several prevailing speed in each direction. This information can be times than the vector velocity, larger average summarized in two additional ways: by b) a prevailing which is 0. 1 6 knots. current, as shown on the Pilot Charts, which is the To correct a trackline for average direction in which the largest percentage of velocity the vector is the conditions, average velocity observations lie and the average speed in this appropriate quantity to use. This is especially true direction 0.5 knots westward in the present where variations in velocity are large. Variation in example; and c) a vector average velocity of all velocity is a combination of real ocean velocity observations in a certain region 0.16 knots fluctuations, or eddies, plus measurement errors. westward in this example.

24.5 Examining the Results a) Autumnal current, autumnal wind first track in and b) Autumnal current, monthly wind With our computer-generated hand,

O c) Monthly current, wind the tentative conclusion that San Salvador was KEY monthly D d) Monthly current, autumnal wind indeed the landfall, we next sought to critically A e) Sept. current, Sept. wind examine what we had done. In generating our first V f) Oct. current, Oct. wind track, a number of decisions were made about the variables involved, and "best estimates" were made for some of the unknowns. Would different choices change the outcome? Watling Island We think that the most representative wind 25 km. (Son Salvador) 24.0- and current fields for the Columbus voyage are given by averages of the combined months of September and October, called autumnal here (Figures 1 and 2). This is because the cruise overlapped both months. To study how the seasonally varying winds and currents would affect the we recalculated it Rum Cay track, a using various combinations of different months (Figure 4). All values of the cruise endpoint fall within o a circle 16 kilometers in radius, the center of which lies virtually on top of the autumnal endpoint as our best case. remarkable result is that 23.5 adopted A there is not much variation in 75.0 74.5 74.0 really position attributable to different wind and current fields. All tracks favor San Salvador; none of the endpoints lie Figure 4. Cruise endpoints determined by using different wind close to Samana Cay. and current fields. Autumnal is used to signify averages over The relative of the numerical September and October. Monthly means that September importance value of the factor was studied fields were used for the September pert/on of the cruise, leeway by the track with various values October fields for the October portion. A leeway factor of recalculating ranging 0.014 was used for all cases. from zero to 0.020 (Figure 5). Increasing the leeway

8 24.5 24.5

Track was corrected for magnetic variation and autumnal winds and currents (Mercator projection). Watling Island (San Salvador) 25 km. 24.0-

Autumnal wind and currents Rum Cay No of 40W Watling Island leeway west O 24.0 (San Salvador) 23.6- D 24 hour computation

Great circle positioning Samana Cay

Rum Cay 23.0-

23.5 22.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 73.5

Figure 5. Cruise endpoints showing the effect of varying the Figure 6. Cruise endpoints showing the effects of Marden's leeway factor. The cruise track was corrected for magnetic calculations; the progressive effects of removing leeway west variation and autumnal (September and October) wind and of 40 degrees West, using a one day computation interval, current. and using a great circle positioning. Magnetic corrections and a leeway factor of 0.014 were used in all cases.

factor shifts the endpoint northwestward toward San recalculated the track using Marden's 1) leeway only Salvador, but the shift is rather small, 12 kilometers east of 40 degrees West, 2) great circle positioning, for the full range considered here. Thus, if we have 3) daily time steps, but 4) our vector-averaged underestimated the leeway factor, the error is currents, the endpoint is shifted southward 65 probably small, and would tend to make the kilometers (from our endpoint), to lie 39 kilometers endpoint lie even closer to San Salvador. The west-northwest of Samana Cay (Figure 6). This is northwestward shift with increasing leeway factor almost due west of Marden's endpoint, which he clearly shows the influence of the Southeast trade shifted eastward to match a first possible landfall. winds in the western Atlantic, which would set the While several factors have a rather small role, Santa Maria northwestward. Thus, one cannot the cruise track depends heavily on the magnetic assume, as did Marden, that no leeway occurs west variation. For example, when the track is of 40 degrees West. recalculated with a zero magnetic variation, instead When we included the leeway correction of the Van Bemmelen field for 1 500 A.D., the cruise only east of 40 degrees West to simulate Marden's ends 300 kilometers northward, implying an eventual calculation, the endpoint is shifted about 23 landfall on Great Abaco Island (Figure 2). If this had kilometers toward Samana Cay. What then causes been the real track, presumably the 44 leagues the remainder of the distance toward Samana Cay Columbus promised his men would have been that Marden shows? The difference could be exceeded before reaching land, and his mutinous accounted for in part by the daily computation crew would have forced him to turn East toward intervals that he used. It is also important that Spain. Viewed from the Canary Islands the angle rhumbline positioning* and not great circle between the two islands San Salvador and Samana positioning be used when computing positions for Cay is only about 1 degree. This means that to time intervals of this magnitude. When we accurately pick one of these as the landfall based on the track of the Santa Maria, her average course and * Rhumbline the track of a vessel positioning approximates the average magnetic variation need to be known to following a constant course on a spherical surface the better than 1 degree. We suspect that neither the ship's track crosses all meridians at the same angle. A vessel course nor magnetic variation for 1492 are that sailing due West will remain at the same latitude at which it accurate, which implies that there remains a large started. Great circle positioning results in a track along uncertainty in our conclusion that San Salvador was which the course will vary sailing along the arc of a great Columbus's first landfall. circle is often the shorter route. A vessel starting out with a To further demonstrate the role of course due West along a great circle track would soon find key we retracked the cruise with itself on a course south of West (in the Northern magnetic variation, modern values of variation which are Hemisphere) and south of the latitude at which it started. magnetic For small distances, such as those covered in a half-hour about 15 degrees West. The track is shifted far to the sail, the rhumbline and the great circle track are nearly the south, and passes between the islands of same. For a 24-hour period, however, the endpoints may and Guadaloupe in the Antilles (Figure 7). In fact, be several kilometers different. Columbus was aiming for Cipangu (Japan), which he 30 N Figure 7. Hypothetical track using 1 980 magnetic variation field, demonstrating the key role of magnetic variation in determining the cruise track. Negative values indicate 20 N westerly variation. Wind and leeway corrections were not 1 included. The cruise track cuts l .>\vr?,\\ . \ \ V ' \-o > < > I . I I between Antigua and \ , I . \ '.'.'. i '. \ \ \ '. \ \ \ i '.'. Guadaloupe in the Antilles, the 10 N first possible landfalls. 80 W 70 W 60 W 50 W 40 W 30 W 20 W

thought was due West of the Canaries. Had the Acknowledgments magnetic variation been as large as today's values, he Funding was provided by National Science Foundation might have compensated by steering north of Grant OCE85-14885. Contribution 6561 from the Woods magnetic West. Whether or not he tried to Hole Oceanographic Institution. The Judge and Marden compensate for the smaller 3 degree West real provocative articles stimulated our interest in the Columbus variation on his voyage is not entirely clear. voyage. Colleen Hurter helped find early studies of the first landfall, Terry McKee calculated the ship-drift current Summary vectors, and Mary Ann Lucas typed the manuscript. We think that our corrections to Columbus's first voyage have helped improve our knowledge of his real track and first landfall. Our cruise endpoint matches with San Salvador, very closely suggesting Selected References that this island was his first landing in the New R. T. 1927. The landfall of Columbus: an old World. The differences between our endpoint and Gould, problem restated. Geographical journal 69: 403-429. Marden's near Samana Cay were explored and ludge, J. 1986. Where Columbus found the New World. National as due to Marden's explained being partial leeway Geographic 170: 567-599. corrections, his daily time steps, and his inflated Marden, L. 1986a. The first landfall of Columbus. National current speeds. We found the track depends Geographic 170: 572-577. Marden, L. 1986b. data from the Atlantic entries critically on magnetic variation, which is rather Navigation Passage: in the Columbus Log. In: A Columbus Casebook, A Supplement poorly known for 1492. Further work validating Van to "Where Columbus Found the New World," pp. 48-50. Bemmelen's variation could lead to a magnetic map Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. better track. A real in the . of his first improvement McElroy, ). W. 1941 The ocean navigation Columbus on reconstructed track and a final resolution of the voyage. The American Neptune I: 209-240. landfall question may have to wait until Columbus's Morison, S. E. 1942. Admiral o( the Ocean Sea, a Life of Christopher Columbus. 680 pp. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. original log is discovered. The original log would Van Bemmelen, W. 1899. Die abweichung der magnetnadel. In, help clear up inconsistencies and gaps in the Las Supplement to Observations of the Royal Magnetical and Casas version. Meteorological Observatory at Batavia 21 . Batavia. The analysis presented here considered only the transoceanic portion of the voyage. Marden and Judge also match Columbus's description of Guanahani with Samana Cay and his subsequent voyage to other Bahama Islands. The complete suite of information needs to be considered before the first landfall can be identified unequivocably. Attention Teachers!

We offer a 25-percent discount on bulk orders of five or more copies of each current issue discount Philip L. Richardson is an Associate Scientist in the or only $4.00 a copy. The same Department of Physical Oceanography, Woods Hole applies to one-year subscriptions for class Oceanographic Institution. Roger A. Goldsmith is a Research adoption ($1 7.00 per subscription). Specialist in the Department of Ocean Engineering at WHOI. Teachers' orders should be sent to Oceanus magazine, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543. Please make checks payable to W. H.O.I. Foreign checks should be payable in dollars drawn on a U.S. bank.

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R/V Knorr Shore Station Local Earth Station (Video from Ship) Antenna Height 60' INMARSAT Earth Station (Data to Ship)

ARGO/JASON Depth 20,000' Video Coverage Planned for Scientists Ashore, Educational Institutions

and have demonstrated that by Robert D. Ballard, author others, clearly high-quality video images may be collected from the Christopher von Alt, sea floor and transmitted to a surface ship. To date, the of the information and William III however, importance J. Mersey collected could not be shared with those on land until the ship returned to port. It is hoped that by allowing public research and educational institutions with I he exciting possibility of exploring the ocean to experience the excitement of ongoing those who must remain on land is rapidly becoming oceanographic research, greater public awareness of a reality. A satellite communication system, being the need for this type of research will be generated developed by the newly created Center for Marine and, as a result, greater economic support for this Exploration at the Woods Hole Oceanographic type of work will be forthcoming. In addition, Ballard Institution (WHOI), will permit members of research hopes that young people who are exposed to these and educational institutions to participate in blue adventures will be stimulated and seek technical water benthic expeditions while remaining on shore. careers, a resource vital to our nation's future. The system will transmit live video images, as seen Satellite communications for use in maritime through the eyes of advanced robots such as Argo/ applications is a well-established business. The Jason, directly from the sea floor to participating INMARSAT (International Maritime Satellite) system institutions throughout the world. The compressed provides worldwide communications capability to video and data will be transmitted via the the marine industry. This system allows voice International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT). communications similar to the standard telephone as Inquiring minds may ask questions or transmit data well as narrowband data communication between back to the research vessel in real time over the ship and shore. Up to now, technical concerns, such same satellite link. In essence, the system will permit as shipboard antenna size, transmitter power, and a video conference to be held between scientists satellite bandwidth have made video transmission and others ashore and shipboard personnel, while exploring the bottom of the deep ocean. 1. microwave video link with Previous expeditions, which include the Above, Figure Near-shore satellite video distribution and return data link. finding and exploration of the Titanic by the senior

11 Domestic or International Satellite Airborne Repeater Altitude 5000' Video Range 150 rrn \ Data

Terrestrial Link

Shore Station Local Earth Station (Video from R/V Knorr Ship) INMARSAT Earth Station (Data to Ship)

ARGO/JASON Depth 20,000'

and return data link. Figure 2. Extended-range microwave video link with satellite video distribution via the INMARSAT system using standard techniques The simplest technique would require a impossible. While ships cruising close to the United microwave link from the ship to the nearby coast. As States coast can receive video from domestic long as a line-of-sight path could be maintained, satellites for entertainment purposes, the antenna transmission of the video signal would create signal pattern of domestic or international satellites minimal technical difficulties. This would require that other than INMARSAT does not cover most of the the transmitting antenna on the ship be placed so oceans of the world. The INMARSAT system is thus that it could be pointed directly at the receiving the only choice for satellite reception. antenna on the shore. The receiving antenna must The increased demand for terrestrial video track ship movement, and would have to be placed teleconferencing using limited bandwidth at a suitable elevation to assure that the curvature of transmission systems, such as the telephone the Earth would not interrupt the line-of-sight path. network, has pushed for the commercial This type of system is shown in Figure 1. Once the development of video bandwidth compression signal is received on shore, it could be sent by systems. These compression systems enable a high- terrestrial links to a domestic or international satellite quality video signal to be sent over a restricted Earth station as required for distribution or bandwidth transmission system. The system under transmission back to the . By placing development at WHOI will take advantage of the the shipboard transmitting antenna on the ship availability of these compression systems to provide superstructure at an elevation of about 60 feet above ship-to-shore video service. the waterline, and the receiving antenna on shore at an elevation of 1,000 feet, a range of about 50 miles Technical Concerns would be possible. This range is marginally adequate The compression of video using commercially for the various expeditions now being planned. available equipment while providing a high-quality A second technique requires addition of an image has its drawbacks. To provide a high-quality airborne microwave repeater to the first system. By picture with reduced bandwidth, only necessary elevating the transmitting antenna, the range of the video information is transmitted on a frame-to-frame system can be improved. Figure 2 shows such a basis. As long as motion in the video signal is limited, system. Here, a helicopter or balloon carries a no disruption of the received picture is noticeable. stabilized antenna that is always pointed at the However, if significant motion is present, the receiving antenna on shore. The ship then transmits information required to update the picture on the its signal to the airborne repeater for transmission to receiving end exceeds the capability of the system. shore. By elevating the transmitting antenna to 5,000 This causes degradation of the picture until the feet, the allowable range increases to about 120 extreme motion ceases and the system catches up. miles. Ideally, it would be desirable to have full A third technique uses a system similar to that motion, broadcast-quality video capability from used by ships receiving domestic video oceanographic research vessels at sea. Indeed, this is transmissions. A domestic or international satellite possible with certain restrictions. For near-shore would be used to send video to a shore station as in exploration, the location of the search area close to Figure 3. This system would provide better range shore would allow for such a system. Here, several than either of the previous two systems, but it too techniques would be available. has its technical problems. Because of restrictions on

12 INMARSAT Satellite Domestic or International Satellite

Terrestrial Link

s >

R/V Knorr Local Earth Station (Video from Ship) INMARSAT Earth Station (Data to Ship)

Satellite Uplink "L" Band ARGO/JASON Depth 20.000'

video link with return data link. Inset shows video transmission Figure 3. Full-bandwidth coastal satellite shipboard equipment for satellite uplink.

has moderate it is shipboard antenna size and transmitter power underwater imaging only motion, will be minimal. limitations, use of special, highly directional satellite felt that this degradation based antennas (called spot-beam antennas) would Satellite System Design be required to assure that enough signal power was available for a good quality picture. In fact, The satellite system under development is to be This limitations on signal transmitter power might require installed on the R/V Knorr, operated by WHOI. compression of the video signal as well. This system system is by no means limited to operation on the also appears to violate the international treaty under Knorr, as it has only minimal requirements from the which INMARSAT was established, which requires ship, such as power, a suitable location for antenna that all satellite transmission from a ship at sea be placement, and navigation information used for conducted using the INMARSAT system. satellite tracking. These are required for any All three techniques, while providing full INMARSAT satellite terminal installation. bandwidth and broadcast quality video, have one The shipboard system consists of several major drawback. They all restrict operational range major units as shown in Figure 3 inset. The first unit of the oceanographic vessel. The first two by the is the compression unit already mentioned. This unit necessity of a land-based receiver, and the last by modifies the video from the camera source to fit in the requirement of satellite spot-beam antenna the restricted bandwidth of the system. This signal is coverage. As many of the areas where encoded with forward error correction (FEC) and oceanographic research is being conducted would modulated using another commercially available be beyond the range of any of these three systems, unit. The FEC coding improves system performance even though they would be adequate for near-shore by maximizing the effective power in the satellite link. is to projects, it was decided that for overall Next, the signal converted the desired oceanographic use, the range available with the transmitter frequency and amplified to the level of compressed video INMARSAT system outweighed required for transmission. The most visible unit is, the motion-caused video degradation. Since most course, the antenna. An antenna designed for

13 INMARSAT Satellite

Compressed Video Return Data

Terrestrial Link

<5 *

INMARSAT Earth Station (Video and Data)

Satellite Downlink "C" Band ARGO/JASON Depth 20,000'

Figure 4. Full ocean coverage satellite video link with return data link. Inset shows shorebased video reception equipment for satellite downlink.

INMARSAT Satellite Domestic Satellite

Coast Earth Station Educational Centers

Figure 5. Distribution network for multiple end-user system.

14 The Argo camera sled. A new model now under development will serve as a base for the tethered ROV, lason. The completed ashore. of Argo/lason unit is visualized as the remote eyes, or "telepresence" of scientists aboard ships, or (Photo courtesy WHOI)

shipboard reception of entertainment programing is Several methods are available for this task. If only a available for use as a transmitting antenna. This single destination is necessary, the video expansion antenna already qualifies as a stabilized platform operation can be done at the final destination. This necessary for shipboard use. Additionally, a previous will allow use of a T-1 telephone link* for video experiment has been conducted by COMSAT transmission of the video signal. If multiple (Communications Satellite Corporation) Laboratories destinations are desired, it might be desirable to using this antenna with the INMARSAT system to send the received video via domestic satellite link to receive video on the Queen Elizabeth II. The last the final destinations. This can be readily piece of equipment is a modified INMARSAT accomplished as shown in Figure 5 using standard terminal. This terminal provides satellite tracking commercial equipment. Other variations of these information to the antenna platform. methods also can be implemented. The final choice The signal is transmitted to the INMARSAT has yet to be determined. This decision will be satellite and sent to a coast station in the United based on the number and location of educational States as seen in Figure 4. Here the reverse process centers and other viewers interested in the various from that of the shipboard equipment takes place. underwater expeditions. Figure 4 inset shows the flow at the receiving station. A low noise amplifier (LNA) boosts the signal Robert D. Ballard is Head of the Deep Submergence received by the antenna from the satellite. This signal Laboratory (DSL) within the Ocean Engineering Department is then converted and demodulated. The FEC of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He also is decoding then removes some of the errors Head of the Center for Marine Exploration. Christopher von

Alt and William /. are DSL research introduced during transmission. The signal is now Hersey engineers. ready to have the compressed information transformed back into a video signal. At this point, Acknowledgment television monitor can be used to view the video any This is Contribution 6574 from the Woods Hole sent from the ship. Oceanographic Institution. Terrestrial Distribution

* Once the video has been reconstructed at the coast Terrestrial data link using high-grade telephone line station, it can be distributed to interested users. operating at 1 .544 megabits per second data rate.

15 A

.jk .- "'^"^^^^^P

of wave Truro, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. A combination oute action and gradual sea-level rise combines to erode the shoreline of Cape Cod approximately 3 feet per year, of sediment to providing approximately 600,000 cubic yards the oceans. This rate of erosion and submergence would of sea- increase markedly if projections of increases in rates level rise are correct. Losing Coastal Upland to Relative Sea-Level Rise: 3 Scenarios for Massachusetts

by Graham S. Giese, and David G. Aubrey

v_*oastal shoreline retreat is a major environmental Massachusetts as the result of relative sea-level rise and societal problem in the United States and in will range anywhere from 3,000 to 10,000 acres. If is a nominal million many other parts of the world. Recent predictions of ocean-front property worth $1 billion and increased rates of sea-level rise for the 2 1 st Century per acre, the total loss will be between $3 add to the urgency of the problem. A recent study $10 billion. This loss will affect private homes, could by the authors and colleagues indicate that in 45 transportation, and commerce. Similar losses years (1980 to 2025), the amount of upland lost in be sustained by other states and nations.

Below, coastal bluffs are eroding constantly in response to wave attack at their base, the inexorable rise of ocean levels, and tectonic subsidence. The south shore of Martha's of erosion of Vineyard, Massachusetts, has experienced rates up to 10 feet per year averaged over the past century. Photo taken west of Stonewall Beach. The term "upland" refers to terrain landward of wetland that has not been altered appreciably by 100 year coastal processes waves and , for example. flood "Wetland" refers to coastal terrain that has been MHWS reworked or eroded by coastal processes. Examples MHW are coastal bluffs and dunes, beaches, and marshes.

it in our studies to We have found useful separate MSL the retreat of uplands from that of wetlands because of the differences in the processes involved. is the effects on When land area lost, uplands MLW and wetlands may be different. Upland retreat always results in the loss of upland area, whether the retreat is caused by erosion, or encroachment by the other wetlands. Wetland retreat, on hand, may Figure 1 . Deposits typically found in Cape Cod coastal of area. For or may not result in a reduction wetland embayments. Pleistocene (glacial) deposits are covered by example, coastal dunes and barrier beaches fringing contemporary salt marsh deposits in the intertidal frequently migrate landward without sacrificing total zone. Several commonly used tidal datum planes are illustrated: Mean Low Water Mean Sea Level area. It is true that upland loss is usually (MLW), (MSL), Mean Water Mean Water accompanied by wetland gain. But, since wetland High (MHW), Spring High (MSHW), and the level of the water for use is highly regulated, the area available for most expected highest high the next 100 All reference as well as the societal uses, such as for farming or home building, is years. levels, rise at the same rate as relative reduced by the amount of upland lost. wetland-upland boundary, mean sea level. Coastal upland retreat takes two forms: active, wave-produced erosion; and passive loss resulting from relative sea-level rise. The eroding sea cliffs of unchanged, by the year 2100 relative sea level in outer Cape Cod are, for many of us, a familiar Massachusetts will be 36 centimeters above its 1980 example of upland lost to ocean wave action. level. However, it is accepted widely that the global Although a rise in relative sea level contributes to rate of sea-level rise in the 21st Century will exceed active wave-produced erosion, it is not possible at that of the 20th Century. Most likely, according to a present to isolate the cause of rise in sea level from recent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the many other factors that contribute to the erosion report, the increase between 1980 and 2100 will process. range between 144 and 217 centimeters (4.7 to We can, however, estimate with reasonable more than 7 feet). Using these estimates (without accuracy the upland recession (or "inundation") of a necessarily accepting them as correct), and adding passive shoreline (one that is not being altered local land subsidence, Massachusetts will experience actively by wave or current action) as relative sea a relative sea-level rise ranging between 168 and 241 level rises. By "relative sea-level rise" we mean a rise centimeters (5.5 to just under 8 feet) by the end of in the level of the sea with respect to the level of the the next century. land. This definition does not specify the amount Past studies of coastal upland retreat have contributed by global changes in the level of the sea concentrated on shore erosion and have neglected surface versus local changes in the level of the land passive submergence, probably because such losses surface (subsidence or uplift). Relative sea-level have been considered to be relatively small. Such is changes at a specific coastal location are determined not the case, however, even at present rates of from analyses of gauge records. relative sea-level rise (as the results of our study As relative sea level rises, the mean high- show). In addition, when we consider the possibility water level, the mean spring high-water level, and all of large increases in the rate of sea-level rise, the other tidal reference levels associated with sea level, importance of measuring this loss due to relative sea- rise also. Therefore, as shown in Figure 1, the level of level rise becomes obvious. Thus, we set out to the boundary separating upland from wetland quantify the passive retreat of upland within the (which is sometimes referred to as "shorelevel") rises coastal communities of Massachusetts. at the same rate as relative sea level, regardless of Curves the local elevation of that boundary, which varies Hypsometric considerably from place-to-place due to varying Measuring the passive retreat of coastal upland exposure to waves and tides. presents special problems. The linear retreat rate at The rate of passive upland retreat at any one any point is simply the product of the inverse of the point on the shoreline depends on both the upland local upland slope and the rate of relative sea-level, slope and the rate of relative sea-level rise, which, as or shorelevel, rise. But using this method to calculate we have seen, depends on both the local rate of the rate at which upland is lost by an entire land subsidence/uplift and the rate of global sea- community would require a voluminous, and level change. In Massachusetts, relative sea level has presently unavailable, collection of coastal been rising at a mean annual rate of about 3 topographic data. millimeters during the last 40 years. Approximately 2 We have found a shortcut to the calculation millimeters per year can be attributed to land of community upland retreat rates in the use of subsidence, so the contribution as the result of "hypsometric curves." A hypsometric curve (from global sea-level rise is about 1 millimeter per year. the Greek roots, "hypsos," height and "metron," If the present rates of submergence continue measure) presents the distribution of the area of a

18 given land (or sea-floor) surface area with respect to Falmouth Hypsometry elevation. As an example, the hypsometric curve for Calculated for Upland 3m. + the Town of Falmouth on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 60- is shown in Figure 2. At a glance, we can tell from the curve that almost all of Falmouth upland is less 50- than 60 meters in elevation, and that about 50 percent of the town is less than 1 5 meters high. 40- Similar hypsometric curves were drawn for each of 72 Massachusetts coastal towns, several of ra > which are shown in Figure 3. There is a striking variation between communities in the shape of their hypsometric curves, reflecting the variation in the geological processes that formed them. For example, communities on glacial outwash plains, such as Yarmouth, have curves with flatter slopes at low 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 elevations as compared to those, such as Brewster, Percent of Upland Area that lie on glacial moraines. Certain well-known local topographic features, such as the "Wellfleet Plains," Figure 2. Hypsometric curve for the Town of Falmouth on the also show up clearly on the figures. The elevation Cape Cod, Massachusetts. From the curve, we can read information needed to create these curves was percentage of upland area of the town that lies below any elevation. Almost all Falmouth is less than 60 obtained from U.S. Geological Survey digital data given upland meters and about 50 of the town is less than 15 tapes, which provide one elevation data point for high, percent meters each approximately 1 '/2 acres of upland area. All high. wetland areas including inland features such as lakes and swamps, and coastal features, such as marshes, beaches, and dunes were excluded from the data base. Altogether, more than half a million individual elevation data points were used.

60- Brewster ^ 50- E 40- C o 'Z 30- >J 20- LU 10-

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent of Upland Area Percent of Upland Area

60- 60- Yarmouth _ 50- E 40-| C O 'Z 30- (0

0> 20- Ul 10-

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent of Upland Area Percent of Upland Area

Figure 3. Hypsometric curves for representative towns on Cape Cod. The variations between the curves indicate variations in topographic form between the towns, which in turn reflect variations in the geological processes that formed Cape Cod.

19 The hypsometric curves of Figures 2 and 3 relative sea-level rise rate of 0.01 feet per year, begin at an elevation of 3 meters above mean sea yielding a total rise of 0.45 feet over the 45-year level rather than at sea level. Because the source period. Case 2 assumes that global sea level will rise data did not always permit separation of salt marsh 0.86 feet during the 45-year period (as given by areas from upland at 1- and 2-meter elevations, we EPA's "mid-range low" scenario) and that the local excluded data for those elevations from the analysis. coastal subsidence rate will remain at 0.006 feet per However, from studying many such curves, we year, giving a total relative rise of 1.14 feet by 2025. know that their changes in slope tend to be gradual, Case 3 is based on the same assumption about local and conclude that the percentage of upland per subsidence, but uses EPA's "mid-range high" global meter of elevation at 3 meters may be taken as sea-level rise estimate of 1.29 feet by 2025, yielding representative of the upland distribution at low a total relative rise of 1.57 feet. elevations. Therefore, the assumption was made that The total Massachusetts upland loss at the the percentage of upland at 1 meter and at 2 meters historical relative sea-level rise rate is 65 acres per of elevation was equal to that at 3 meters. However, year. Averaged among the 72 communities, this is no assumption was made about the elevation of the equivalent to 0.9 acres a year per community. wetland-upland boundary within a community, other However, the variation between communities is than that these boundaries, whatever their great: Nantucket loses 6.2 acres per year, while elevations, rise at the same rate as relative sea level. Winthrop loses only 0.1 acres. Communities other than Nantucket having large annual losses are: Wareham, 4.7 acres; Falmouth, 3.8 acres; Barnstable, Loss Rates Upland 3.7 acres; and Yarmouth, 3.2 acres. The communities Once we obtained the hypsometric curve for the most affected are: Marion, which loses 0.031 percent upland in each coastal town, we calculated the upland per year, Nantucket, which loses 0.027 upland area that each community would lose, given percent per year, and Hull and Yarmouth, which particular scenarios for changes in relative sea level. lose 0.026 percent per year. The results of these calculations for selected towns Looking forward to the year 2025, if the in Massachusetts are presented in Table 1. Of historical rate of relative sea-level rise were to remain particular interest are the last three pairs of columns, unchanged (Case 1), the total Massachusetts upland which give the amount of retreat, first in percentage loss would be 2,950 acres. A relative sea-level rise of of total upland area and then in acres, that will occur 1.14 feet (Case 2), would be accompanied by an between 1980 and 2025, given three different sea- upland loss of 7,460 acres, and a rise of 1.57 feet level rise scenarios. The first scenario, Case 1, calls (Case 3) would cost the Commonwealth 10,270 for a continuation of the historical mean annual acres of upland.

Table 1. Calculated upland retreat for Massachusetts coastal communities (areas are in acres, % represents percent of upland lost).

Town Salisbury ~*= New bury port KEY

N e w b u r y less than 1%/century

1-2 % /century

more than 2%/century Manchester

Mar blehead

Swampscott

Revere Nahant Chelsea Massachusetts Bay

Milton

Quincy Bramtree Weymouth Hingnam Mar shf leld

Truro

Wellfleet Cape Cod

Bay Eastham

Acushnet warenam Orleans New Bedford Marion ) Dartmouth Westport Bourne/ Sandwic

Tisbury Oak Bluffs Nantucket Sound

coded to the of total Figure 4. The upland retreat rates among the coastal communities of Massachusetts, according percentage sand are not upland lost per century at the present rate of relative sea-level rise. Note that several barrier beaches and spits shaded, and are not included in the calculations of upland lost by their respective towns.

21 When considering these figures, it is The total land loss by the year 2025 has been important to realize that they do not include the calculated for several relative sea-level rise upland losses that would result from the response of scenarios. At the present rate of rise, groundwater levels to sea-level rise. In those Massachusetts will have lost about 3,000 acres communities where bedrock is absent, and the of upland between 1 980 and 2025. This is the terrain consists of unconsolidated sediments, the same upland loss that occurred between 1935 water-table level over geological time periods is and 1 980, an equal length of time. For a rise of controlled by relative sea level. As sea level rises, the 1.14 feet, about 7,500 acres would be lost; and

size of 1 water-table level rises with it, increasing the for a rise of .57 feet, the maximum likely, existing streams, ponds, and bogs, and creating new more than 10,000 acres would be lost. Given a ones. This secondary effect has not been included in nominal value of ocean-front property of $7 the hypsometric analysis. million per acre, the economic impact of this The upland retreat rates are based on the retreat is substantial. assumption that the coastal uplands have a natural Although the present study has shown that form and are not protected by engineering passive retreat is an important element of the structures. Particularly in urban coastal areas where shoreline response to anticipated global seawalls, riprap, and fill are prevalent, the actual climate change, this inundation is certainly not losses will be less than those predicted here. the sole impact. Future research is mandated However, when large values of sea-level rise are for other climate impacts on the coast of considered, these structures may be overwhelmed. Massachusetts, including but not limited to: The presently existing rate of passive upland retreat as the result of relative sea-level rise is much Effects of relative sea-level rise on resources. greater than the upland retreat rate caused by active, groundwater erosion. This be illustrated wave-produced may by Effects of relative sea-level rise on marshes the Cod coast, well-known as a considering Cape and other biotopes. rapidly-eroding region. Although detailed estimates Possible on for cliff retreat do not exist for the entire region, the global climate-change impact storm of Massachusetts waters rate of erosion of the outer coast is known, and climatology (a reasonable estimates can be made for the remaining potentially devastating effect). and more slowly retreating cliff areas. Using existing Improved estimates of future rates of sea- information, and reasonable estimates where data level change to improve the scientific basis are lacking, the annual upland loss experienced by for management. Cape Cod as a result of active wave-produced Graham S. Ciese is a in the and erosion is about 9 acres a year. On the other hand, Visiting Investigator Geology of the Woods Hole the annual loss as the result of the passive effects of Geophysics Department Oceanographic Institution. He is from the State of New relative sea-level rise, calculated from the figures for visiting University York, Stonybrook. David G. Aubrey is an Associate Scientist each Cape Cod town listed in Table 1, is about 24 in the same department at WHOI, and Director of the acres a year. Thus, even considering a region of Institution's Coastal Research Center. rapid erosion and excluding the effects of retreat accounts for groundwater-table rise, passive Acknowledgments 73 percent of coastal upland loss under present This work was the Massachusetts Office of conditions. supported by Coastal Zone Management, by the Department of Conclusions Commerce, Sea Grant College Program under grant NA-86- AA-D-SG090, and by the Coastal Research Center at the The conclusions of the are: major study Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Peter Zeeb was for much of the in this Relative sea-level rise is the major process responsible analysis presented study. responsible for upland loss in Massachusetts. Neglecting coastal erosion and groundwater- Selected References table changes, Massachusetts presently loses Aubrey, D. G., and K. O. Emery. 1983. Eigenanalysis of recent about 65 acres of upland each year as the United States sea levels. Continental Shelf Research 2(1): 21-33. B. and D. C. 1987. Recent relative sea-level result of passive submergence. Braatz, V., Aubrey. change in eastern North America, lournal of Sedimentary The rate of upland loss due to passive Petrology, in press. M. submergence varies widely from town to town, Ciese, G. S., H. Bokuniewicz, G. Zarillo, Zimmerman, ). G. Smith, and S. Tangren. 1985. Hypsometry as a and depends on the geology of the region in Hennessy, tool for calculating coastal submergence rates. In, Coastal Zone which the town lies. '85, Proc. 4th Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, 1971-1978. New York: American of Civil The hypsometric curves of each town provide Vol.2, pp. Society important basic information that permits the Engineers. Hoffman, )., D. Keyes, and J. Titus. 1983. Projecting future sea-level calculation of the upland areas that those rise: methodology, estimates to the year 2100, and research towns will lose to as the passive submergence needs. Washington, DC: 121 pp. U.S. Environmental Protection result of any given increase in relative sea level. Agency, EPA 230-09-007.

22 Oceanographic in the Black Sea

-Studies on the radioactive fallout from Chernobyl provide information about the fates of nuclear discharges to the environment, and about the circulation of the nearest body of salt water the Black Sea.

by Ken O. Buesseler

D,'uring the early morning hours of April 26, 1 986, Aside from its proximity to the accident site, the Unit 4 reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power the Black Sea has several unique characteristics. For station in the Soviet Union became the source of the example, its deep waters are completely devoid of largest release of radioactive material to the , and as such, the geochemical processes atmosphere from an industrial accident. Now, more characteristic of this basin are quite unusual, and not than a year later, many of the questions concerning well understood. The research team now studying how the accident occurred, and the nature of some the Black Sea includes the author and colleagues of the immediate and long-term environmental from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution consequences can be answered. (WHOI), along with West German and Turkish For marine scientists, the Chernobyl accident scientists. resulted in the deposition to the oceans of a unique mixture of fallout radionuclides.* These * Radionuclides for the atoms of a given element, there radionuclides can be used to trace a of variety may be several forms. The atoms have the same atomic circulation geochemical processes, such as water number (the same chemical element), but have different and ventilation** processes, and the chemical atomic (different characteristics). These various scavenging processt in surface waters. forms are termed isotopes. A radionuclide is an unstable, The Black Sea is the closest body of salt water radioactivity-emitting isotope. to the reactor site (Figure 1). It received considerable ** Ventilation the transport of oxygen to the deep ocean direct atmospheric fallout from Chernobyl. as surface water sinks. In the absence of such a process, as Additional Chernobyl radionuclides were and are in the Black Sea, the deep water becomes anoxic. being carried to the Black Sea by the Danube and Dnepr rivers their drainage basins include many of f Chemical scavenging the transport of elements to the the high fallout areas of Eastern Europe and the deep waters, with subsequent removal from the surface accident site itself. layers, through attachment to sinking particles.

23 .Berlin CHERNOeXLPLANT (Wa'saw

Figure 7. Chernobyl, with major cities and bodies of water.

The Accident Emergency measures were undertaken, including a heroic effort to contain the fires to Unit There now appears to be little disagreement that the 4. on 28, more than 5,000 tons of Chernobyl accident was caused by a series of Starting April boron, dolomite, sand, clay, and lead were dropped operator errors that occurred during the 24-hour on the site from helicopters to quell the graphite fire period prior to the accident. Electrical engineers (not in the reactor core, and to adsorb and filter some of nuclear reactor specialists) at the site were given the aerosol* The aerial measures were approval to conduct a test of the turbogenerators. particles. successful in down the fire and radionuclide The Chernobyl test needed to be conducted slowing releases, but, despite these efforts, the reactor at low reactor power, and a variety of automatic and burned out of control for 9 until 6. emergency controls were disabled to allow the days May Somewhat unexpectedly, the heated smoke reactor to run at far below its regular operating from the fire carried the largest amounts of power. At this low power level, the Chernobyl-type plume to where it was reactor becomes difficult to maintain at constant radioactivity up higher altitudes, carried away from the accident site by the prevailing energy levels, and there is the possibility of rapid winds. in the of the power excursions. Thus, vicinity accident, radioactive fallout was much lower than The operators mistakenly reduced reactor deposition earlier models had predicted. Radioactivity levels at power too low during their tests, when, in order to sites further away, however, were surprisingly high. increase reactor power, in the early hours of April 26 Even with this widespread dispersion of fallout they attempted to rectify their error by removing more than 100,000 people living in the most of the control and safety rods from the reactor radioactivity, areas were evacuated by bus. This core. As the result of this and other oversights, when surrounding evacuation started on April 27, some 36 hours after the power began to increase, it did so with a the Because of the extensive radiation tremendous surge. explosion. contamination of the soils and waters around the Within 4 seconds, the reactor power peaked vicinity of the reactor, these residents may never at approximately 100 times its nominal power rating, return to their homes. resulting in an explosive release of energy equivalent to many tons of TNT. This energy caused some of Radionuclide Releases the fuel rods to rupture, allowing hot fuel particles to A fact unrecognized by many is the complexity and contact the cooling water directly, resulting in a in both the composition and quantity of massive steam-explosion. The reactor containment variability this type of radioactive release. This was indeed true structure was breached, and large pieces of flaming debris were ejected from the destroyed reactor building. Exposed to air, the reactor's graphite core caught fire, further vaporizing the more volatile * radionuclides in the core, and providing the major Aerosol the suspension of fine solid or liquid particles in pathway for uncontrolled radionuclide releases. a gas (smoke, fog, mist).

24 Cesium-134 for the Chernobyl accident. By the end of the A Cesium-137 o Cenum-144 accident, the radioactivity releases totaled more than 10.000 Ruthenium-106 50 million curies*, or 3 to 5 percent of the total a K radionuclide inventory in the reactor core. This 1,000- release of aerosol particles and gases was made up of more than 30 different radionuclides characteristic 100 of reactor operations, many of which are potentially hazardous to man. 10 - It was both the quantity and the characteristic composition of the fallout radionuclides that alerted the Swedes on April 28, some 2 days after the fire began, that a nuclear reactor accident had occurred. tr It is these same characteristics that enable 1234567 89 oceanographers to use the fallout from this type of Days After the Start of the Accident incident as a "label" or "tag" for ocean dynamics and circulation studies. Figure 2. Isotopic release rates for Chernobyl releases The for release of major pathway radioactivity versus the day of release. Note that the mixture of escaping was volatilization the fire. In through during general, radionuclides changed dramatically from day to day. those radionuclides with lower boiling points, such as the isotopes of radioactive iodine (iodine-131) and cesium (cesium-1 37 and cesium-1 34), escaped released by Chernobyl accident will still be present preferentially from the reactor core. Since the in the environment. Of the major Chernobyl intensity and of the fire varied radionuclides of concern, their half-lives range from considerably from day to day, the relative ratios a few days to many thousands of years. among the different radionuclides released also Two other variables in determining the final varied. This has important implications for impact of Chernobyl at any given site were the environmental studies, since many areas received a winds that carried the radioactive debris, and the different mix of fallout radionuclides, depending on rains that were primarily responsible for depositing when the particular source cloud for that region was the fallout on land. Since the radioactive fallout was emitted. carried by prevailing winds, variability in the wind A second mechanism for radionuclide release patterns resulted in the eventual spread of was through mechanical processes, such as during Chernobyl radioactivity in a variety of directions. the initial explosion when many small particles were Although the fallout plume was initially carried north generated from the reactor core material. Many of towards Scandanavia, by April 30, the winds had these tiny, micron-sized particles (a millionth of a completely shifted towards the south (Figure 3). In meter in diameter) were carried, along with the fact, the fallout originating at the accident site after gaseous releases, by the smoke plume into the May 1 is the most important component of the environment. Chernobyl releases for our Black Sea studies. One way to think of this complex release of Within any given fallout plume, the actual radioactivity is by analogy to what I call "Chernobyl deposition of Chernobyl aerosol particles and gases soup." If each radionuclide were an ingredient in a occurred predominantly during rain storms, which soup, every day the amount of that ingredient in the are often highly localized in nature. Thus, even recipe would be changing. In this instance, volatility within a distance of a few 1 0s of kilometers, the and mechanical release mechanisms were relative levels of radioactivity at ground level varied continually changing the flavor of the "soup" by a factor of 10 to 100, depending on local wind (Figure 2). and rain patterns. Environmental scientists are finding Additionally, the composition of the that, with limited sampling, this patchiness in Chernobyl fallout has changed quite rapidly since its radionuclide deposition levels and radionuclide release as the result of radioactive decay.** Using the composition makes it very difficult to predict fallout soup analogy, as soup ages, it tastes differently from levels and characteristics over large areas. day to day; radioactive decay similarly produces To put the Chernobyl releases in perspective, volatile striking differences over time in the relative some 10 percent of the total inventory of the abundances of the Chernobyl radionuclides in the cesium-1 37 in the reactor core escaped. This fallout. For example, of major immediate health represents some 1 million curies of cesium-1 37. This concern were releases of iodine-131, and cesium- total is significantly smaller than the 36 million curies 137. Iodine-131 is a highly toxic substance that is easily volatilized, lodine-1 31 has an 8-day half-life,t * Curie a relatively large unit describing the rate of release so that after one month, the original iodine-1 31 of radioactivity, defined as 37 billion disintegrations per as a result of radioactive activity had decreased, second. more than a factor of 10. more ** decay, by Today, Radioactive decay as unstable atoms emit energy or than a later, no iodine-1 31 remains. year essentially particles, they lose radioactivity in the transformation to The radionuclide cesium-1 37, on the other hand, is different, more stable, elements. also easily volatilized, and of similar concern. t Half-life the rate at which unstable atoms disintegrate or Because it has a much longer 30-year half-life, most decay, expressed in the time required for half of the atoms of the Chernobyl cesium-1 37 remains with us. Even to decay to another form. This may range from seconds to after 100 years, 10 percent of the cesium-1 37 billions of years, depending on the isotope.

25 of cesium-1 37 released during all of the atmospheric 23 parts per thousand) than the surface waters, and nuclear weapons-testing programs in the 1950s and represent about 90 percent of the basin by volume. 1960s. However, in many places in Europe, the Being saltier, the deep waters are significantly denser cesium-1 37 inventories from Chernobyl are greater than the surface layer, and hence a strong density than the preexisting weapons-testing inventories, gradient occurs somewhere between 50 to 200 because of the patchiness in the Chernobyl meters, depending on the location and season. discussed earlier. Also for deposition pattern In essence, the surface waters are "floating" the total release of cesium-1 37 from the comparison, on top of the deeper waters like "oil and vinegar." Three-Mile Island incident in the United States in Any mixing between the layers is severely limited. It 1979 was 10 curies. In the Black Sea, we only is this lack of mixing that produces the depletion of estimate that the cesium-1 37 fallout Chernobyl input oxygen at depth, occurring as the organic matter was twice as as the cesium-1 37 roughly large produced in the surface waters sinks and to this basin from inventory deposited weapons decomposes in the deep waters. A limited source of fallout. testing fresh oxygenated (and highly saline) water to the Black Sea Studies deep Black Sea is an undercurrent of Mediterranean water that flows into the Black Sea through the In general, we, along with many other scientists, are narrow and shallow Bosporus Straits. The total water learning about the fates of radioactive discharge to balance is maintained by the surface outflow of less the environment. In particular, we have focused our saline surface waters, and in the attention on the Black Sea. by evaporation basin. The Black Sea (Figure 4) is quite an interesting basin for chemical oceanographers because of a Because of this unique set of conditions, the variety of unusual features. The surface waters are Black Sea can be used as a natural laboratory to brackish (a salinity of 16 to 18 parts per thousand) study a variety of geochemical processes. For because of the strong influence of the major river instance, in the Black Sea, we can examine to what discharges into the basin. The surface waters also are extent any downward mixing of surface waters biologically very productive. In sharp contrast, the occurs, despite the strong density gradient between Black Sea deep waters are completely devoid of the surface and deep layers. Many of the so-called oxygen, and hence most life forms are absent at particle-reactive elements, attached to sinking depth. These deeper waters are more saline (21 to particles, are likely to cross this oxic/anoxic

Figure 3. The atmospheric pathway of radioactive fallout from Chernobyl at 750 meters (dashed line) and 1,500 meters (shaded plume) originating from the accident site on different days.

26 boundary. Also, at the boundary between the oxygenated surface waters and deep anoxic region, a variety of chemical transformations are thought to occur. Given the known Chernobyl fallout releases, it was important to sample these waters as soon as possible after the accident. Our plan was to determine the fallout levels and range of radionuclides present, and then to use these Chernobyl radionuclides as tracers of water or particle-related processes. In general, this work is similar in nature to studies that use fallout from the atmospheric nuclear weapons testing programs in the 1950s and 1960s to trace oceanic processes. Of course, many of the short-lived radionuclides from weapons testing fallout have decayed away, while the more recent Chernobyl fallout still included the shorter-lived radionuclides. K. Piri Reis, the Turkish research vessel used for Black Sea studies. With rapid planning and cooperation from our European colleagues, we were able to participate in two cruises aboard the Turkish research vessel, K. Piri Reis, to the Black Sea in June and September of 1986. The cruises involved cerium-144, cerium-141, ruthenium-106, ruthenium- international participation, including German 103, lanthanum-140, barium-140, niobium-95, and scientists from the University of Hamburg, Turkish tellurium-129. With further radiochemical analyses, scientists and crew from the University of Izmir, and the isotopes of plutonium, americium, and curium WHOI chemists and geologists. Overcoming were also detected. Turkish, German, and English barriers, we While these radionuclide activities were not were successful in obtaining the first set of samples high relative to radiation exposure safety guidelines, from the Black Sea surface waters on June 1 7, just they were certainly elevated compared to any under 2 months after the Chernobyl releases. preexisting activities. For example, the cesium-1 37 Back at WHOI, it was only a matter of activity in the Black Sea surface waters was found to minutes before the samples revealed an indication of be elevated over its previous activity levels by a the levels of Chernobyl fallout. Using highly sensitive factor of 10 to 20. The Chernobyl signal appeared radiation detection techniques, cesium-134 and across the entire southern Black Sea (our sampling cesium-137 signals from Chernobyl were detected in efforts were confined to Turkish territorial waters). the surface water samples. Within 24 hours, 8 Some of the patchiness seen in the fallout levels on additional Chernobyl radionuclides were identified: land appeared in the surface water data as well.

from Chernobyl & Ukraine

Figure 4. Circulation of the Black Sea, with river inputs. 30'

27 into the deeper waters, if some limited mixing exists between the surface and deeper layers. It is precisely this progression of the cesium signal over time that will quantify the rate at which the surface waters are being mixed to depth. For several other elements, movement through the water column may be somewhat more complex. While cesium-134 and cesium-1 37 primarily trace water movement, because of their chemistries, many of the Chernobyl radionuclides are considered highly particle reactive. Such particle- reactive tracers are rather "sticky," and their oceanic behavior is often determined by the particles to which they are attached. Therefore, the fate of these particle-reactive tracers is determined not only by the water mixing processes, but also by their partitioning onto the large and small particles in the water column. The removal of particle-reactive elements to the deep waters and underlying sediment is termed "scavenging." The rate of scavenging of particle-reactive elements is a topic of major concern in oceanographic studies, because the balance between the supply of an element to the ocean, and its ultimate removal from the ocean is largely determined by this scavenging removal rate. The scavenging rates of Chernobyl radionuclides also will be of value to local authorities interested in how long the radioactivity will remain in the Black Sea surface waters. Recently, much attention has been focused the streets of the nearest to Cleaning Kiev, large city on large biogenic (produced by living organisms) on June 3, 1 986, after the accident. Chernobyl, shortly particle aggregates, which are formed in surface (Sygma Photo News) waters, and their role in transporting a variety of particle-reactive elements to depth. A variety of organisms, either through their feeding or defecation Results to Date processes, act to aggregate smaller particles into Based on their chemistries, the Chernobyl fallout larger ones. This increases the rate of particle radionuclides can be broadly grouped into two settling, perhaps up to hundreds of meters per day. categories. The highly soluble elements, such as the As such, these sinking particles can form the major cesium isotopes, are used to trace water movement removal pathway for a variety of elements from the and mixing processes. The more particle-reactive surface oceans. elements, such as cerium, ruthenium, plutonium, A great deal of data on particle activity in the americium, and curium, are used to trace the rapid oceans have been collected from sediment traps scavenging and removal of an element from the deployed by Susumu Honjo, Senior Scientist in surface waters due to their strong affinity for WHOI's Geology and Geophysics Department. One particle surfaces, and their potential rapid transport sediment trap (Figure 5) was moored at 1,071 meters to depth. in the southwestern region of the Black Sea from Cesium-137 is a good example of a highly June to September, 1986. This has provided a set of soluble radionuclide whose marine chemistry has preliminary data on Chernobyl radionuclides. been well characterized because of its relatively Sediment traps are essentially large, cone- long half-life and previous studies on this major shaped funnels that collect settling particles as they component of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing fall through the water column. With an electronic fallout. Because the Chernobyl fallout contains in switching device, it is possible to obtain a time series abundance the shorter lived cesium-134 isotope in of sediment trap samples from a single trap addition to the cesium-1 37 (about half as much deployment, by rotating new sample collection cups cesium-134), it is possible to easily separate the pre- into position at the base of the funnel. In this case, a and post-Chernobyl cesium signals. We found in the Black Sea that surface water cesium-1 37 levels had jumped from 15 to 340 cubic meter becquerels* per * in the surface waters near the mouth of the Becquerel an international unit of radioactivity equal to 1 nuclear second. A curie 37 Bosporus. By September 1986, the Chernobyl disintegration per equals billion becquerels. cesium signal had penetrated down to the base of the summer and with future ** ,** Thermocline A zone where the water temperature we should be able to see the samplings, progression decreases more rapidly than the water above or below it. of this signal deeper into the water column. With When the gradient is steep, mixing of the surface and deep time, this Chernobyl cesium signal may penetrate waters is impeded.

28 Cesium -137

,- A Becque

Cerium-144

2-

1-

2-

0)

CD 2 H o 0) CD Ruthenium-106

q>

S> T T

Collection of Chernobyl radionuclides by Black Sea sediment 5. The Black Sea sediment on the stern of the trap. The dates correspond to sediment trap sampling Figure trap intervals. The error bars on several data points are statistical research vessel. uncertainties relating to radioactive counting techniques. Note that the cesium-137 activity is decreasing, ruthenium-

106 is (airly constant, and the cerium-144 appears to peak around the end of/u/y. The reason for the cerium-144 peak is presently unknown. weekly time interval was used. Researchers have in the overlying waters, but in the Black Sea the shown that, on a seasonal basis, the large particle fluxes also vary due to physical processes that fluxes can vary quite substantially. This variability in transport particles from the shelf regions into the particle flux is often due to local productivity levels interior of the Black Sea.

3 Salinity (%o) Temperature (C) Cesium-137 (Becqureis/m j

1 0-

a aa> Black Sea Processes

Key: A. Atmospheric deposition of Chernobyl fallout to the Black Sea was the major initial source of new radionuclides to this basin. B. The Danube and Dnepr rivers will become important for the delivery of dissolved and paniculate Chernobyl radionuclides from run-off in their watersheds. These rivers also help maintain the low salinity in the surface waters. C. Surface waters. Because of density differences, they are almost completely sealed off from the deep waters. While the surface waters are highly productive, the deep waters (D) are devoid of most life. E. Because of the strong salinity gradient, the surface oxygenated waters remain isolated from the anoxic deep waters. F. Large particles produced in the surface waters can sink rapidly to depth at speeds of 50 to 700 meters per day. We sample this settling paniculate matter with sediment traps (C), which are moored at fixed depths in the water column. H. The boundary between the oxygenated surface waters and the anoxic deep waters is a site for chemical transformations of some elements. For instance, the geochemistry of many trace elements can be directly or indirectly tied to chemical transitions at this boundary, which can strongly affect the scavenging (attachment to sinking particles) rate of the element, and its transport across this boundary.

Our data show that at least some of the same from the Northern Black Sea region to the south, and Chernobyl radionuclides we had detected in the to some extent out of the Black Sea, and through the surface waters had been very rapidly removed to the Bosporus Straits. trap at 1,071 meters within less than 2 months of Studies of Chernobyl fallout at other oceanic the initial fallout deposition at the surface. As sites are underway, and comparisons between the expected by their differing chemistries, the removal behavior of the Chernobyl radionuclides in different rates for a more soluble element like cesium are settings will be possible. Future Chernobyls must be much slower than that of the more particle-reactive avoided, and cannot be excused for any reason, but cerium-144 and ruthenium-106. If the fluxes we we must act responsibly to learn as much as we can measured continue (we have in place a program to from this tragic accident. monitor these trap samples for the next two years), the Chernobyl cesium-137 signal would take 100 to Ken O. Buesseler is a Visiting 200 years to be scavenged from the surface waters, Investigator in the Chemistry Department, while the cerium-144 and ruthenium-106 signals will Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. be removed in only a matter of years.

Studies Long-term Acknowledgment In the future, the will be used as a Chernobyl signal Scientists participating in this study other than the author tool to the of the Black Sea. S. study geochemistry were: H. D. Livingston, S. Honjo, B. J. Hay, and J. With the run-off in the of spring 1987, input Manganini, WHOI; E. Degens, and V. Ittekkot, Institute of Chernobyl radionuclides from the rivers should be Geology and Paleontology, University of Hamburg, West seen. We hope to use this riverine signal to trace Germany; and E. Izdar and T. Konuk, Dokuz Eylul surface circulation rates as the river waters travel University, Turkey.

30 Submersibles for Scientists

by Lynne Carter Hanson, and Sylvia A. Earle

n the past decade, developments in small, portable manned submersibles and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) have revolutionized commercial J operations underwater. Such systems are beginning to have a similar impact on marine research.

Deep Rover's "You-drive-it" access to the oceans is demonstrated here by author , veteran of nearly 6,000 hours underwater. (Photo by Graham Hawkes) In industry, trends are continuing toward the task of exploring for the first time all of North "deeper and cheaper," using systems that can be and with three or four jeeps and a effectively deployed from relatively small vessels. few gallons of gasoline. Low cost, transportability, versatility, and ease of operation have caused these new systems to displace large submersibles, , and large robotic vehicles for many "traditional" underwater tasks. They also have been applied in Manned Submersibles situations where the larger and heavier equipment could not be used. Recently, these new systems Manned submersibles encompass everything from have been used for scientific research with results so large nuclear-powered craft, to small, battery- rewarding that programs are now being planned to operated "wet subs" that transport SCUBA (self- take advantage of their special features. For science contained underwater apparatus) divers. as well as industry, these new vehicles are Here, we define a manned submersible as a tethered revolutionizing working capability and overall access or autonomous vehicle that can accommodate one to the sea. or more persons, and can maintain an internal "cabin In April 1986, the National Oceanic and " at 1 atmosphere (normal surface pressure). Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) convened a The best known scientific manned panel chaired by Feenan D. Jennings, Texas A&M submersible is the Woods Hole Oceanographic University, to examine new directions for undersea Institution's (WHOI's), Alvin, famous as the vehicle research. The resulting report includes the following that transported scientists to survey and document observations: the mid-Atlantic Ridge, hydrothermal vents, giant tube worms, and other benthic life, and, with the ROV, Jason Jr., to explore the wreck of the RMS No. In many important respects, we have reached Titanic (see Oceanus Vol. 29, 3, pp. 2-15). the limits of what we can learn from traditional Launched in 1964, Alvin has undergone continuous methods. We need new kinds of data before upgrading and therefore remains a modern vehicle. than other . . of 50 manned . the significant advances can be made. Many more Technological progress in the last 10 years has submersibles built for research and industrial in the 1960s and 1970s have been made it possible to obtain these kinds of data, applications early there are but necessary tools tend to be expensive, and retired. Aside from WHOI, however, have not been generally available within the presently a number of other submersible operators. oceanographic community. The University of Hawaii operates two submersibles built during this era and renovated for current operation. One, the two-man Makali'i, in The prospects for filling the principal gaps (formerly Star //), is small enough to be deployed our understanding are coupled to two from various support platforms including a towed emerging disciplines: 1) remote sensing, which submersible launching system. The lack of a required incorporates satellite technology; and 2) in situ dedicated vessel is an advantage, and can greatly research, which involves both manned and reduce the daily support-vessel costs. A second unmanned undersea systems. Each of these submersible, the P;'sces V, has recently been new disciplines provides an entirely new acquired for operation in depths to 2,000 meters. scientific perspective on resource dynamics, Typically deployed from a dedicated support ship, and each is coupled to an expensive the Pisces V also has been provided with a towed technology. The biggest challenge . . . facing launching system. federal sponsors of ocean research is how to Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution's improve these new tools and get them into the two submersibles, Johnson Sea-Link I and Johnson in hands of the research community. Sea-Link II, were designed the late 1960s primarily to transport and lock-out (exiting from and returning to the submerged vehicle) divers. A pilot and a Several meetings of scientists, engineers, and passenger-observer occupy a clear, acrylic forward representatives from government and industry have sphere, and two additional passengers may observe been convened in the last year to discuss the through small viewing ports in the aft diving research applications of these new technologies, and chamber. Harbor Branch has made many significant Sea- to identify future requirements. The most intensive contributions through the use of the Johnson effort was held at the University of Rhode Island Link submersibles. They have been involved with (URI), Kingston, Rhode Island, in October, 1986. the exploration of the U.S.S. Monitor for the marine There were 80 participants; support was from the sanctuary established by NOAA; they recently National Science Foundation (NSF), the National discovered the deepest-known living marine algae, Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National off the Bahamas; and searched for marine drugs in Undersea Research Program (NOAA/NURP), and the the Galapagos (see Oceanus Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 69- Office of Naval Research (ONR). 71). Perhaps their most well-known contribution was At the meeting, the need to equip researchers for the search and recovery of the Challenger space with new tools was repeatedly emphasized, and an shuttle debris. Harbor Branch also has developed a and analogy was drawn that likened the plight of ocean number of tools for use on their submersibles, scientists today to terrestrial counterparts being given their large ROVs the CORD and the Hysub 40.

32 OCEANFER

A fleet of 75 Jim suits have been built for operation worldwide, mostly in support of offshore oil operations. The operator supplies muscle power, but Jim re//es on a tether for communication and deployment. (Photo by Graham Hawkes)

The Japanese also have an active research submersible. With support from NOAA/NURP for submersible program. Operated by the Japan Marine research in the eastern United States coastal areas, Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC), the and in the Bahama Islands, the Nekton/De/ta-type Shinkai 2,000 has made about 70 dives a year around vehicles have become scientific "workhorses" for the Japanese Islands since 1983. A new submersible, benthic work to depths of 1,000 feet. Particularly the Shinkai 6,500, scheduled for launch in 1989 (see useful for relatively low-cost operation from various Oceanus Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 29-32), will be one vessels in New England waters, the Nekton/De/fa has of the world's deepest-diving submersibles. been used by scientists for benthic studies on lobster The French also operate several submersibles, habitats, "ghost" gill nets, fisheries dynamics among them the . The Nautile has a 6,000- (particularly herring spawning) and canyon meter depth capability, and this past summer made environments, to name a few. a series of dives on the Titanic to recover artifacts. One-person Tethered Vehicles. The history of Technology represented by Alvin, the Johnson one-person tethered systems began more than half a Sea-Links, Pisces V, and other submersibles, while century ago. Best known is Jim, essentially an proven effective for scientific studies and armored, articulated diving unit, named after Jim exploration, is expensive. Use of these systems is Jarrett, the first person willing to try it on for testing. therefore somewhat limited. There are also After successful use for salvage in the 1930s, the ]im characteristics inherent in each of these relatively was put aside until the early 1970s when North Sea large systems that make them impractical for certain offshore oil development generated new interest in applications. This has led to a new class of lighter, "atmospheric diving." Fifteen of these one-man smaller, and less expensive submersibles for "personal submersibles" have been built and shallow- and mid-depth research. commercially operated worldwide in depths to 500 meters. Wasp, a more advanced one-man New Capabilities anthropomorphic (having a human form) vehicle that is of Three categories of small, readily transportable self-propelled and capable working throughout systems have been used for scientific research in the the water column, was developed in 1976. Since past decade. They include: then, 18 Wasps and 30 related one-man submersibles, called Mantis, have been used worldwide for industrial from Two-person, autonomous applications ranging oil-rig inspection and maintenance, to recovering bits One-person, tethered of downed aircraft. In less than a decade, these vehicles transformed deep-water commercial One-person, autonomous diving by lowering costs, increasing operational depth, and improving overall working capabilities. Two-person autonomous vehicles. The first The first scientific use of Wasp was pioneered category includes the Makali'i (mentioned by Bruce Robison of the University of California, previously), as well as the two-person Nekton/De/ta Santa Barbara, with support from NSF. Robison and a

33 Table 1. Vehicle information.*

Name The LRT, with the submersible* Jim and Star II aboard, submerged at a dive site off Hawaii. The completely submersible launch-and-retrieval platform, or LRT, operated by the University of Hawaii avoids difficulties sometimes encountered when using conventional techniques in less-than-optimum weather and wave conditions. (Photo by Sylvia Earle)

Coming in for an underwater landing, Deep Rover here uses the submersible towed "LRT" platform normally used to deploy the 2-man sub, Makali'i, in Hawaii. Deep Rover differs from most larger submersibles in that it does not require a dedicated support ship. More than a dozen launch platforms have been used successfully to deploy the little submersible. (Photo by Terry Kersy)

35 In September, 7 986, author Sylvia Earle organized a 30-day project for use of Deep Rover at the Marine Research Center, Bahamas, that resulted in use of the system by 46 people who made 66 dives in depths as great as 3,000 feet. Most of the pilots were first-time submersible-users. New scientific observations include the surprising discovery Like divers, one-man submersibles, such as the Mantis of huge sand dunes in depths from 1 ,000 to 2,500 feet, the systems shown here, can be deployed as "" documentation of plant life in depths to 800 feet, and pairs. A novice operator can be accompanied by an numerous observations concerning the day/night behavior of experienced partner for safety, if desired. The two subs can midwater and bottom-living fish and invertebrates. (Photo by also cooperate for tasks where "four manipulators are better Sylvia Earle) than two." (Photo by Sylvia Earle)

In 1985, Robison organized a program, using Future Developments in Manned Submersibles Rover for research on midwater in the Deep ecology Anticipated new developments include greater Submarine Canyon, off California. With Monterey availability for portable manned submersibles for from NSF, 50 dives, 4 hours were support averaging scientific applications. This will fulfill needs made 30 of in to 2,000 during days operation depths expressed at the URI meeting by Edith Widder: "The feet. As with scientists were trained in a few Wasp, major problem is not that the state of the technology days to operate the system safely, abiding by the is inadequate, it is just that there are not enough same as commercial submersible guidelines pilots. vehicles available." Other needed developments are The of having the research scientist at advantages tools for specific tasks, and refinement of accessories the controls of the submersible has to be proven for existing systems. effective and efficient. Entirely new systems for search and survey, as Since the Monterey project, Deep Rover has well as site-specific tasks, also will be developed established a track record of research in operation ultimately for operation in the oceans' greatest to 3,000 feet during dives conducted in San depths depths. One example for mid-depths, presently California, and in the Bahamas. More than Diego, under construction, is a one-man 1,500 meter 100 individuals, including G. Richard Harbison vehicle, Deep Flight, described in the December of Harbor Branch Institution and Oceanographic 1986 issue of Sea Technology magazine. Larry P. Madin, Associate Scientist in the WHOI Vehicles Biology Department, have used the system from 12 Remotely Operated different launch platforms, including a barge with a The history of scientific application of ROV moonpool (central equipment-handling well), and technology has not been as long and varied as that from ships using A-frame deployment and various of manned submersibles. However, the industrial cranes. development of early (large and expensive) ROVs by

36 can be handled one or two Easy to deploy, Phantom vehicles and other small, portable ROVs readily by people working from a small boat. (Photo by Sylvia Earle)

to submarine caves. A An HD Phantom is used by scientists from the Bermuda Biological Station explore Phantom 500 was used to pioneer ROV operations in Antarctica during a 1986-87 project sponsored by the National Science Foundation. (Photo by Tom Iliffe)

37 Hydro Products, Inc., San Diego, California, and their with powerful new tools that will lower the cost of contemporaries, as well as application developments obtaining certain kinds of information, prolong by Taylor Diving, Belle Chasse, Louisiana, and observation time, and make it possible to observe, others, were important historical steps. ROVs have gather data, and provide documentation well generally been used more in the industrial and beyond diver depth, and in inhospitable military sectors, but ROV technology is making the environments. transition to science. A New Era Deployment of the small, Jason Jr. ROV from Alvin to explore the Titanic's intricate interior in Considering the current emphasis on issues relating 12,000 feet of water demonstrated an effective to global change and global processes, one might ask marriage of manned and ROV systems for research where these technologies fit into today's science. It in the deep sea. A small Phantom ROV for use from appears that they are most appropriate for the study Deep Rover has been developed to enable the pilot of small- and micro-scale phenomena, and process- to observe and document events up to 100 feet oriented research. Understanding these small-scale away from the sub. phenomenon makes it possible to more When low-cost, portable ROVs were quantitatively assess and accurately model large- and introduced in 1984, the first applications were global-scale occurrences. In some ways, new primarily commercial. Deep Sea Systems' MiniRover submersible technologies will provide the ground was the first ROV developed in this class. More than truth for remotely gathered data. 60 small vehicles have been produced by Deep Sea The NOAA report said that: "These new Systems, Falmouth, Massachusetts, including technologies must be the basic tools of the next MiniRovers, and the deeper-diving, more robust, Sea generation of oceanographers; and the only way for Rover vehicles. Four variations on the small-vehicle this to occur is for the present generation to begin theme have been produced by Deep Ocean using them now." The issue of availability, or lack Engineering, Inc., San Leandro, California, ranging thereof, led to two areas of consensus at the URI from the Phantom 300, for use in depths to 300 feet, meeting: to the Super Phantom, rated for use to 1,000 feet. More than a dozen kinds of are portable systems Availability of the technology (through funded research now available, and applications for scientific national programs) will follow the needs of of the are limited only by the number vehicles and science; and of scientists. imagination the coalescing of scientific interest in ROVs and recent scientific of Some applications ROVs submersibles with major, mainstream science include: programs is essential.

Under-the-ice observation and The demand, the enthusiasm, and the funding documentation in the Antarctic of benthic life for these new technologies are all dependent on the and the behavior of and fish, penguins, seals, new scientific questions that can be both asked of, NSF. whales, supported by and answered by, the use of these special the behavior of nets and Monitoring fishing capabilities. The scientific interest is building. A new other as well as the behavior of fish gear, by era of exploration and understanding of the deep sea fisheries biologists, through NOAA/NMFS has just begun. (National Marine Fisheries Service). of fish behavior and the Exploration deep Lynne Carter Hanson is the Executive Director of the reefs offshore from Lee Stocking Island, Center for Ocean Management Studies at the scientists associated with the Bahamas, by University of Rhode Island. Sylvia A. Earle is a Caribbean Marine Research Center. Research Biologist at the California Academy of Observations of marine crabs scientists by Sciences, and Vice President of Deep Ocean from Marine Station and the Hopkins Engineering, Inc., San Leandro, California. Monterey Bay Aquarium. Documentation of the reactions of marine organisms to a baited system by researchers from the Hubbs Marine Research Institute, San Diego. Suggested Readings Busby, F. 1987. Undersea Vehicle Directory. Arlington, VA: Busby Associates, Inc. Future in ROVs Developments Hanson, L. C. 1986. The marine research community and low-cost ROVs and submersibles: Needs and Rl: The next major developments for research prospects. Kingston, Center for Ocean Management Studies, University of Rhode application of small ROVs are likely to emphasize Island. accessories for tasks. Small specific Conductivity- Marine Technology Society. 1983. Marine Technology Society units for continuous Temperature-Depth (CTD) Journal, Volume 17, Number 3 Special Issue, Atmospheric monitoring of hydrographic characteristics, and other Diving Systems Symposium. Washington, D.C.: Marine data, and specimen-gathering equipment are now Technology Society. Subnotes a commercial news devoted to submersibles being developed. magazine and ROVs. Spring Valley, California: Windate Enterprises. While it is unlikely that small, portable ROVs Undersea Research Study Panel. 1986. New directions for NOAA's will methods of data replace present obtaining undersea research program, April 15, 1986. Washington, D.C.: underwater, such systems will provide researchers National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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CRETACEOUS

Illustration by E. Kevin King 40 EDITOR'S NOTE: A pair of Canadian geologists years ago during the transition from the Cretaceous reported in June of this year in the British magazine to the Tertiary periods when dinosaurs roamed the Nature that they had identified a large crater caused land. In contrast to the meteorite theory, many by a meteorite on the North Atlantic continental scientists argue that the extinctions were the result shelf some 200 kilometers southeast of Nova Scotia, of large-scale volcanic activity on Earth. And one Canada. Although meteorite craters have been researcher recently has proposed in a letter to studied extensively on land, the Canadians- Nature (Michael R. Rampino, a scientist at NASA's Georgia Pe-Piper of St. Mary's University in Halifax Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 11 June 1987) and Lubomir F. Jansa of the Bedford Institute of that the extinctions may have been triggered by an Oceanography in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia- extraterrestrial event which in turn caused large- maintained their identification from geochemical scale volcanic activity with resultant clouds of ashes and seismic evidence was the first of an impact that blocked out the sun and brought on the Ice crater at sea, although there have been several other Ages. The following article, reprinted in part from proposed sites. The crater is 45 kilometers in the Winter 1986/87 issue of Mosaic, the journal of diameter and sits in 1 13 meters of water. The crater the National Science Foundation, documents the itself is 2,800 meters deep. In recent years, a controversy and points out the role that marine controversy has been raging among geologists and science plays in this heated debate. paleontologists over whether a large impact, or a series of impacts, by meteorites could possibly have initiated a round of mass extinctions 65 million

IRIDIUM SPIKE

by Ben Patrusky

was hardly the first time that a sky-is-falling It hypothesis had been put forth to explain mass extinctions those episodes in the Earth's history during which major portions of the planet's life forms vanished. But the scenario proposed in 1980 by Nobelist-cum-astrophysicist Luis Alvarez, his

K-T \ BOUNDARY 65 million TERTIARY years ago

41 geologist son Walter, and co-workers at the What they have begun to promulgate recently University of California at Berkeley was different. It is a far more drawn-out extinction scenario a came with evidence: an iridium spike an above- hybrid of catastrophism and gradualism involving normal of the platinumlike metal- bombardment not by a single killer asteroid but discovered in a 65-million-year-old layer of clay rather by cometary showers that rained down upon demarking the boundary between two geological the earth over a period lasting, say, a few million periods, the Cretaceous and the Tertiary. years. But many paleontologists remain firmly To the Alvarez team, the spike, or anomaly, committed to the belief that there is no need to suggested a collision of the earth with a giant invoke extraterrestrial causes; they say the newly asteroid. The catastrophe, they argued, led to the uncovered biological data are readily explicable by almost instantaneous annihilation of much of the terrestrial extinction processes. These would be then-extant biota, including, most dramatically, the changes in climate (especially temperature) induced, last of the dinosaurs. The detection in 1 982 of a for example, by protracted and excessive volcanism, similar anomaly elsewhere in the geological record a global reduction in sea level, or a shifting of quickly led the team to ascribe yet another major tectonic plates. If it achieves nothing else, in fact, the extinction the so-called terminal Eocene or asteroid hypothesis will have served science by Eocene-Oligocene event, dated at 37 million years galvanizing paleobiologists, geochemists, geologists, before the present to catastrophic impact with a and scientists from a host of other disciplines into a bolide, or extraterrestrial body. new round of fact finding. This heightened activity is So artfully delineated was the hypothesis, and a major plus, even though the new facts may spell so forcefully presented, that it quickly received the demise of the original Alvarez proposal. worldwide publicity and widespread acceptance. Coincidence or Proof? But endorsement was hardly universal. Not insignificantly, among those who greeted this One of the first to challenge the asteroid hypothesis proposition most skeptically were the scientists most was Berkeley scientist William A. Clemens, whose intimately involved in writing the obituaries of the specialty is vertebrate paleontology. Clemens has for earth's long-departed denizens. Extinction is, after many years been working on terrestrial extinctions all, first and foremost a biological story, and the and species origination across the K-T boundary. His paleontologists and paleobiologists who interpret primary research arena is the badlands of that story as limned in the fossil record were northeastern Montana, part of the Western Interior disinclined to endorse a catastrophy theory. of North America lying east of the Rocky Mountains To a large degree, theirs was the resistance of and extending from southern Canada to the gradualists, adherents to the idea that extinction is an southwestern states. element in the saga of Darwinian evolution and, like During the late Cretaceous period, this stretch was the coastline for a it, one of the protracted, ecological, earth-bound large epicontinental sea that processes rather than a consequence of abrupt, covered the central United States. Coexisting at the catastrophic phenomena. And from what they knew sea's western edge was a large assembly of mammals of ground-truth as embodied in the fossil record, and lower vertebrates, including dinosaurs. With its paleontologists certainly felt justified in their many exposures of rock from the late Cretaceous conviction. and early Tertiary, the badlands, particularly a place The paleontological community is not by called Hell Creek, have yielded what may well be nature a vociferous or confrontational group, the most complete record of change in the terrestrial however. For the most part, at least initially, the biota across the boundary. Clemens and his community elected to ignore the Alvarez hypothesis, colleagues also have done extensive collecting in which it thought would disappear as have all prior similarly fossil-rich sites in Wyoming and Alberta, extinction models involving extraterrestrial Canada. influences. That assumption proved to be erroneous. Clemens took early issue with the Alvarez Finally, pressed by the persistence of the hypothesis on a number of accounts. One had to do bolide idea, paleontologists were obliged to take with the fact that the iridium anomaly was first some action. They turned to the extinction data discovered in three marine sections in Gubbio, base, the fossil record, and began to comb it in fine- Italy; Stevns Klint, Denmark; and Caravaca, Spain- toothed detail. By collecting evidence at hitherto all of which showed a sudden decline in marine unheard-of levels of resolution, they sought to test invertebrate taxa. By what justification, Clemens the predictions generated by the Alvarez hypothesis wondered, did Alvarez and his colleagues (his son against what actually happened biologically. The Walter, Frank Asaro, and Helen Michels) link these quest is still continuing, but the almost feverish work marine-based findings to the demise of dinosaurs of the last few years has already had important and other terrestrial creatures? theoretical impact. It has uncovered complex Since then, the iridium anomaly and other patterns of extinction that clearly cannot be evidence of impact, including the presence of explained by the single-impact hypothesis, neither at microtektites (glassy rock) and so-called shocked the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) nor the Eocene- quartz, have been identified at dozens of K-T Oligocene (E-O) boundaries or, for that matter, at any boundary sites, both marine and terrestrial. But even of the other major extinction boundaries. These so, says Clemens, there is still very good reason to discoveries, in turn, have forced proponents of the question whether extraterrestrial objects had extinction-by-bolide theory to work on major anything at all to do with terrestrial extinctions. In his revisions. own studies, for instance, he has found the last fossil

42 traces of dinosaur as far as 3 meters below the K-T boundary, suggesting that they became extinct well before the presumptive impact that produced the iridium spike. Moreover, Clemens has traced dinosaur diversity patterns through late Cretaceous rock formations and observed a significant reduction in the number of species and overall population size during the 1 million years leading up to the K-T boundary. To Clemens, this clearly suggests that dinosaurs were not in full flower but were, in fact, already well on their way out long before the putative asteroid event 65 million years ago. Last year, Robert E. Sloan of the University of Minnesota and his coworkers J. Keith Rigby, University of Notre Dame; Leigh M. Van Valen, University of Chicago; and Diane Gabriel, Milwaukee Public reported finding fossils of "the last dinosaurs known" in the Hell Creek section of eastern Montana. The fossils were found in sediments containing pollen and mammalian teeth from the post-Cretaceous period. The sediments were said to be more than four feet above the clay layer containing the clues that argue for the asteroid- impact hypothesis. Other paleontologists have expressed reservations about this new report, contending that the relation to an iridium-rich clay deposit is inferred, and that the fossils and sediments have been so mixed up by stream erosion that they may in fact be of Cretaceous origin. If the new discovery proves to be post-Cretaceous, however, this new finding would serve to further refute the Alvarez hypothesis. As Clemens explains, "I heard Luis, left, and Walter Alvarez believe that the iridium layer is Luis [Alvarez] say, 'Bill, if you find one dinosaur bone evidence of extinctions. (Photo courtesy of University of above the iridium level, you've got me.'" California, Berkeley) Another major objection of Clemens' concerns the premise on which the Alvarez hypothesis was implicitly based: that contemporaneity equals proof; that existence of of at K-T presumptive evidence impact the boundary colleague, J. Howard Hutchison, and former student meant, of necessity, that this impact caused David Archibald, now at the University of California extinction. "I have no hang-up with the notion of at San Diego. They detected a loss of only three of extraterrestrial objects periodically colliding with the nineteen turtle genera representing an extinction earth," he says. "What I have trouble with is the rate of merely 16 percent. Unlike marsupials, the assumptions having to do with how these impacts other orders of mammals, multituberculates impinged on biology, if in fact they did." In his (rodentlike animals) and placentals, fared pretty well. original argument, Alvarez proposed a mechanism of Among the former, four of eleven genera and two of extinction akin to nuclear winter. His thesis was that eight families became extinct during the transition an iridium-rich, ten-kilometer asteroid, upon from the Cretaceous period to the Tertiary period. colliding with the earth, threw up a dust cloud that Among placental animals, only one of nine genera suppressed photosynthesis and caused a temporary and one of four families died out at the end of the collapse in the food chain. To Clemens' way of period. thinking, very little could have survived such a Of the entire spectrum of fossil faunas formidable catastrophe. But the terrestrial record of unearthed in the Western Interior, only 43 percent vertebrate fauna says otherwise. of the 1 1 7 known latest Cretaceous terrestrial genera (including freshwater fishes) and 35 percent of the Too Few Victims 65 recognized families lack Tertiary decendants. The only taxa that did not make it across the K-T "The record [from the northern Western Interior] boundary at all, says Clemens, were the dinosaurs, clearly shows that extinction of dinosaurs and the pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and one family of pterosaurs was not accompanied by extraordinary freshwater fish. Two orders of animals showed a high decimation of most contemporary groups of rate of extinction: marsupials (which lost 75 percent terrestrial vertebrates," says Clemens. In his view, the of late Cretaceous genera and 65 percent of families) complex, highly selective pattern of extinction seen and freshwater sharks and rays (which lost three of in the fossil record hardly meshes with the severe, five Cretaceous genera). Turtles, by contrast, sailed haphazard pattern that would have been expected through the boundary almost unscathed, according from a catastrophe of the magnitude of an earth- to recent studies by William Clemens' Berkeley asteroid collision.

43 Evidence garnered by marine paleontologists In foram extinction, the K-T boundary also has served to undermine the original Alvarez represented still another step, clearly the most hypothesis. Here, too, the fossil record tends to dramatic, in the decline. But not all species refute a primary assumption of the collision thesis: disappeared; Keller has found that at least five not that all late Cretaceous organisms that went extinct one as had been argued previously made it did so at the K-T boundary. Working in Zumaya, through the K-T boundary. Before the extinctions, 35 Spain, on an outcrop that had lain beneath the sea or more species had existed at one time or another 65 million years ago a section bearing perhaps the during the late Cretaceous period. most complete, continuous, land-based marine fossil Marine Macrofossils record of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods- Peter Ward of the University of Washington in Perhaps the first scientist to take notice of stepping of K-T extinction Seattle scrupulously tracked, layer by layer, the as a characteristic and other mass extinctions Erie G. Kauffman of the of history of the ammonites, the once-populous marine was University invertebrates. Colorado at Boulder. A marine paleontologist, He found that the ammonites which bore a Kauffman has for more than two decades strong resemblance to today's chambered mollusk, concentrated largely on studies at the K-T boundary the sea nautilus had begun to go into serious of molluscan macrofossils. His particular interest is decline six million to seven million years before the mollusks, including Cretaceous, -forming rudists. end of the Cretaceous period, and had all but Those bivalves underwent a tremendous, global disappeared 300,000 years before the K-T boundary. expansion in mid-Cretaceous times, displacing Ward turned up shells of at least eight to ten species corals, by way of competitive superiority, as the of ammonites TOO meters below the K-T boundary, major reef-building organisms. Kauffman investigated but he found no traces in the highest 12 meters of extinction among bivalves at various sites in the the Cretaceous section. From his studies, Ward Western Interior, on the Atlantic Coast of North concluded that the final extinction for another group America, on continental sections of Western Europe, of invertebrates, large bivalves known as and in the Caribbean Sea and . inoceramids, had come earlier. Hence, the demise Through an extensive analysis of all available of these ammonites and inoceramids could hardly evidence for extinction patterns of marine be ascribed to a one-shot impact at the still-to-come macrofossils across the K-T boundary, Kauffman in that iridium-rich K-T boundary. It had rather to be concluded in a report published 1984 the ascribed to sweeping and protracted deleterious mass extinction was a protracted event spanning a changes in the late Cretaceous ecosystem. period of about three million to four million years. In his reading of the data base, Kauffman sees the disappearances beginning about two million years Extinctions Stepwise before the K-T boundary and proceeding in a series Closer analysis of the ammonite data brought yet of five discrete steps across the boundary into the another critical observation to light. It seems that early Tertiary period. He finds that the most dramatic these species died out not one by one in a series of extinction event occurred at the boundary itself. gradual, continuous disappearances but rather in Each step, he explains, represents a short episode of what amounted to three or four rather abrupt steps. highly accelerated extinctions. Those first affected First a few species went out at one level, then a few were the most ecologically sensitive organisms (that

more disappeared perhaps hundreds of thousands or is, tropical creatures presumably able to withstand a million years later, and so on. Still-viable species only the narrowest swings in temperature or oceanic remained stable during the intervening sequences, chemistry), with progressively more tolerant groups though no new species of ammonites sprang to life. succumbing in the later stages. Ward readily acknowledges that the extinction Kauffman has observed much the same record from the Zumaya outcrop may represent only pattern at yet another marine-extinction boundary a local happening and cautions about using these on which he has lavished considerable research findings to draw more generalized conclusions. But attention and which fell in the mid-Cretaceous studies reported in 1985 by Gerta Keller of Princeton period, 93.3 million years ago. This event, recorded University suggest that this stepwise extinction in and around the Cenomanian-Turnonian (C-T) pattern occurred globally. boundary, was not in the same league as the K-T Keller has centered her paleontological extinction boundary. It was still of major research on the fossilized remains of planktonic consequence, however, wiping out 50 to 75 percent foraminifera microscopic, single-celled organisms of species in various major groups of the marine that lived as marine floaters. When they died, their biota over a period of 2.5 million years. The C-T calcareous (calcium carbonate) shells slipped to the extinction was clearly stepwise in nature, says bottom of the sea, each species depositing its own Kauffman. It showed six brief intervals of accelerated distinctive brand of shell. In microfossil samples from extinction separated by longer recovery intervals different deep-sea sites as well as a once-submerged characterized by low-level background extinction site in El Kef, Tunisia, Keller found what appeared to rates that characterize the evolution of species. be four discrete intervals of foram species extinction Comets or rapid faunal turnover. These occurred over a 4- million-year period prior to the K-T boundary. At Recognition of these stepwise patterns, made least three of these steps appear to coincide with possible through highly refined stratigraphic analysis those observed by Ward in his Zumayan ammonites. of abundant marine fossil records, led advocates of

44 is the so-called coal. /Above, a typ/ca/ bad/and area /n northeastern Montana. The black line across the bluffs boundary Dinosaurian remains occur below this level; none have been found above it. Below, a researcher collects a limb bone of a A. "duck-billed" or hadrosaurian dinosour in the badlands. (Photos by Christa /. Sadler, courtesy of W. Clemens)

45 the impact hypothesis to revise the original Alvarez extinction events for evidence of impact. And that is theory. They stopped far short, however, of what scientists have begun to do. abandoning the notion that extraterrestrial agents were involved in these extinction events. They came Multiple Impacts up instead with an alternative catastrophe model to For the present, the only really strong signs of impact account for these and possibly a number of the related to K-T extinctions are those seen at the other major extinctions recorded in the planet's fossil boundary itself: heavy of iridium, the history. The new hypothesis, as propounded by Piet presence of microtektites, shocked quartz, and Hut, an astrophysicist at the Institute for Advanced feldspar. But in 1985 two new, tantalizing pieces of Study in Princeton, replaces the idea of a single evidence were turned up that pointed to the asteroid impact with a cometary-shower theory. It possibility of multiple impacts near the K-T boundary. proposes as a possible extinction mechanism a One comes from Gerhart Craup and his associates at passing star that disturbed a comet cloud and the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, scattered comets into space. The notion is that Germany. It involves the detection of three iridium several of the comets would have struck the earth spikes in a section of the Bavarian Alps: one at the over a period of a few million years and these could K-T boundary, another in the clay-rich layer about 30 account for the stepwise extinctions. centimeters above the boundary, and a third, one This idea of cometary fleets has begun to meter below the boundary and associated with the acquire a measure of support from several marine presence of microtektites. The last, says paleontologists who had opposed the original paleontologist Keller, is the first hint of an impact Alvarez proposal, among them Kauffman, a onetime event occurring prior to the K-T boundary. "Taken out-and-out gradualist. "I used to think you don't together," she says, "the three iridium anomalies need impact with extraterrestrial bodies to explain suggest multiple impacts near the K-T boundary. what happened," says Kauffman. "My belief was that Although Graup and his associates suggest that they earthbound events, such as regression of the seas as represent tectonic disturbance of a single event, this occurred prior to the K-T boundary, were enough to explanation appears very doubtful considering that account for the changes in climate and temperature the iridium anomaly and microtektites 1 meter that are taken to be the immediate cause of below the K-T boundary are associated with late extinctions. But I've changed my mind." Cretaceous fauna and the iridium anomaly above the His conversion stems from the discovery of boundary is associated with early Tertiary fauna." what he calls "very unusual signals" from the stable New Evidence isotopes found in the fossil-shell record. When organisms, such as calcareous plankton for example, The second piece of evidence was turned up by the make their calcium carbonate shells, the ratios of Alvarez group. They reported finding multiple carbon-12 to carbon-13 and oxygen-16 to oxygen-18 iridium anomalies one major peak at the K-T incorporated in the construction has much to do boundary and three smaller peaks preceding the with the ambient temperature and chemistry. When boundary in a deep-sea core sample from the the organism dies, those ratios are frozen in the shell. North Pacific. According to Keller, there is a As a result, a great deal can be inferred from a shell possibility that the lowest iridium peak represents about the contemporary marine environment. What the same event as the microtektite layer and iridium the records show, says Kauffman, is a variety of anomaly discovered by the Graup group 1 meter large-scale and rapid changes in the stable isotope below the boundary. She also cites a study involving signals indicative of rapid and bizarre perturbations analysis of samples from the same core by in the ocean environment. These changes were paleontologist Robert Thunnel of the University of significant enough to cause extinctions. South Carolina and former graduate student Jennifer Kauffman thinks that collision with comets Gerstel. Gerstel (now at the South Carolina might be just the vehicle to trigger these shifts. A Department of Health and Environmental Control) comet crashing into the sea, he says, could certainly and Thunnel reported a rapid decline in larger serve as enough of a stirring rod to bring about a species of planktonic forams less than 1 meter below major turnover in the chemical and temperature the K-T boundary, suggesting a relationship between regimes. Land impact would also have an effect on the lowest iridium anomaly and the faunal change. marine life through establishment of a light-filtering Keller and her graduate student Steve D'Hondt have dust cloud and possibly by its fallout and the subsequently embarked on a study of selected deep- production of acid rain. He points out, too, that the sea and onshore marine sections, including the area impacts may well have come before the actual in the Bavarian Alps where Graup made his initial extinctions; it is the resultant oceanic and climatic discovery. Keller hopes to determine the timing and perturbations that finally cause extinction. "Final nature of these late Cretaceous and early Tertiary extinction simply occurred when already stressed stepwise extinctions, or faunal turnovers, and locate organisms couldn't hang on any longer as the further evidence of impact events. "We expect the perturbations kept building on top of each other," he study to show whether stepwise K-T mass extinctions suggests. are related to impact events and what type of For the most part, paleontologists have spent environmental changes are associated with them." their time looking for clues to extinction at or near Needless to say, the cometary-shower the boundary layers that define these extinctions. hypothesis has met with a fair amount of skepticism. Now, given the revised hypothesis, there seems to The critics continue to insist that extraterrestrial be good reason to look at levels below the actual influences are not needed to account for the K-T

46 mass extinctions. They contend that an excess of volcanic activity could well have been at the root of these extinctions. Several studies conclusively show that the earth experienced a major, extended peak of volcanism from the late Cretaceous to the early Tertiary period. In 1985, geologists Charles B. Officer and Charles L. Drake of Dartmouth College conducted a detailed analysis of all pertinent research bearing on volcanic activity and extinctions during this transition period. They argue that the volatile emissions caused by these eruptions would probably have led to intense acid rain and a concomitant change in ocean chemistry, as well as global -layer depletion with a consequent increase in ultraviolet radiation. These factors, they say, in conjunction with sea-level regression known to be going on at the time, would have produced the extinction patterns observed in the geologic record. Moreover, they contend, the ostensible signatures of extraterrestrial impact- deposition of an excess of iridium, microtektites, and shocked quartz might just as readily have been products of this massive and extended volcanic Microtektites found in deep-sea cores. (SEM X300. Courtesy activity. of Princeton University, Gerta Keller) Terrestrial or extraterrestrial? Cometary showers or vulcanism? "That's a tough one," says spent several years studying the Eocene-Oligocene Donald Prothero, a paleontologist at Occidental microfossil record in deep-sea cores from various College in Los Angeles. "The irony is that the parts of the globe. The cores were continuous (that from the vulcanism are predictions devolving model is, without geological gaps), enabling her to observe almost indistinguishable from those arising out of the changes with resolution of just a few thousand years. comet scenario. Both fit the spaced, stepped The story the fossils told was that of stepped extinctions seen in the record. The largest general extinctions extending over a period of 3.4 million conclusion to come out of looking at extinctions years, between 40 million and 36.6 million years ago. patterns among late Cretaceous animals, both Close examination indicated that each of the four vertebrate and invertebrate, is that the animals don't successive and rather sharply defined steps was follow any single, simple model. I've yet to hear marked by extinction of three to five species. The anyone come up with a good explanation for why, steps were separated by relatively stable or for example, dinosaurs went out and crocodiles and quiescent periods and included the accelerated turtles did not. You can't use size or warm- or cold- origination of new species. The species that became bloodedness as differentiating criteria. Right now extinct at each step event represented fewer than 15 there's just not enough difference between survivors percent of the number present, but the sum total of and nonsurvivors to make any simple model explain the late Eocene stepwise extinctions resulted in a everything." near complete faunal turnover. Collectively, it was a mass wipeout. At each step, it was the warm-water surface Back to Earth forams that successively became extinct, with the In 1 982, on the heels of discovery of an iridium spike vacated waters occupied in turn by expanding following microtektite detection high up in a deep- colonies of species that rose from cooler depths to sea core, Alvarez and his colleagues extended their occupy the vacant niches. These observations, single-bolide theory to another major extinction together with oxygen-isotope data, suggested that a event this one at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, protracted cooling trend was in progress. Curiously, dated at 36.5 million years ago. The assumption the least devastating of the steps (in terms of the again was that the extinctions associated with this total foram population) came at the E-O dividing line epoch boundary all happened suddenly and itself. This further dispelled the notion of a simultaneously right at the end of the Eocene period. catastrophic event. Similar findings were made by An intensified search of the fossil record, by marine Western Washington University's Thor Hansen, who and terrestrial paleobiologists, showed that an examined the late Eocene history of mollusks in the instant-extinction hypothesis was incorrect in this Gulf Coast and found stepwise extinction of bivalves instance as well. In response, the bolide advocates and gastropods amounting to a collective loss of 79 again advanced the cometary-shower hypothesis, percent of species present. Moreover, the steps but there seems to be far more reason to believe coincided in time with those of foram extinctions, in that earth-derived, tectonic-driven processes were which successive warm-water groups suffered higher principally responsible. extinction rates than cool-water groups. From the marine side, the argument against What lent credence to the theory of some catastrophe stems in part from the work first contribution by a cometary shower was Keller's reported in 1983 by Princeton's Keller. She had discovery, in the deep-sea cores, of microtektites at

47 three stratigraphic levels closely associated with two What Prothero sees from his work and that of of the later steps of foram extinction. There is no others on the North American fossil record is a evidence of impact associated with the preceding drastic but gradual change in species diversity, two steps, says Keller, nor for another recorded later, spread out over as much as 10 million years from the at 32.5 million years ago, in what is called the mid- late Eocene to the mid-Oligocene period. During Oligocene event. To Keller, the evidence strongly this time archaic forms, most already in decline, go suggests that the extinctions were due to a long-term extinct and better-adapted forms emerge. climatic cooling trend that started before these The majority of archaic forms, remnants of impacts occurred and was driven by earthbound taxa long past their prime, were gone 42 million phenomena. "We don't need impact," says Keller of years ago, says Prothero. This was well before the the extinctions, "but the fact is we have impact, and Eocene-Oligocene boundary, which further refutes that coincidence cannot be ignored." Her tentative the notion of an abrupt E-O transition. Prothero conclusion: "Populations already in decline and thinks the forms found at the North American E-O teetering on the brink of extinction because of boundary were, in part, migrants from Asia that had climatic may be pushed over the edge into come by way of a land bridge across the Bering Strait oblivion by a minor perturbation a collision with a connecting Siberia and Alaska during a time of comet, for example." glaciation and reduced sea level, or by way of Greenland, which still linked the old and new The Psychrosphere worlds. The overriding cause of these extinctions is thought Another Event to be protracted terrestrial cooling. The cooling Boundary would derive from the origination during the About 2 million years after the E-O division a Eocene-Oligocene transition of the so-called period marked by relative faunal stability there is psychrosphere, the cold layer of bottom water in evidence of a large and abrupt extinction event. oceans. Its appearance resulted from the Dated at 32.4 million years ago and dubbed the mid- submergence and global circulation of dense, Oligocene extinction event, it saw the loss of still refrigerated waters. Prior to this, the world's oceans other archaic groups, including the titanotheres are presumed to have been of a piece, with (huge, rhinoceroslike animals) and the oromerycids essentially the same temperature from top to (primitive versions of latter-day camels). bottom. This psychrosphere idea was first advanced Prothero estimates that the interval of in 1977 by Richard Benson of the Smithsonian extinction lasted no more than 200,000 years. Institution. He deduced its formation from changes "Although the event happened relatively rapidly," he noted in the composition of deep-sea ostracods, says, "it was not catastrophic. The extinctions here small, bivalved crustaceans. In 1977 James P. were selective, with most of the disappearances Kennett of the University of Rhode Island proposed happening among groups that were primarily relics a model, based on plate tectonics, to explain how from the Eocene. Most of the other changes the psychrosphere came into existence. [dwarfing of some species and origination of new His hypothesis has since gained considerable species] were drawn out over the entire transition scientific support. It takes as its starting point the and do not suggest geologically instantaneous, separation of and South America from catastrophic causes." He believes corroborating Antarctica, which opened the way for ocean waters evidence, from studies of the flora and soils, argues to circulate around the isolated continent perched strongly that sweeping ecological and climatic atop the South Pole. The water grew colder, sank to change was responsible for the extinctions. great depths, and spread toward the equator. The From appearances, the Alvarez hypothesis, at process continued as water from higher latitudes least in its original shape, has just about joined the became trapped in this cooling engine. Meanwhile, ranks of the extinct itself. As one ground-truth as the Antarctic "I region grew more and more paleontologist puts it, guess the only thing that thermally isolated, ice began to accumulate on its would lead me to buy the single-impact hypothesis surface. That accretion was further enhanced by the is if I came across a dinosaur with the top of its head albedo effect, in which light is reflected by the ice, blown off and microtektites embedded in the skull causing accelerated cooling, an increase in bone." glaciation, and a reduction in sea level around the Whatever the final outcome, Alvarez and his world. Cool that began to pervade the colleagues are just now beginning to receive credit, earth were transmitted by frigid winds and ocean however grudgingly given, from the paleontological currents as they traversed the lower latitudes. community in appreciation of the effect the impact To terrestrial paleontologist Prothero, who has hypothesis has had upon their own research. probably studied Eocene-Oligocene mammalian "Whether right or wrong," says Keller, "I believe the extinctions in greater detail than anyone else, there Alvarez team has done a great service to science in is little reason to believe that impact with stirring up enormous controversy and interest so that extraterrestrial bodies had any significant impact on scientists would go back to their data or to their land fauna. "Even if you had things coming in from sections and take a second look and critically outer space, be it an asteroid or comets," says evaluate what's really there. This would not have Prothero, "the land animals were already so stressed happened without the prod of impact." by sea-level drops, glaciation, climate changes, and consequent changes in habitats that I don't think Ben Patrusky is a free-lance science writer, and the author of they would have noticed." Biology's Computational Future in Mosaic, Vol. 16, No. 4.

48 Photosynthesis Found in Some Single-Cell Marine Animals

by Diane K. Stoecker

v^/ur concept of the role of microzooplankton in which inorganic compounds (water and carbon marine food webs is changing. This is largely dioxide) are converted into organic compounds derived because many of these small creatures have both (like sugars) with the use of energy from animal and plant characteristics. Like other sunlight. Within the chloroplasts, chlorophyll is the zooplankters, most microzooplankters prey on primary photosynthetic pigment. It is this other organisms. But, unlike most animals, some of chlorophyll pigment that gives land plants and the protozoan (one-celled animal) microzooplankters contain functional chloroplasts "stolen" from phytoplankton, and are thus /Above, the author at the microscope, and Laboea strobila, photosynthetic. this observation raises some the largest of the chloroplast-retaining ciliates. This species interesting evolutionary questions. accounted (or 46 percent of the biomass of chloroplast- Chloroplasts are the organelles in plant cells retaining ciliates in Woods Hole waters. (Drawing courtesy responsible for photosynthesis, the process by of D. Montagnes, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada)

49 green algae their color. In addition to chlorophyll, however, most phytoplankton have accessory pigments in their chloroplasts that, combined with the chlorophyll, give them a yellowish green, golden brown, or reddish color. In coastal waters, the ciliated protozoa* usually dominate the microzooplankton. These microscopic one-celled animals propel themselves at rates of about 1 millimeter a second by means of their cilia, which also are used to capture food. The role of ciliates as microconsumers in the plankton is well recognized. They are estimated to consume 10 about as much phytoplankton as the larger copepods.** Most estimates of the grazing impact microns of microzooplankton indicate that these small zooplankters consume about 40 percent of the

. the figure 1 The best known of photosynthetic dilates, phytoplankton production. Myrionecta (formerly Mesodinium) rubrum. Unlike other However, the role of marine planktonic photosynthetic ciliates studied, which retain chloroplasts ciliates in photosynthesis is less well known. The this is a consortium from ingested phytoplankton, species best-known photosynthetic ciliate is Myrionecta a ciliate and an cell within between incomplete algal living (formerly Mesodinium) rubrum (Figure 1), a species the ciliate. The dark bodies within the ciliate are the that sometimes blooms and makes the sea maroon modified cell. This ciliate does not chloroplasts of the algal colored. In a letter from 1676, Anton van have a functional and on mouth, completely depends Leeuwenhoek, the inventor of the microscope, for its nutrition. (From Taylor, 1982) photosynthesis described observing a little animal in seawater that was undoubtedly M. rubrum. Charles Darwin observed a large M. rubrum bloom off Chile on the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle in the 1830s. The descriptions that were done in the late 1800s and early 1900s of marine ciliates mention the presence of pigmented "bodies" in many marine ciliates. The real nature of these pigmented bodies was not discovered until the 1970s when pigmented marine ciliates were first observed with electron microscopy. Electron micrographs disclosed that M. rubrum was not a single cell, but rather a consortium of a ciliate and a very modified alga.f On the other hand, electron micrographs of pigmented oligotrichousft marine ciliates were even more surprising. In 1973, David Blackbourn, Max Taylor, and Janice Blackbourn of the University of British Columbia in Canada reported finding that Laboea strobila and the pigmented Strombidium species (Figure 2) contain isolated chloroplasts, rather than algal cells. More recently,

* The subkingdom Protozoa is a heterogenous group of microscopic animals united only by their common single- cell structure. The ciliates, in their own phylum, constitute the most homogeneous of the protozoan groups. Paramecium, familiar to those who have studied biology, is a common example. ** Small, shrimp-like animals, ranging in size from 0.5 to 10 millimeters. They are important in the food chain of the sea because of their large numbers, and their role as grazers on single-celled phytoplankton and protozoa.

is the t Another example of this type of relationship zooxanthellae, or symbiotic dinoflagellates, found in certain reef-building corals (see Oceanus Vol. 29, No. 2, page 22).

Figure 2. A scanning electron micrograph of a ft Refers to the taxonomic order of marine ciliates to photosynthetic ciliate, Strombidium sp., which retains characterized by cilia largely restricted the mouth area, chloroplasts. (Photo courtesy of D. Montagnes and D. Lynn, with few cilia over the body surface. Most ciliates found University of Cuelph, Ontario, Canada) to retain chloroplasts are in this group.

50 Michele Laval-Peuto and Michele Febvre of the University of Nice, France, observed isolated chloroplasts in another oligotrichous ciliate, Tontonia. The chloroplasts in oligotrichs are structurally similar to those observed in phytoplankton. Thus it was hypothesized that the chloroplasts were derived from ingested algae.

Photosynthetic Ciliates in Coastal Waters With the exception of M. rubrum, which sometimes forms large patches of red water, the widespread occurrence and high abundance of photosynthetic ciliates in coastal waters was not appreciated until recently. There are two principal reasons. Ciliates, like most phytoplankters, rarely Figure 3. Samples collected from coastal waters in the occur at densities that cause visible blooms; and, vicinity of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, were surveyed for most ciliates are too small and too delicate to be chloroplast-retaining ciliates. Water samples were taken from the Woods Hole Institution captured by plankton nets. However, when coastal weekly Oceanographic dock in Woods Hole from 1985 to 1986. water samples are observed by combination of (WH) June lune During the summer of 1986, a survey was made of transmitted light and epifluorescent microscopy chloroplast-retaining ciliates in Vineyard Sound (stations A, (see box, page 53), many chloroplast-retaining B, and C), Buzzards Bay (stations D, E, and F), and oligotrichous ciliates (Laboea strobila, Jontonia sp., Nantucket Sound (stations G, H, I, I, and K), with the and Strombidium as well as some M. rubrum spp.) research vessel Asterias. are seen. Since the spring of 1985, the author and colleagues at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution have undertaken a study to assess the abundance and role of chloroplast-retaining ciliates. Several of the results were unexpected. We discovered that, in Woods Hole, chloroplast-retaining ciliates are found year-round, and have an average density of 1,167 cells per liter. However, they are much more abundant in the warm months, and can reach densities of more than 5,000 cells per liter in surface waters. Averaged on a yearly basis, 31 percent of the ciliates in the surface waters of Woods Hole have chloroplasts. We further found that chloroplast- retaining ciliates appear to be equally abundant in the bays and sounds near Woods Hole (Figure 3). Other investigators also have reported chloroplast-retaining ciliates from the eastern , the Pacific Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea. However, more quantitative data are required on the abundance of chloroplast- retaining ciliates in coastal and oceanic environments before we can assess their general significance.

Active Photosynthesis Verified Since the discovery of chloroplast-retention by ciliates in 1973, it has been speculated that these ciliates are actively photosynthetic. It was known that some sea (a of sea snails without slugs group a schematic Figure 4. A chloroplast-retaining ciliate shells) and some benthic (bottom-living) protozoa representation based on electron microscopy. also retain algal chloroplasts and, in some, but not Phytoplankton are ingested by the ciliate and digested in cases these are functional. all, chloroplasts vacuoles (DV) located in the central area of the cell. Some we have cultured both Laboea and Recently, phytoplankton chloroplasts are not digested by the ciliate several Strombidium in chloroplast-retaining species and remain intact (CP). The process by which these the This has allowed us to laboratory. investigate chloroplasts are separated from the rest of the under controlled conditions. These their physiology phytoplankton cell is not known. These "stolen" laboratory experiments have shown that chloroplasts are concentrated in the periphery of the cell. chloroplast-retaining ciliates require both algal food All of the other organelles in the ciliate cell, including the are and light. Although they can survive for several macronucleus (MN) and the mitochondria (Ml), typical are the days without food if they are kept in the light, they of ciliates. The chloroplasts only "foreign" do not continue to grow and divide unless they are organelles.

51 Microzooplankton

Zc.ooplankton range in size from jellyfish that the protozoans in fixed microzooplankton are up to a meter in diameter down to non- samples. photosynthetic flagellates that are as small as a Although microzooplankton, particularly few microns (a micron is one millionth of a protozoa, were ignored in most of the early meter). Near the small end of this size spectrum plankton studies, biological oceanographers are are the microzooplankton, which range from 20 now paying increasing amounts of attention to to 200 microns in size. Within the this size class. One reason is that the microzooplankton, protozoans (one-celled microzooplankton usually outnumber the larger animals) account numerically for more than 90 zooplankton by a factor of at least a thousand. percent of the organisms. The dominant Secondly, microorganisms, such as protozoa, protozoans in coastal microzooplankton are have higher -specific metabolic rates than planktonic ciliates and non-photosynthetic larger organisms, such as adult copepods. Thus, dinoflagellates. Early life stages of copepods microorganisms are thought to have a (nauplii) often contribute as much biomass to disproportionately large influence on ecosystem the microzooplankton as the protozoa, dynamics for their biomass. although they occur in lower numbers than the Lastly, most of the primary productivity in latter; this is because the nauplii tend to be the oceans is accomplished by phytoplankters close to the 200 micron upper size limit of this only a few microns in size. These algae are too category and the protozoa tend to be closer to small to be grazed efficiently by most larger the lower size limit, 20 microns. zooplankters but are the right size for many Fine gauze nets, such as 64 micron mesh, protozoans to eat. Protozoa also are important can be used to capture nauplii and other larger because some can efficiently utilize bacterial microzooplankters with a tough outer covering. production, which otherwise would be mostly However, the nets destroy many protozoans, "lost" to the food web. Protozoans are in turn which are usually naked cells. Therefore, they eaten by copepods, fish larvae, and other are usually sampled by collecting water. The zooplankton. The microzooplankton, samples are preserved (which makes cells particularly the protozoa, appear to be an tougher as well as killing them), and the important link in planktonic food webs. samples are gently concentrated in a settling chamber. A compound microscope (250 to 1000X magnification) is usually used to look at DKS

HD

OC

The relative sizes of the microzooplankton, shown in a water sample viewed against the meshes of a typical medium-gauze (333-micron mesh opening) plankton net. In order of abundance, the PD microzooplankton include ciliated protozoa (OC and TC), non-photosynthetic dinoflagellates (HD), and small copepod larvae, or nauplii (CN). The most common ciliates in the microzooplankton are the oligotrichous ciliates (OC) and the tintinnids (TC). Tintinnids are protected by a non-living outer OC covering, or lorica, whereas the oligotrichs do not Dl have a lorica. The larger chain-forming diatoms (Dl) and photosynthetic dinoflagellates (PD) are that are within the same size as 01 phytoplankton range mm microzooplankton. However, most phytoplankters (100 microns) are less than 20 microns in size.

52 also fed. As had been hypothesized, the ciliates "steal" their chloroplasts from phytoplankton. In collaboration with Mary Silver of the University of California at Santa Cruz we have found that the Epifluorescence algal chloroplasts are located in the periphery of the ciliate cell (Figure 4), where they should Microscopy receive the most light and where they are removed from the digestive vacuoles that are concentrated near the center of the cell. We have found that the chemical absorb short chloroplasts continue to photosynthesize in the uome compounds and ciliates for weeks, although there is no evidence wavelength light (high energy photons) then release some of this absorbed as that the chloroplasts can replicate in the ciliate. energy Healthy, growing ciliates divide about once a day. longer wavelength light (lower energy photons); this is called fluorescence. Some Thus, growing ciliates must constantly replace phenomenon can be identified their chloroplasts as they become diluted through cell compounds by division. absorption and emission spectra. Two plant pigments chlorophyll and phycoerythrinare New Questions fluorescent when excited with short wavelength blue the The prevalence of chloroplast-retaining ciliates light. Chlorophyll, green pigment, fluoresces and a reddish raises several questions for biological red, phycoerythrin, found in some oceanographers. If, in general, a large proportion of accessory pigment algae, fluoresces planktonic ciliates are both grazers and yellow. It is often difficult to between photosynthetic organisms, then the position of distinguish small ciliates in planktonic food webs needs to be photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic reconsidered. These one-celled animals may be an plankton when they are observed using standard For this important "short-cut" between primary production light microscopy. reason, has to be an (photosynthesis) and production of animal biomass. epifluorescence microscopy proven Because of their mixed nutrition, they should be extremely important tool in biological Its use has led to the extremely efficient producers of animal biomass in oceanography. discovery the oceans. and characterization of new types of The survival of algal chloroplasts in animal photosynthetic plankton. cells also raises several molecular and cellular DKS questions. The process by which the chloroplasts are extracted, unharmed, from the algal cells is not understood. Chloroplasts cannot survive on their own; they are dependent on information provided by the plant cell nucleus to synthesize some of example of the evolution of a new one-celled their proteins and to replicate. The continued organism from an endosymbiotic event. functioning of algal chloroplasts in animal cells Investigation of the microscopic life of the remains puzzling. sea has shown us that the distinctions between The direct transfer of chloroplasts between plants and animals are often blurred. We have organisms of different species raises the question of found that the transfer of organelles between cells, whether organelle transfer is important in a process once thought to be very rare, may be evolution. Except for bacteria, all cells contain quite common among one-celled organisms. We organelles. For example, plant and animal cells usually think of evolutionary patterns as tree-like, both contain nuclei and mitochondria, but usually with separate lines of evolution not intermingling only plant cells have chloroplasts. Most biologists once they have branched. However, the study of believe that the ancestors of modern plants and one-celled marine organisms has shown us that animals arose millions of years ago by a series of evolution may often be web-like, with distant endosymbioses (one cell living inside another). The branches interacting. Biologists are continuing to endosymbionts lost some of the characteristics that study the intriguing questions raised by the allowed them to be free-living and became complex life styles of one-celled plankton. specialized for particular functions in the host cell. Thus, the "host" evolved from a relatively simple Diane K. Stoecker is an Associate Scientist in the Biology cell into a complex cell with organelles. Department at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. It is usually assumed that the formation of basically new cell types ceased millions of years Selected References ago. Modern day organisms are not expected to Blackbourn, D. )., F. ). R. Taylor, and ]. Blackbourn. 1973. Foreign new However, Protozool. acquire organelles. chloroplast- organelle retention by ciliates. /. 20(2): 286-288. retention demonstrates that organelle transfer Margulis, L. 1981. Symbiosis in Cell Evolution: Life and its Earth. San Francisco: W. H. between cells still occurs. Since the chloroplasts in Environment on the Early 419 pp. Freeman. the chloroplast-retaining ciliates do not replicate, McManus, C. B., and ). A. Fuhrman. 1986. Photosynthetic the host and its "symbiont" are probably not pigments in the ciliate Laboea strobila from Long Island Sound, into a "new" cell line. However, evolving together USA. /. Plankton Res. 8(2): 317-327. in M. the seems to in in Ann. rubra, algal symbiont replicate Taylor, F. ). R. 1982. Symbioses marine microplankton. the host. Thus, M. rubrum may be a present-day Inst. Oceanogr., Pans 58(5): 61-90.

53 byt. awiey

Spiral Eddies (1, 2, and 3). Photographed from 45 kilometers above the central 50 km Mediterranean. Brightness of reflected sunlight indicates differences in surface texture. Ship's wakes (4 and 5) appear as relatively straight lines cutting through the eddies. (Photo courtesy NASA)

e of the most fascinating puzzles attracting mesoscale,* eddy-resolving ocean prediction systems physical oceanographers over the years has been the by 1993. description of the large-scale turbulent circulation of The elements of the ocean's internal weather the ocean, visualized by scientists as "the internal consist of meandering jets such as the Gulf Stream, weather of the sea." Oceanographers have amassed eddies, and fronts. The behavior of these elements a store of descriptive information on this "weather," has been the subject of study since at least 1959, and have on a few occasions tested the feasibility of when the Aries** expedition discovered that mid- predicting it. Weather prediction has had a central the National Weather Service for * organization Ocean eddies, or "mesoscale eddies," are phenomena more than a hundred until years, but, very recently, such as Gulf Stream rings. Hundreds of kilometers in ocean prediction has been a relatively patchy effort. diameter, they are similar in many ways to atmospheric for Established just two years ago, the Institute Naval high and low pressure systems, which are thousands of Oceanography, or INO, is now a center for ocean kilometers in diameter. Oceanus Vol. 19, No. 3, was prediction research and development in this devoted to research on ocean eddies. ** country. It has set for itself the goal of demonstrating Oceanus Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 2-9.

54 UCAR

INO NCAR 55 other Research Institutions

Core COMP Scientific Program Effort

centers research in and earth science. As a the . of 57 academic Figure 7 UCAR is a consortium doing space governing body, Boulder, Colorado- based UCAR helps to maintain high standards and develop commercial applications from UCAR-institution research. NCAR (the National Center for Atmospheric Research) is the "original" UCAR institution, and INO is the newest.

its since it ocean eddies in the Gulf Stream can be a hundred Monterey, California, has been director the consortium. Mooers and his times more energetic than the average backround joined UCAR forward to the scheduled circulation. Since then, explanations for the ocean's growing staff are looking internal weather have included everything from the installation of a so-called "Class VII" or the Naval shape of the ocean floor to the interactions between "supercomputer" at NSTL, purchased by for INO and other the atmosphere and the ocean. Oceanography Command Navy The vagaries of weather prediction are well- known, but useful ocean prediction may be more feasible since ocean eddies are much smaller than the highs and lows depicted on weather maps, and are much much slower to change than their atmospheric analogs. To keep track of eddies or currents, data buoys and expendable bathythermographs the oceanic counterparts of weather balloons and radiosondes are deployed in denser arrays, but can be launched less often. As INO's ocean prediction systems become operational during the next 10 years, many activities, from antisubmarine warfare to fisheries management, could benefit from its work.

Agency and University Ties Three years ago, then-Secretary of the Navy John Lehman called for the formation of such an institute to ensure a leading role for the Navy in the development of prediction systems for the ocean. One year later, the Navy established the Institute as an in-house operation, and last October the Office of Naval Research (ONR) entered into an agreement with the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR, Figure 1), transferring the operation and management of INO to UCAR. ONR remains its lead agency for interfaces to Navy policy and resources. The grounds of the National Space Technology Laboratories (NSTL), between New Orleans and Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, are the home of INO, and Christopher N. K. Mooers, formerly N. K. Director of the Institute for Naval professor and chairman of the Oceanography Christopher Mooers, Department at the Naval Postgraduate School in Oceanography. (Photo courtesy INO)

55 * NSF Backbone Network

University Satellite Network IUSAN

WHOI Figure 2. The National Science Foundation computer network backbone, and The University J V N N SC Satellite Network. CNSF, UMD Cornell National Supercomputer Facility; IVNNS, lohn von Neumann National Supercomputer Facility; NCAR, National Center (or Atmospheric Research; NCSA, CDSC National Center (or Super-computing Applications; PSC, Pittsburgh Supercomputer Center; SDSC, San Diego Supercomputer Center; OSU, Univ. of Oregon State University; UW, Miami University of Wisconsin; UM, University of Michigan; NRL, National Research Laboratories.

researchers' use. This powerful resource will enable university community in INO's program. "University INO to make good use of historical ocean dynamics faculty, post-docs, and graduate students spend data files, to develop and test numerical models, and various amounts of time here as visiting scientists. to integrate in situ and remotely-sensed data relayed We expect to develop graduate traineeships, and by satellite into those models. The Institute will link have already had an experimental summer cooperating academic researchers by national internship program for undergraduates." scientific data networks to the supercomputer According to William J. Schmitz, physical (Figure 2). oceanographer at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Captain James E. Koehr is the Commander of Institution (WHOI) and acting director of INO during the Naval Oceanography Command (CNOC), also its one-year operation as a Navy adjunct, the Navy located at NSTL. The mission of his command is to was always interested in finding an organizational provide the Navy fleet with operational format for the Institute that would attract the oceanographic, meteorological, mapping, charting relatively small community of ocean modelers. "It's and geodesy services, and he tells why his command pretty hard to attract academically-oriented is making the supercomputer available to INO: oceanographers into the civil service, so part of "We're interested in how acoustic energy behaves in INO's work will be conducted outside of INO. The the world's oceans. The behavior of acoustics is people who ordinarily develop these models work at directly related to temperature, salinity, and depth- places like NCAR (the National Center for quantities we can measure and hopefully forecast. Atmospheric Research), Woods Hole, and MIT." For We need INO to build models that will allow us to example, Schmitz retained his position at WHOI forecast the state of the ocean for periods of time, while serving as interim director. Hence, one of the

from 24 hours to 14 days, which I believe is a roles of the Institute is to provide a vehicle for realistic goal." involving the academic community in ocean Because of INO's strong connections to the prediction research for the Navy. Today, scientists Navy, director Mooers and his staff see the Institute like Schmitz perform INO-sponsored research at as a focusing influence among academic ocean their home institutions and during visits to the modelers doing prediction research. University Institute. researchers working with INO in its Cooperative Robert C. Willems, coordinator of the COMP Ocean Modeling and Prediction (COMP) program program concurs: "We recognize the wealth of talent have participated in such research efforts as the Mid- in the academic community, and we recognize that Ocean Dynamics Experiment (Oceanus Vol. 19, No. there are a number of on-going efforts that feed 3, page 45), the development of acoustic directly to INO's goal. We're a university-based tomography (Oceanus Vol. 25, No. 2, page 12), and organization anyway, and we see ourselves as being the Marginal Ice Zone Experiment (Oceanus Vol. 29, able to marshal that academic talent and bring it to No. 1, page 66). Mooers sees many roles for the bear on INO's objectives."

56 Data Assimilated Into Nested Domains Rienecker believes that one of the challenges of ocean prediction is to determine what is the most The Institute's strategy in developing ocean- relevant information in the available data. "We don't prediction models is to organize them into a know if we too much data. We'll be hierarchy of "nested domains." For example, the acquire tackling that to see how much data we really need, South Atlantic Bight is a coastal domain nested in the problem, and the answer will probably be domain- Gulf Stream a regional domain. The Gulf Stream is with variable such as the itself nested in the basin-scale domain of the North dependent," highly regions coastal ocean requiring tighter data-acquisition grids Atlantic Ocean, which is in turn nested in the global than the more static areas, such as the Sargasso Sea. domain. The larger domains provide boundary Ocean variability occurs on smaller scales conditions, such as current and temperature fields, than instabilities such as for the smaller domains they encompass the way important atmospheric hurricanes. So on a basis, data for historical, climatological data provide a baseline of global acquisition ocean prediction is far more demanding than for long-term variability for meteorological, weather- weather forecasting, according to Rienecker. She prediction models. As INO begins its work, it will over the also concentrate on the coastal areas of northern says that, particularly land, meteorological a much of California, Straits of Gibraltar, and the East observing system gives higher density than Sea. coverage any permanent oceanographic now in "Over the ocean, Michele Rienecker, an INO scientist, has observing system place. clouds are part of the meteorological information; for participated in the OPTOMA (Ocean Prediction us, the clouds cover up the information, and cloud- Through Observation, Modeling and Analysis) masking is a big problem with AVHRR data program in the California Current System, and (Advanced Resolution Radiometer, concentrates much of her effort in developing and Very High giving sea-surface temperature, see Oceanus Vol. 29, No. 4, testing data-assimilation models. Two examples of back cover)." data assimilation processes are: 1) providing a While the challenge to develop an prediction model with its initial conditions, which operational oceanographic observing system is might be relayed from data buoys by satellite, and 2) important to INO researchers, making the best use feeding updated information to the model. Figure 3 of such a is their main concern. To ensure shows how model-produced fields may converge or system that they will be ready for the data when it is diverge depending on the data assimilation strategy some INO scientists simulate used. available, numerically

DAY 10

DAY 16

at 0: Figure 3. Model streamfunctions (current strength indicated by closeness of contours) at 50 meters, initialized day a) forecast Statistical forecast, b) Dynamical forecast using persistent boundary data, c) Dynamical forecast using statistically with assimilation of data. boundary data, d) Dynamical forecast using statistically forecast boundary data, synoptic (Figure courtesy M. Reinecker)

57 ocean processes. One such study at the Institute is acoustically or by wires. From the surface, data can being carried out by David Adamec, who says, "The be transmitted by radio to satellites, aircraft, or expense of ocean observations necessarily limits the nearby ships. resolution of those observations, and this can lead to Satellite remote sensing of ocean variables ambiguous interpretations of the data. One major such as waves, surface temperature, near-surface ice benefit of process models is a clear definition of coverage, and winds has been shown to be a very simulated circulation dynamics, which in the best of promising regular source for large amounts of global circumstances, may help to explain some of the data. This technology may be critical to useful ocean observed variability in the ocean." prediction. To make full use of these data, it is Adamec is currently testing the capability of essential to have a comprehensive understanding of an ocean model that is driven by observed winds to the processes that determine variations in these reproduce the long-term variability associated with quantities. It also is necessary to underpin these the Gulf Stream. Part of that study includes remotely-sensed observations with some in situ experiments to determine the effect of the tall and observations of both surface and subsurface ocean relatively thin New England Seamounts on the Gulf variables. Sources of in situ observations include Stream (Figure 4). He says that the Gulf Stream routine reports from ships, and moored or drifting shows a maximum of time-variability, or eddy buoys. energy, in the vicinity ot the seamounts. "The The National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) is question is whether or not the seamounts are also headquartered at NSTL, and is part of the responsible for any of that variability." By comparing National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration simulations using different topographies, Adamec (NOAA). As a government agency, NDBC has no hopes to provide a clear interpretation of the effect direct link to INO; but it is the best-equipped of the seamounts on the flow. But he admits, "The organization for obtaining and making available real test of the simulations comes when adequate operational data of continuing interest to INO, so data becomes available for validation." directors of both the Institute and the Center are expecting to forge collegia! links from time to time. that moored and Crucial Ocean Observing Systems Director Mooers says NDBC's drifting buoys "would probably be part of any Regardless of when operational ocean prediction complete operational ocean observing system. We models have enough "real" data to drive them, the will inevitably use the NDBC data streams (Figure 5) "number one" oceanographic support problem to be extensively." Jerry C. McCall, director of NDBC, solved by the Navy between now and then, agrees, saying that NDBC should be able to handle according to Captain Koehr, is to estimate deep any task INO would put to it. "We presume that ocean conditions from surface conditions or they will want the kind of ocean measurements that instruments floating on the surface. Beyond depths we can do more efficiently than anyone else. We of a few meters, the sea is opaque to have automated moored buoys, and we have drifting electromagnetic radiation, so information from great buoys that are automated and air-deployable. If they depths must be relayed to the surface either want a global layout, we can do that too."

2,000 ' /' ' ' ' ,- ^Seamount / ; ~> s / ' -.-.-'-',- ,V_". \ /(ffSrXlt^X/ s t . st f "1 l/'^ x~-^ ^ -* ' ' - ' H',. >;''- -- ' , ', " "" >' ' v '' ' - - '"i"li x '''x' X/ ^ <' \ , - - '' _ __ _--:X.'i''/i _ v^x'^=-=?V-' x '' "' ' 1,500

1,000 500 1,000 500 1,000 1,500 Distance (km)

Figure 4. Simulated flow fields over a) a perfectly flat bottom, and b) a bottom with seamounts. Fields are 5-year averages over "small-scale topography." (Figure courtesy D. Adamec)

58 Relay Satellites COMMS Network

Real Time Reports

NDBC Station Raw Data Data Processing Quality Control

Drifting Moored Monthly Data Buoy Archival

Observation Time

Time (min) -30 -20 -10 + 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 Data Acquisition -*L

Data Transmission

Report Dissemination

Figure 5. Data (low and processing from a National Data Buoy Center data buoy. Acronyms are: NCDC, National Climatic Data Center; and NODC, National Oceanographic Data Center. COMMS (Communications) network information is made available to the National Weather Service. (Figure courtesy NDBC)

The type of cooperative agreements that program of an upcoming collaborative year-long McCall expects to enter into with INO are typical of RTAT experiment in the Greenland Sea, which is to the way INO approaches its mission. The Institute be jointly carried out by researchers from WHOI keeps its focus on ocean modeling and prediction, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and deals with the other scientific and engineering beginning next summer. specialities pertinent to its goals on a contract basis Acoustic tomography is part of an INO as necessary. activity that the Navy is particularly interested in, the Acoustic tomography (AT) is an linking of acoustic to dynamic models. Dynamic oceanographic technique that uses two separate models represent such things as the movement of arrays one of transmitters and one of currents, and the change of temperature with depth. receivers to indirectly measure temperature and Acoustic models represent the behavior of sound salinity gradients across thousands of square wave propagation through the sea. Being able to kilometers of ocean, to depths of hundreds of predict how sound waves will travel through variable meters. Reciprocal-transmission acoustic areas of the ocean is an important part of tomography (RTAT) uses a single array of combined antisubmarine warfare. transmitter/receivers, or transceivers, all The synchronized by an atomic clock. Ching-Sang Chiu is Supercomputer all the an INO researcher working to incorporate data from The single resource for INO that will bring both AT and RTAT, as well as satellite and point efforts together is the Class VII supercomputer, sensor arrays, into ocean prediction models. Chiu scheduled for installation at the Naval Like says that in addition to the standard information Oceanography Command in the spring of 1989. extracted from AT, the difference in the travel times other supercomputers around the country, the one into a of of RTAT reciprocal rays can be analyzed to yield at NSTL will be nested hierarchy networks, core and researchers current speeds and eddy patterns in the allowing both the INO COMP experimental area. access to a "model library," and meteorological and Since RTAT transceivers can have floating oceanographic databases. The supercomputer will radio transmitters tethered to them, they could relay be available to users at NSTL via a local-area their data via satellite and help enormously in network, and linked via the University Satellite obtaining an image of ocean conditions as they Network to NSFnet, the National Science occur, in so-called "real time." Chiu, a former WHOI Foundation's data communications network. The researcher, has been working in the research Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN), one of

59 NASA's computer networks, will also be linked to INO is also a center for workshops, drawing the new supercomputer at NSTL. other ocean or atmospheric modelers to the Institute In advance of the supercomputer installation, for a day or two of highly specialized Monty Peffley, INO's Computer Services Manager, communication. Willems is also in charge of will be coordinating the installation of an efficient organizing these symposia. "We will be running a data communications systems for the Class VII, to workshop in January, called 'Atmospheric Forcing of ensure that INO's model library, and oceanographic Ocean Circulation.' We'll be doing this jointly with and meteorological databases, can be used to their WOCE and TOGA (the World Ocean Circulation best advantage. He says these systems will "enhance Experiment and the Tropical Ocean Global the capability of geographically separated Atmosphere program, Oceanus Vol. 29, No. 4, page researchers to interact productively with INO." 25)." Ocean modelers will be especially dependent Hindcasts and Forecasts on the auxiliary computers to intelligibly display the results of a model's orchestration of various types of Once the prediction systems are operational, data, according to Peffley. Animation graphics are few areas of ocean technology will be able to ignore important tools to aid the interpretation of the them. Mooers says, for example, that ocean models enormous quantity of model output, as well as could be used by mechanical engineers in the design various data streams. of offshore structures. The engineers could model maximum stresses due to ocean currents on their A National Center for Ocean Prediction (modeled) structure, and improve the structure The geographic separation among INO researchers is design if necessary to avoid catastrophic failure considerable. Presently there is only a handful of full- during events such as hurricanes. time core scientific staff working at the NSTL site, Forward in time is not the only direction while more than 30 scientists are doing INO- ocean models need to aim. These models could also sponsored research at their home institutions, as produce a "hindcast," and give valuable information, members of the COMP program. The program as Mooers points out. "A hindcast could be very operates as a research funding administration, based important for assessing causes of environmental on peer-reviewed, unsolicited proposals appropriate damage. A good example is a fish kill; to INO's mission. By funding research proposals environmentalists might say, 'It's due to the coming from academic centers, NCAR, and naval polluters.' And the polluters might say, 'It's a natural laboratories, the COMP program brings talent to occurrence.' What you really need to do in many INO that might otherwise be unavailable. As COMP cases is to go back and produce a hindcast and see, coordinator Willems explains, "We're pulling in within the limits of our knowledge and data, if all but some of the talent we don't have in our core one possibility can be ruled out." The source of a scientific effort. One area that I cite is adaptive dispersed plume of pollution could be more gridding. The atmospheric community has been accurately traced, and navigation through the doing adaptive gridding for some time now. We in ocean's "internal weather" could be improved once the ocean community have yet to pick up on that INO's hindcasts and forecasts become generally capability. An "adaptive grid" is a data acquisition available. grid that automatically shrinks when a higher density of data-collection points is required. Program also have the to take in participants opportunity part Those scientists and students interested in INO's scientist and the visiting program, ongoing learning more about INO are directed to: series of seminars and workshops sponsored by the Institute. N. K. Director "COMP operates much like the NASA Christopher Mooers, Institute for Naval announcement-of-opportunity program, in the sense Oceanography 39529-5005 of how we're specifying what our interests are," says NSTL, Mississippi (601) 688-3509 or TELEMAIL to Willems. "It receives proposals which undergo peer- C. Mooers review by panel." Members of the peer panel are of recognized scientific leadership, not professionally associated with INO, and serve terms of two to five years. The panel reviews proposals on the basis of or the researcher's ability to carry out the proposed work, the scientific merit of the proposed work, and the applicability of the proposed work to INO's Robert C. Willems mission. The COMP researchers are also expected to COMP Program Coordinator interact with the Institute and otherwise assist with Institute for Naval Oceanography its development. With the same mission as the core NSTL, Mississippi 39529-5005 scientific effort, director Mooers is expecting that the (601) 688-5737, or TELEMAIL to COMP program will consume almost as much of R. Willems INO's budget as the core effort. Mooers sees the success of the COMP program as crucial to INO's overall success, since for the foreseeable future the scientific relevant to expertise INO's mission will be T. M. Hawley is Editorial Assistant at Oceanus magazine, at a premium. published by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

60 Plastic in the North Atlantic

"/ want to one word to just one word." just " say you "Yes sir. "Are you listening?" "Yes sir, lam." "Plastics." "Exactly how do you mean?"

"There's a great future in plastics. . ."

Mr. McGuire to Ben The Graduate, 1969

by R. |ude Wilber R/V Westward

Epifauna, such as Membranipora (a bryozoan a small group of colonial encrusting animals) and Lepas (a barnacle), may use plastic as an "alternative substrate." These animals are commonly found on organic flotsam, such as wood and Sargassum. The use of plastic as a substrate by such organisms is at present a noticeable, though relatively rare, phenomenon in the open ocean. It is virtually impossible to tow a neuston* net through the surface waters of the Sargasso Sea and not catch plastic debris of some sort. One of the most common items so sampled are small (1 to 5 millimeters) polyethelene pellets known as "nibs" to the plastics industry. Typical beaches in places such as Bermuda, the Bahamas, the Florida Keys, and Cape Cod may contain millions Neuston Net of such pellets mixed with other plastic debris and natural organic flotsam in the upper wrack lines.** This picture of the current status of plastic in the Atlantic has emerged during the last three years I he of plastic debris in the marine problem in part from studies conducted by the scientists and is cause for concern environment increasing today students of the Sea Education Association, Woods the at the last 20 among public large. During years, Hole, Massachusetts, aboard the research vessel the North Atlantic and other oceans have been Westward. In 1984, we began a survey of plastic polluted with plastic debris through careless of in the pollution along Westward's routes operation accidental and indifferent handling, loss, dumping. open ocean and along the shorelines of islands Although many of the biological effects of plastic in the ocean are unassessed, the negative effects of this debris on seals, birds, and sea turtles are well documented. is often the result of seals * Strangulation Neuston refers to both the uppermost surface layer of a and birds in marine trapped plastic netting. But, body of water as well as that group of organisms that occupy animals also ingest small plastic pellets. The damage this environment. Neuston nets are designed to sample the to certain marine from this centimeters below it. done communities air/water interface and down to 25 activity may be serious, although the proof of this **Wrack refers to marine plant life that is cast up on shores wrack awaits further study. through the action of waves and tides. The uppermost tides Actually, there may be some positive aspects lines are those lines of debris deposited by very high storm waves. to the presence of floating plastic in the open ocean. and/or

61 visited during cruises. Begun as a broad qualitative in their characteristic size and shape to facilitate effort, the ongoing study has evolved into a transport and handling. In pellet form, plastic can be quantitative survey aimed at assessing the amount of treated like other bulk cargoes, such as grains or in a of plastic in the western North Atlantic. We are also soybeans. Although pellets are made variety attempting to determine the pathways of plastic shapes, they are most commonly imperfect spheres, pollution in this region. flattened disks, or short, cylindrical bits. Most are 2 to 5 millimeters in diameter and either colorless, Survey Methods white or amber (Figure 2). Of all the different types of plastic, pellets Thus far, the survey has consisted of two parts- have a number of characteristics which render them open ocean neuston tows and beach sampling. useful as tracers for the pathways of plastic in the While traversing 35,000 nautical miles, we made ocean. First, their relatively uniform appearance more than 420 tows using a 1 X .5 meter neuston makes them easy to identify and quantify. Second, net with a 333 or 500 micron (one millionth of a they are quite buoyant, rising 10 centimeters per meter) mesh opening. With a standard tow length of second in seawater, and are therefore consistently one nautical mile, the area sampled by each tow was found in the neuston layer and on the uppermost approximately 1,850 square meters. Plastic from the beach face. Third, their composition and compact tows was quantified by counting individual pieces shape make them resistant to fragmentation during regardless of size. Because of their apparent utility as weathering. Prolonged exposure in marine waters tracers, we counted pellets as a subset of the total. will result in checked and brittle pellet surfaces. This More than 150 beach surveys gave us an condition can be used as an indication of how long a estimate of the amount and type of plastic found and pellet has been adrift. Finally, pellets are ubiquitous, number of pellets present. Beach surveys were and their overall distribution tends to that of conducted on Bermuda, the Bahamas, the Lesser parallel plastic debris in general. Antilles, the Florida Keys, and Cape Cod. We found that pellets, along with other plastic items, are most Survey Results often found in a "high-concentration zone" near the The areas sampled by the crew of Westward are uppermost wrack lines. This zone varies in width shown in Figure 3. The results of the ocean survey from 10 centimeters to 3 meters, but is usually 50 are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 4. The beach centimeters to 1 meter wide. Within this zone we survey data are summarized in Table 2. sampled 30 x 30 centimeter quadrants and counted The open ocean results illustrate two the pellets (Figure 1). important points. First, plastic is present throughout the western North Atlantic ocean. More than Pellets as Tracers two-thirds (68 percent) of all tows sampled plastic It is a common misconception that pellets are and nearly one third (28 percent) sampled pellets. fragments of larger pieces of plastic. Fragmentation Second, obvious regional differences in both the of plastic debris in the marine environment does amount and type of plastic exist. indeed occur, but pellets are not the result. Rather, The highest concentrations of all pieces, as pellets are the raw material from which larger well as pellets, occur in the northern Sargasso Sea molded plastic items are made. They are produced (28 to 40 degrees North). In this area all tows

Figure 1 . Plastic debris from Bermudan beach. Photo shows weathered and tarred fragments typical of beaches on that island.

62 Figure 2. Polyethelene pellets or "nibs." Shown here are pellets typical of the beaches on Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

sampled plastic and more than 75 percent caught any significant local sources are heavily littered with pellets. The tows we made in this area indicate that plastic. Nowhere is this more clearly shown than there are more than 10,000 plastic pieces and 1,500 along the shores of Bermuda and the Bahamas. We pellets per square kilometer of surface water. The recovered a variety of plastic types on all beaches amount of plastic found in all other areas is sampled from these islands, and pellets in particular substantially less, ranging from 2,500 pieces occur in very high concentrations. For example, we (approximately 360 pellets) per square kilometer in found more than 2,000 pellets per square meter on the southern Sargasso Sea to 700 pieces these beaches. Most of the plastic at these sites is (approximately 80 pellets) per square kilometer in noticeably weathered, indicating long exposure in areas north of the Gulf Stream. marine waters before it was stranded. In addition to differences in the amount of there are differences in the plastic present, important Table 2. Synopsis of beach surveys from four island groups and of and the of types plastics sampled degree Cape Cod. Types of plastic listed are those types most frequently weathering shown by individual pieces. In the found at the sample sites. The ranges of pellet concentrations listed values measured at the sites. northern Sargasso Sea, most of the plastic sampled encompass typical was conspicuously weathered. More than 80 percent Area of the pellets sampled in this region show evidence (# Sites) of prolonged exposure in the surface waters. By contrast, most of the plastics from the shelf and slope waters north of the Gulf Stream were relatively fresh items of litter or fishing gear that had apparently spent far less time adrift. The results of the beach surveys (Table 2) confirm the presence of oceanically-derived plastic at numerous sites adjacent to the north Atlantic system. For some areas, such as Cape Cod and the Florida Keys, fresh items of trash and lost gear from recreational and fishing boats operating close to shore account for much of the plastic found. However, even remote island sites far removed from

Table 1. Synopsis of plastic data collected from R/V Westward for four major oceanic areas. CAPE 2 Cruises COD 72 Tows

2 Cruise 30 Tows SCruises 48 Tows

FLORIDA KEYS 5 Cruises C 3 Cruises 73 Tows 65 Tows

Figure 3. Tow envelopes for the LESSER open ocean survey data. ANTILLES Boundaries indicate areas sampled from Westward

between fall, 1984, and 7 Cruises 154 Tows summer, ] 987. In this article

area A is referred to as the slope and shelf waters north of the Gulf Stream. Areas B and ' B are the northern Sargasso Sea. Areas C and C' are the southern Sargasso Sea and area D is the Caribbean. Island groups sampled for plastic are labeled.

Surface Currents and Plastic Within this larger area, the distribution of The plastic distributions reported in this survey flotsam may be controlled on the "mesoscale" by suggest that plastic moves through the oceanic rotating oceanic features known as rings or eddies system in a predictable pattern. The pattern is (see Oceanus Vol. 19, No. 3, Spring 1976). These related in large part to the motion of surface waters features may be thought of as relatively small gyres in open ocean areas. (less than 100 kilometers across), whose meandering The net recirculation pattern of the western paths are constantly traversing the larger gyre and North Atlantic is well known (Figure 5), and water stirring its contents. Finally, on the smallest of the motion on at least three different scales may affect three scales, the effect of the wind over the ocean the drift path of a piece of flotsam such as plastic. surface sets up small (10s of meters) circulation The largest of these motions is the clockwise patterns known as Langmuir cells, which cause circulation pattern known as the central gyre. Most flotsam to be concentrated in long linear features of the western North Atlantic is dominated by this known as windrows. pattern, which is centered north of the island of The pathway of a plastic item in the North Bermuda. In addition to net clockwise flow, the gyre Atlantic and where it may ultimately be found is thus is characterized by a slow steady drift of surface related to where, in relation to the gyre, it enters the water into a broad central area between 28 and 40 marine environment. Plastic sources can be viewed degrees North latitude. Nearly 80 percent of the as either extra-gyral or /nrra-gyral. Extra-gyral input surface water may be routed through this region includes plastic from terrestrial sources as well as during a single circulation cycle that can happen from commercial and recreational vessels operating during a period of a few months to a few years. in shelf and coastal waters.

64 Figure 4. Plastic concentrations in open ocean areas. Upper line in both plots is total pieces per square kilometer. Lower line is pellets per square kilometer. Vertical scale is logarithmic for both plots. The data show highest concentrations of both total pieces as well as pellets in the Latitudinal central gyre, particularly the northern part. Increments

The most common types of plastic dumped in hydroids, barnacles, and bryozoans. The significance near-shore waters are litter items such as bags, cups, of sinking as a removal mechanism from the surface and various disposable plastic containers. In remains largely unassessed. addition, most of the pellets apparently enter the Neither sinking nor minute fragmentation marine system from spillage and loss at coastal truly removes plastic from the marine environment. manufacturing and shipping sites. Intra-gyral inputs In the third removal mechanism, however, a plastic are solely from vessels operating within the mid- item resists breakdown and does not sink. It is then oceanic system. Most plastic introduced within the quite probable that it will eventually be removed gyre comes from indiscriminate dumping of trash, a from the ocean by stranding on some shore. common practice on most commercial vessels operating in the open ocean. Plastic on the Beaches Extra-gyral plastics may either be removed from the marine system without entering the gyre, or Popular sources of information on plastic pollution in they may become entrained in this circulation the marine environment are largely based on studies pattern. Intra-gyral plastics may be trapped for many at sites of removal in other words, littered beaches. cycles of the recirculating water. Data from our Reports from beaches around the world show that oceanic survey suggest that plastic from both intra- oceanically-derived plastic is common on the global and extra-gyral sources becomes concentrated in the scale. Different beaches, however, are littered for center of the gyre, in much the same fashion that different reasons. The beaches of Bermuda and the Sargassum does. Pellets in particular, with no known Bahamas are heavily littered by plastic delivered intra-gyral sources, are concentrated in the northern from the large supply contained in the gyre. These part of this region. islands act as "sieves" continually "straining" plastic debris from the surface waters of the Atlantic. Removal from Surface Water Bermuda, in the heart of the gyre, possesses the Plastic debris does not remain in surface waters highest concentrations of weathered debris removed forever. Eventually it is "removed" in one of three from adjacent waters (Table 2). But it is the Bahamas, ways. One way is for individual articles to with its hundreds of islands embedded in the gyre's photochemically degrade, losing their plastic flow, where the analogy of a "plastic filter" most truly qualities, and become increasingly brittle and holds. These islands have hundreds of kilometers of fragmented. Thin, sheet-like plastics (films, bags, and sandy shoreline that are constantly supplied with others), are most susceptible to this breakdown plastic from the ocean. Some of these beaches have process. Thicker, or more compact, plastic items are pellet concentrations as high as those found on less susceptible to removal through degradation. Bermuda, and all the beaches we examined had Such articles may remain as discrete items for years plastic of some type. or perhaps tens of years of exposure. Other island groups, such as the Antilles and Plastic may also sink from surface waters. Florida Keys, also act to a certain extent as sieves for Changes in the of plastic may occur the gyre, although the rocky volcanic islands of the compositionally during degradation or because of Antilles have relatively few beaches and thus do not the encrustation of epifaunal organisms, such as accumulate plastic as effectively as the low sandy

65 Figure 5. Circulation diagram for upper waters of the North Atlantic. Units are in millions of cubic meters of water. Stream lines are five million cubic meters each. Heavy flow lines define the Gulf Stream and the northern boundary of the gyre. Dashed line indicates boundary between northern and southern Sargasso Sea as used in this article. (Figure redrawn from Worthington, 1976).

cays of the Bahamas. On the other hand, the Florida Atlantic. Using neuston nets similar to those used on Keys, because of their proximity to the Gulf Stream, Westward, early studies reported total pieces of catch oceanic plastic when this main current of the plastic as well as the number of pellets present in gyre meanders close to their shores. some of the same areas sampled in our survey. In Other shores along the main flow of the gyre the first report, Carpenter and Smith predicted that also act as removal sites. The Padre Island coast of "increasing production of plastic, combined with Texas is a known site of accumulation of oceanically- present waste-disposal practices, will undoubtedly derived litter. In addition, the east-facing Mosquito lead to increases in the concentration of these Coast of and the Yucatan Peninsula of particles (in oceanic surface waters)." Has this Mexico are also likely areas of plastic buildup. These prediction been proven correct? By comparing the western Caribbean shores are located to the west results of our study with earlier reports, we find a and downwind of the Caribbean Current, the main four-fold increase in the total number of plastic flow of water out of the Caribbean Sea. This pieces in the northern Sargasso Sea. The number of relationship is similar to that of the Florida Keys with pellets in this same region has increased nearly two- respect to the Gulf Stream, and these areas may be fold. A similar two-fold increase in pellets is major removal sites for plastic in the Caribbean indicated for the southern Sargasso Sea and the segment of the gyre's flow. Caribbean (Figure 6) Alternatively, the beaches of Cape Cod, The increase in the number of pieces of which are well away and "upstream" from the gyre's plastic in the northern Sargasso Sea may be the result plastic load, are inundated with numerous plastics of both increased inputs to the oceanic system and from local sources. Although these beaches contain the concentrating effect of the gyre. In addition, the many pellets, most of these are fresh indicating continuing fragmentation of plastic debris, as it that they have not cycled through the central gyre. cycles in this region also may be contributing to this The common occurrence of oceanically- increase. The pellets, which resist fragmentation, derived plastic at sites far removed from sources increased in number in all areas since the time of the indicate that, eventually, much of the plastic present first reports. Their concentration may be the clearest in the marine environment may be stranded on marker of the build-up of plastic in the North beaches. As long as the delivery mechanisms Atlantic during the last 15 years. operate (the surface currents and eddies of the gyre), Laws and Action plastic will be steadily delivered to the "island sieves" of the western North Atlantic. The presence of plastic in the ocean is a global concern. Survey results from other areas suggest that Plastic in the Ocean: An Presence Increasing the picture of plastic pollution for the western North It in this article is has been nearly 15 years since reports by E. J. Atlantic presented generally Carpenter and K. L. Smith of the Woods Hole applicable to other oceans each with a central Oceanographic Institution, and John Colton and gyre. associates of the National Marine Fisheries Service Public awareness of plastic pollution in the established the widespread occurrence of plastic oceans has been heightened in the last two years by debris in the surface waters of the western North numerous reports in the popular press.

66 The Case of the Polystyrene Spherules

In addition to polyethelene pellets, another very common form of raw plastic in the nearshore waters of the northeastern United States is also one of the smallest, most durable, and least likely to be noticed. Tiny spheres, or spherules (.1 to 3 millimeters in diameter) of polystyrene were the most abundant plastic items sampled in two studies conducted in the shelf waters of the Mid- Atlantic and New England areas during 1971 and 1972. The spherules, when mixed with a foaming agent, become the expanded, puffy balls that are the basic structural unit of all "styrofoam" products. White or colorless, the spherules (also known as suspension beads) were found in concentrations up to 8,000 per square kilometer in the shelf waters between Delaware and Massachusetts but were rarely found in open ocean areas. Where are they today? Many have almost certainly been deposited in bottom sediments throughout the area. Pure polystyrene is very nearly the same density as the low salinity water Polystyrene spherules from beach on Martha's of near-shore areas, and spherules sink more Vineyard. The spherules are the raw material for rapidly than the lower-density polyethelene "styrofoam" products. pellets. Spherules are known to occur in the bottom sediments from a number of inshore sites spherules from beach sand requires a time- along the coast of New England; both spherules consuming technique involving both flotation- and fragments of pure polystyrene are found in separation and sieving. Perhaps typical of the bottom sediments in British estuaries. New England beaches is a sample taken from However, not all spherules readily sink. Martha's Vineyard. We sampled a 10 x 30 Many contain gas vacuoles (air bubbles), which centimeter quadrat, and rigorously processed it to increase the buoyancy of individual spherules recover polystyrene. The sample yielded a thereby decreasing their sinking rate. In the concentration of 16,000 spherules per square generally well-mixed waters of the shelf, such meter for the beaches of picturesque Menemsha "flawed" spherules may stay in suspension far Harbor, a fishing port on the southwest comer of than In fact, of longer pure polystyrene. many the island. these spherules have ended up in very high Unlike the more buoyant and more concentration along the beaches of New widely-distributed polyethelene pellets which England. All Cape Cod beaches sampled in 1987 may spend years in the surface waters and be were littered with polystyrene spherules, most of concentrated by the gyre's flow spherules are which contained numerous vacuoles. Because of apparently typical of the local input/local output their size and color, spherules are virtually cycling of plastic taking place outside the gyre. impossible to detect against a background of rounded quartz sand grains. The separation of RJW

Tar and Plastic

/A better-known and considerably more heavily tarred so much so that daily "grooming" offensive pollutant than plastic in the open ocean of Bermuda 's beaches is necessary to maintain is tar. Although input mechanisms and the tourist trade. degradational processes for tar are different than Interestingly, a beach that is effectively for plastic, the concentrating and stranding raked free of tar may remain littered with mechanisms are largely the same. Overall hundreds of thousands of pellets a fact few distribution of tar parallels that of plastic in the recognize. Beachgoers were continually surprised open ocean, with the highest concentration of when, upon inquiring of our sampling purpose, both being found in the heart of the gyre. It they were presented with handfuls of pellets follows then, that the heavily plastic-littered picked from their favorite shores. shores of Bermuda and the Bahamas are also continued on page 68

67 tarballs" consisting of a core of pelagic tar embedded with plastic debris are picked up in nets and on beaches. A particularly nasty combination of tar and plastic is found where oceanic tar that has coated a rocky shore is "armored" on its surface by a layer of plastic pellets. Such crusts, which were initially reported from Bermuda, have been found along many stretches of the rocky shores of the Bahamas. Bermudan crusts, which may be up to 20 centimeters thick demonstrate a distinct IKeflin" tttttmafitfen > tarjplastic layering. The lower part of the crusts are essentially plastic-free, while the upper "Plasto-tar crust" from the rocky shore of Bermuda. surfaces are entirely coated with plastic. Such Crust is composed of tar and plastic from the oceanic indicate that the amount of tar waters surrounding Bermuda. Upper surface of crusts layering may delivered to the site has declined relative to the are commonly a layer of plastic pellets. amount of plastic during the time since the Jar and plastic can combine in both the introduction of both pollutants to the marine open ocean and along the shores. "Plasto- system. RJW

Extra- Gyral Source

Environmentalist groups have called for, and received, legislative proposals to rid the oceans and shores of the plastic problem. How effective will such laws be? What further action is necessary? In February of 1987, Representative Gerry Studds (D-MA) introduced a bill in the House of Representatives aimed at cleaning coastal waters and shores of plastic. This bill (HR 940) calls for a ban on all plastic disposal within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the United States. Such a law, if it could be successfully enforced, may be quite effective for those waters and shores primarily littered by the local input of plastics. This bill may, however, also serve to shift the plastic problem to another area. If, instead of being released in the EEZ, plastic is dumped further offshore (a distinct possibility for ocean-going vessels), the plastic load of the central gyre, as well as the delivery of plastic to remote island shores, would both be increased. The fifth annex to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is an international agreement currently under consideration by the United States Congress. This agreement prohibits "the disposal into the sea of all plastics." Such a sweeping proposal presents numerous enforcement problems, yet it is the only measure that will be truly effective in eliminating plastic from open ocean areas. Should this agreement be enacted by the international community, the oceans would eventually cleanse themselves through the removal mechanisms outlined in this article.

R. lude Wilber is a Staff Scientist with the Sea Education Association in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. He is currently a Guest Investigator in the department of Geology and Geophysics at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. TBT: The Dilemma of High-Technology Antifouling Paints

/

\ by Michael A. Champ, and Frank L Lowenstein

Hnce the first days of sail, mariners have been battling fouling the growth of barnacles, seaweeds, tubeworms, and other organisms on boat bottoms. The Phoenicians, realizing that smoother bottoms translated into easier rowing and faster sailing, nailed copper strips to the hulls of their ships to inhibit fouling.

Marine fouling. (Photo from a painting Lisa by Haderlie Baker, Lawrence I lall of Science, University of California at Berkeley. 1980 by the Regents of the University of California, courtesy National Science Teachers Association and the Carolina Biological Supply Company) Hydrolds

' Animals Bryozoans or Moss Tunicates or Sea Squirts

Door Plates Food-Rake Legs -V ' Mouth Cypris Larvae

LIFE CYCLE OF ACORN BARNACLE

'

Young Barnacle Nauplius Cemen ubstratr

ANATOMY OF THE ADULT ACORN BARNACLE

Adult Barnacle

The marine hitchhikers. Depicted are examples of the animals and plants that grow on underwater surfaces such as ship hulls- resulting in marine fouling. Ships are most susceptible to fouling when they are in port. How sedentary marine organisms are transported to colonize new surfaces is illustrated by the life cycle of the acorn barnacle at the bottom center: 1) free-swimming larvae must attach to a substrate in order to develop and feed. If they do not attach, they will die in a matter of days, 2) the larvae produce a strong, long-lasting adhesive for attaching themselves to substrates. Scientists have been attempting to duplicate this adhesive, 3) the larva attaches head first, forms a conelike shell around itself, and uses its feet to propel food into its mouth. The anatomy of the resulting adults is shown in the lower left. (From a drawing by Lisa Haderlie Baker, courtesy of the National Science Teachers Association and the Carolina Biological Supply Company)

70 In naval actions, the cleaner, Since the widespread use that would be saved from the faster vessel often escaped of TBT-based paints began in the decreased wear on propulsion stronger or caught up to early 1970s, evidence shows that machinery and the decreased weaker ones. Thus fouling was TBT paints harm many forms of down time for hull scraping, an important factor to navies in marine life other than fouling cleaning, and painting that would the days of sail. Although copper organisms, including result from the use of TBT paints. strips went by the boards long economically important species ago, fouling remains important such as oysters. These Oyster Studies today, as aircraft carriers launch untargeted effects have attracted aircraft while underway at 40 increasing international concern. One of the first areas where TBT knots, supertankers crisscross the A number of countries have toxicity was observed was in oceans, and fishing boats plow adopted policies regulating or France's Arcachon Bay, an area the coastal waters. restricting TBT use. Several states that produces 10 percent of that in this country also have taken nation's oyster harvest. The Fouling produces action, and federal regulation of Pacific oyster, Crassostrea g/'gas, on the surface of a roughness TBT is imminent, as we discuss was introduced there in 1968 to ship, thereby increasing later. Meanwhile, one of the replace declining populations of turbulence and drag. A 10- largest U.S. ship yards, Newport the European flat oyster. The bay micron (one-thousandth of a News Shipbuilding in Newport is long, has restricted circulation, centimeter) increase in average News, Virginia, has decided to and has large numbers of hull on a vessel roughness power turn down work that requires the marinas and docks. can result in a 0.3 to 1.0 percent use of TBT paints because of By 1976, French scientists increase in fuel For consumption. potential risks to employees. had observed an abnormal large power vessels, fuel costs But, the use of tributyltin thickening of the shells of can amount to 50 percent of the paints on commercial ships, juvenile Pacific oysters. A year total operating costs. The 1985- fishing vessels, and private boats later, these anomalies were 86 fuel bill of the Q.E. // (one of could add another $300 to 400 detected throughout the bay. the world's largest for ships), million in fuel savings annually. Early researchers noticed an example, was $1 7 million thus Hence, the stakes riding on association between marinas, a 1 percent increase in that bill tributyltin paints amount to boat moorings, and shell would amount to $170,000. almost 2 billion gallons of malformations. The degree of lost or saved for shell thickness correlated well For the projected 600- gasoline forever, future each These with the numbers of boats ship U.S. Navy, fouling is use, year. large do not include the sums in the a obviously a major problem. In figures estuary, suggesting tropical oceans, the Navy finds that ships begin experiencing significant bottom fouling in less than a year if painted with copper-based antifoulant paints. This compares to 5 to 7 years if painted with tributyltin (TBT) based antifoulant paints. According to Navy figures, if the entire fleet were painted with TBT paint, the reduction in costs would be more than $1 10 million annually (assuming a fuel cost of less than $16 a barrel).

In 1985, however, when the Navy proposed painting its ships with efficient antifouling paints that are widely used by commercial and pleasure craft, it focused scientific and political attention on the effects of these paints in the marine environment. Edward D. Goldberg, Professor of Chemistry It currently costs about $ 1 million to dry-dock a VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier), at Scripps Institution of scrape off the fouling organisms, remove the old paint, and apply new anti- has stated on Oceanography, corrosion and anti-fouling coatings. Large ships require dry-docking for cleaning several occasions that the TBT, and painting purposes about every two years. With a clean hull, fuel savings on a active of these ingredient paints, round trip between the East Coast of the United States and the Persian Culfcan is the toxic most compound man amount to over a quarter million dollars. (Drawing by Lisa Haderlie Baker, has introduced into the marine courtesy National Science Teachers Association and Carolina Biological Supply environment. Company)

71 relationship between the use of In the United States, perturbation of molecular TBT paints and growth examples of Pacific oysters with genetic mechanisms. deformations. This hypothesis malformations similar to those in In the most acute was French Britain have strengthened when recently been found malformations in Arcachon Bay in the researchers found that the South Slough National oysters, the anomalous for shell Estuarine Research tendency thickening Reserve near thickening of the oyster shell was could be reversed the by moving Charleston, Oregon. South more rapid than its lengthwise oysters to an area far removed Slough is adjacent to a boatyard growth, and the oyster took on a from that has used TBT boating activity. paints. ball shape (Figure 2). These In addition to the shell malformations were not Laboratory Studies deformations, some areas of the observed in the European flat the in bay showed little or no natural Following findings France oyster. and oyster larvae settling on hard Britain, Claude Alzieu and substrates, suggesting toxic co-workers conducted a series of Imposex in Common Dogwhelk effects in early life stages. Over studies at IFREMER (Institut More extreme time, such high spat* mortality Francais de Recherche pour deformations occur in the could adversely affect oyster ('Exploitation de la Mer) (Table common dogwhelk, In Nucella a of populations in the bay. these 1). Britain, meanwhile, M. J. lapillus species thick-shelled snails biological field studies, however, Waldock, and J. E. Thain and co- found around did not include measurements of workers at the Ministry of the southwest peninsula of the concentrations of TBT in the Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food England. Here populations areas where shell deformities (MAFF) laboratory at Burnham- studied by researchers at the UK occurred. Thus, the link between on-Crouch, conducted similar Marine Biological Station showed TBT and oyster deformities was investigations. The results of the occurrence of imposex the not conclusive. these studies demonstrated that development of male At the same time, in TBT could cause oyster shell characteristics, notably a penis Britain, similar deformities were deformations. and a vas deferens (sperm duct), observed on the European flat According to the French on females. These researchers oyster (Osfrea edulis). Because studies, the shell anomalies found a high occurrence of the Pacific oyster is more occur when chambers form in imposex close to centers of sensitive to TBT than the between the calcified layers of boating and shipping activity. European flat oyster, the the shell (Figure 1). These The occurrence of imposex deformities found in Britain were chambers are filled with a correlated significantly with tin less dramatic. Farming of the protein gel that differs chemically concentrations in dogwhelks (up Pacific oyster was attempted from those usually seen during to 2 micrograms per gram of dry unsuccessfully in many areas of shell growth. It seems not to bind tissue). Laboratory studies have Britain, particularly in the calcium or carbonate the way confirmed that exposure to TBT estuaries of the rivers Crouch the normal protein does. When will induce imposex. and Roach on the east coast of this abnormal protein is added to Because of their feeding England in terms of TBT, two a of calcium carbonate habits, dogwhelks accumulate highly contaminated areas. (CaCO 3 ), it slows down or higher concentrations of TBT prevents the formation of crystals than that of the water

of . *The larval stage of an oyster CaCO 3 Thus the conclusion is surrounding them. Dogwhelks characterized by settling onto a that the formation of this feed on algae and other substrate and beginning shell gelatinous protein is an abnormal microscopic organisms coating formation. process that results in the rocks and other hard substrates in the intertidal zone. Because higher concentrations of TBT are found in the sea-surface Table 1. Effects of TBT acetate on C. and larvae gigas embryogenesis development (Alzieu, microlayerthan in the underlying 1986, from His and Robert, 1985). water column, this layer of TBT Acetate microorganisms becomes coated (micrograms/ with the high concentrations of liter Effects on (PPB)) Reproduction TBT. This can lead to TBT in as much as 100 Inhibition of fecundity dogwhelks 1,000 50 Inhibition of segmentation times more than the 25 Partial reduction of segmentation concentration in the surrounding 10 Absence of the formation of trocophores water. 3-5 Absence of malformation of veligers trocophores In the case of the 1 Abnormal veligers malformation of trocophores has an 0.5 Numerous anomalies total mortality in 8 Days dogwhelk, imposex 0.2 Perturbation in food assimilation total mortality after ecological significance; those 12 Days populations in which individuals 0.1 Normal D-Larvae: slow total growth, almost mortality frequently exhibit imposex show after 12 Days signs of decline. In these 0.05 Slow rate after 10 growth; high mortality Days fewer occur 0.02 No observable effect populations, females than would be expected; and

72 juveniles and deposited egg capsules are scarce or absent, indicating a low reproductive capacity. Female dogwhelks exhibiting imposex had oviducts clogged with decomposing eggs that could not be released because the newly formed male reproductive tissues blocked the oviducts. Subsequent laboratory studies have suggested that environmental concentrations of about 1 part per trillion (equivalent to 1 second in 31,000 years) seem to initiate imposex. In addition to the effects of TBT on dogwhelks and oysters, laboratory studies show that TBT can stress or kill a variety of marine organisms, including lobsters, fish, and many 1 . An from Arcachon in abnormal mollusks (Table 2). Figure oyster Bay France, showing chambering suspected to be caused by TBT. (From C. Alzieu, IFREMER, Oceans '86 Types of TBT Paints Symposium Proceedings) The amount of TBT released into the water varies with the paint formula. Like any paint, antifoulant paints contain film- forming material and pigment, which together determine the final surface's strength, flexibility, capacity for water absorption, and color. In addition, antifouling paints, such as TBT, contain biocides, which are gradually released, killing fouling organisms as they settle onto the hull of the ship. Tributyltin is used as a biocide in antifoulant paints in three different ways in free association paints, ablative paints, and copolymers. In free- association paints, the TBT is not chemically integrated into the paint and is leached out by contact with salt water. Ablative paints feature a similar chemistry, but the paint also flakes off in thin layers, continually exposing new biocide. In copolymer Figure 2. In extreme cases, oysters become malformed, taking a characteristic ball that inhibits shell closure. C. Oceans '86 paints, the TBT is chemically shape (From Alzieu, IFREMER, integrated within the matrix Symposium Proceedings) and is released more slowly, and over a longer period of time. Free-association paints have high early release rates Table 2. Summary of toxicity and occurrence of TBT. All values given in micrograms/liter with short of coupled periods (parts per billion (PPB)). protection from fouling of organisms, because they allow Type organism seawater to percolate slowly through a tough, insoluble paint matrix (Figure 3). The biocides are mixed into the paint and leach very rapidly initially. After a period of perhaps 2 years, the Biocides .VAV.Vd few

35-40 microns- Ablative Layer Figure 3. In free-association TBT paints, the TBT molecules are leached Figure 4. Ablative paints use a less from a permeable matrix by seawater permeable matrix that gradually flakes percolating through the paint. off, exposing new leaching surfaces.

paint film ages, and calcium Copolymer paints (Figure the in carbonate (CaCO 3 ) clogs 5) were developed the early microchannels in the paint 1970s. In these paints, the matrix surface, and inhibits the release does not allow seawater to enter; of biocide. The surface then biocide is released by a chemical becomes fouled. In addition, reaction that occurs at the paint's these paints leave a quantity of surface. The TBT is chemically biocide unused on the vessel's bonded to a polymer backbone. hull. When the hull is scraped, This bond breaks down in the paint chips often end up in the presence of water under slightly water, where they again release alkaline conditions just the TBT into the environment. circumstances found in seawater. Ablative paints feature a As the polymer breaks down, the matrix that sheds during use as surface of the paint erodes, the paint surface roughens, paint constantly exposing new surfaces particles (very thin microlayers) that can release more biocide. peel off, exposing a fresh supply Since release of the biocide is of biocide (Figure 4). The biocide governed by the chemical is added in free-association form, decomposition of the TBT group but only leaches out of newly rather than dissolution of the exposed surfaces. The lifetime of paint particle, release rates from this paint is also about 2 years. copolymer paints are typically

8 A Conventional Free-Associated TBT Cruiser Copolymer TBT

TO o

CM E o 5-

- 4- ft

A ao> 3- (O

CO Large numbers of small boats in harbors with poor circulation may contribute significantly to 767 risks. As a result, small boats are a target for new 787 regulations. (Photo by Sheryl Lechner)

Britain followed France's lead- As Oceanus goes to press, the used without "unreasonable with a ban on the sale of paints wording of the Fiscal Year 1988 adverse effects on the containing more than 7.5 percent appropriations bill permits the environment," that is, without tin (by weight) for copolymer Navy to paint aluminum-hulled causing any unreasonable risk to paints, or 2.5 percent tin for free- vessels and 15 steel-hulled man or the environment, taking association paints. vessels as a research into account the economic, In the United States, four demonstration study to allow social, and environmental costs ways to regulate TBT paints are scientists to study the release and benefits of the use of the under consideration: a total ban; and distribution of TBT from pesticide. Under the Special permitting application only on antifoulant paints on Navy ships Review process, EPA gathers risk large or aluminum-hulled vessels; and the subsequent ecological and benefit information about limiting the amount of TBT (on a effects. previously registered pesticides percentage basis) in the paint; Meanwhile, in January the that appear to pose potentially and limiting the release rate of EPA initiated its Special Review unreasonable risks of adverse the paint. under the statutory authority of effects to human health or the Following the Navy's June the Federal Insecticide, environment. Through the 1985 proposal to paint its fleet Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act issuance of notices and support with TBT paints, Congress (FIFRA). A pesticide product may documents, EPA publicly sets attached an amendment to the be sold or distributed in the forth its position, and invites Fiscal Year 1986 and 1987 United States only if it is pesticide registrants, federal and appropriations bills. This registered, or exempt from state agencies, user and prevents the Navy from using registration, under FIFRA, as environmental groups, and any TBT paints until the amended (7 U.S.C. 136 et seq.). other interested persons to Environmental Protection Agency The law states that before a participate in the agency's (EPA) finishes its Special Review product can be registered, it review process. If EPA of this high-technology chemical. must be shown that it can be determines that the risks

75 production. Production of the remaining TBT paints could increase though, if demand increases. It could take several years for EPA to receive and analyze the information requested in the DCIs. In the meantime, EPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration will distribute (with the assistance of the Coastal States Organization) a brochure to registered boat owners on "Safer Use of Boat Bottom Paints," as a self- regulatory device to reduce careless introduction of TBT into coastal waters." According to John Moore, Assistant EPA Administrator for Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA will issue interim measures soon, possibly even as this article appears. Testifying recently to Congress, Moore asserted that "these measures most likely will involve the initiation of actions to restrict or cancel the registrations of antifouling paints, based on release-rate or other criteria as appropriate." Presumably paints with low release rates would still be available. As part of the interim action, EPA is also considering issuing a Provisional Water Quality Advisory for TBT. As long-term ecological effects and environmental fate data become available over the next several years, Moore testified, EPA "might refine its interim Colonization below the waterline by marine fouling organisms on a test plate decision, including the containing a narrow section (center) painted with a copolymer paint. The plate imposition of more stringent was submerged (or 21 months. (Photo courtesy of M&J Chemicals, Inc., restrictions, if necessary." Woodbridge, New lersey) These interim measures may be pre-empted, however, outweigh the benefits, then it rates of TBT from antifoulant by bills presently before the can initiate action under FIFRA paints, product chemistry, House and Senate. The bills to cancel, suspend, or modify ecological effects, environmental focus on limiting the TBT release the terms and conditions of fate, worker exposure, rate of the paint as a regulatory registration. quantitative usage, efficacy of mechanism. In hearings before In initiating the review for TBT products, specific toxicity the Senate Subcommittee on TBT, the EPA identified tests with a wide range of Environmental Protection, Moore significant gaps in the data bases organisms, and specific argued that the bill, known as supporting the registration of environmental monitoring data. the "Tributyltin-Based Antifouling TBT as used in antifoulant paints. A DCI on release rates Paint Control Act of 1987," is To obtain the necessary data, was issued in July of 1986. premature. He stated that "there EPA has issued a series of Data- Following this DCI, nearly 300 is no rational basis for choosing Call-ins (DCIs) to registrants that (or 80 percent) of the chemical among various possible require extensive data registrants voluntarily cancelled regulatory criteria, let alone submissions if they wish to their registrations or were determining a scientifically continue their registration threatened with registration relevant release rate value." pursuant to EPA's authority suspension by EPA for failure to In addition to these under FIFRA. Through the use of submit the required information. federal efforts, several states DCIs, EPA has requested These 300 products account for have adopted regulations. extensive data on the release about half of the total TBT Virginia has urged Congress and

76 EPA to ban the use of TBT identification and quantification investigate effects on compounds in free association of critical pathways (surface gametogenesis, settlement of paints, and has limited the sale of microlayer, water column, and spat, growth, calcification, and TBT paints to the general public. sediments) of exposure of marine reproduction through all life In addition, Virginia has and estuarine organisms to TBT stages. Lastly, on-site bioassays prohibited the use of TBT paint and metabolites, and the uptake using ambient water from on vessels shorter than 25 rates and bioconcentration/ selected high use areas are meters, except for aluminum hull bioaccumulation levels of TBT needed to validate effects boats. Maryland also has banned and metabolites by key observed in the field and in the sale of TBT paints to the organisms in all trophic levels specific laboratory tests. Also, public, and Washington has from both water and sediments. representative large volume banned the use of TBT paints on Also needed are the biological toxicity tests, such as can be vessels less than 25 meters in and chemical degradation rates conducted at the MERL (Marine length. Similar legislation is under of TBT and metabolites in marine Ecosystem Research Laboratory) consideration in California. The and estuarine waters (under a mesocosm tanks at the New Jersey state senate is wide range of salinities and University of Rhode Island, are considering a bill that would ban temperatures), in aerobic and needed to validate standard, 96- all sales of TBT paints. anaerobic sediments, and in hour laboratory toxicity tests. tissues. This includes the Research and Needs to the Future Monitoring importance of photosynthetic Looking Many of the monitoring studies organisms in enhancing TBT Antifouling paints are needed, conducted to date have focused degradation rates. and at present, alternatives to on determining the Most of the toxicity paints that rely on toxic concentrations of TBT in marinas studies conducted during the last compounds are in their infancy. or downstream of boat yards and 5 years have used nominal (one- Efforts to safely use toxic-based dry docks, and not on the initial dose) exposure antifouling paints require processes that determine the fate concentrations in which the test accurate and comprehensive and behavior of TBT in the organisms were exposed to initial environmental data. Because marine environment. Also, most measured test concentrations TBT causes harm to non-target of the toxicity information and not continuous marine organisms at levels that available in comes from tests concentrations that have routine approach our ability to detect its which an organism is placed in a chemical quantifications at presence, we are limited in our test container a with known selected time periods. These ability to study the toxic effects. initial concentration of TBT for a nominal tests (usually static and Consequently, there exists a limited period of exposure. Such not flow through) are of limited tremendous need for further tests do not accurately reflect the value when conducted at parts research on the mechanisms of impact of TBT in the per trillion levels. Toxicity tests toxicity, and the fate and environment, or many factors of should focus on low level behavior of TBT in the marine ecological importance, such as physiological end-points through environment. reproductive success. chronic or full-life-cycle Until more is known, In July 1986, NOAA's exposure testing. Proper criteria evaluation of the effectiveness of National Marine Pollution include reproductive success, innovations, such as new paint Program Office sponsored an gametogenesis, imposex, formulations or matrixes that interagency workshop on calcification mechanisms, and have lower release rates, will be monitoring and detecting immune suppression, rather than tentative and inconclusive. organotin compounds. Since this mortality as measured by acute Without a full understanding of workshop, groups at the state, short-term, 96-hour bioassay the environmental mechanisms federal, and international levels tests. and processes that control TBT have met in the United States, To determine how distribution and critical pathways Britain, and France to identify the contaminated sediments should of toxicity, we cannot unleash critical needs in TBT research. be removed (dredged) and the high technology that created Some recommendations where they can be placed, tests these paints to make them more from these meetings include of the response of benthic effective and safer. developing advanced analytical organisms to contaminated methodologies for the sediments are needed. The most Michael A. Champ is a Senior Scientist with Science identification of TBT and its useful tests would use spiked Applications International Corporation, in metabolites at parts-per-trillion sediments (4 or 5 times the Rockville, Maryland. Frank L. levels in marine waters and in ranges of contamination typically Lowenstein is a freelance writer, and a tissues and sediments. To explain found) and would be run for former Assistant Editor at Oceanus. the concentrations observed in perhaps 60 days, because of the both water bodies and part-per-trillion test levels. organisms, the environmental Because mollusks have a Suggested Readings fate and behavior of TBT and its high sensitivity to TBT and its Marine Technology Society. 1986. metabolites in marine and metabolites, chronic long-term Proceedings Oceans '86 and '87 estuarine waters need to be studies should first be conducted Conferences, Organotin Symposia. studied. This includes the extensively with these animals to Washington, DC.

77 Matamek: Toward an Uncertain Future

-A conflict between preservation and development exists at and around the site of a former research station in Canada. Will an agreeable solution be found? by Andre Delisle

A n ecological reserve that has the southern boundary of the square kilometers (173,000 benefited from its status as a reserve. At the end of 1984, for a acres), be given the status of a conservation area for the last two variety of reasons, American reserve by the Quebec decades, and a natural hinterland scientists from the Woods Hole government, a request that was on the north shore of the Gulf of Oceanographic Institution granted. This status, obtained in St. Lawrence adjacent to a (WHOI) withdrew from the 1970, guaranteed the dormant research station, the research station at the mouth of preservation of the natural Matamek Reserve may soon be the Matamek River on the Gulf character of the Matamek river opened up to lumbering and to of St. Lawrence, where, along basin and its resources. Hunting the exploitation of its wildlife. with a number of other projects, and fishing were prohibited from How are we going to decide they had been studying the then on, except for research upon the destiny of this legacy of Atlantic salmon. the environmental conscience? To pursue their research, /Above, the Matamek Research A related question deals the American scientists had Station, on the north shore of the Gulf with the fate of the research asked that the whole Matamek of St. Lawrence, and at the mouth of station itself, lying just outside River basin, an area of some 700 the Matamek River.

78 purposes and on lands where sometimes disastrous and concentrate its efforts on the aboriginal peoples held ancestral consequences for the local primary mission of the trapping rights. Indian population. Determined Institution oceanography. However, since the to do something about this, in Grice also states, "The research scientists left in 1984, no 1931 he organized the Matamek station was not simply put up for Quebec institution has taken up Conference on Biological Cycles, sale. A concentrated effort was the torch. The research station is and invited the leading ecologists made by WHOI to turn the now for sale by its present and geographers of the day. station over to an appropriate owners. Presently, several groups Among the contributors was the Canadian group, provided an would like to take over this eminent ecologist, Charles Elton. agreement could be reached to magnificent area. At the same The conference led to a grant continue Matamek as a research time, its status as a conservation from Amory to Elton that helped station. Canadian Federal and area is being questioned by found the Bureau of Animal Provincial organizations were those groups who may take over Population at Oxford University. contacted (including Canadian the station, and by provincial For this and other reasons, the Federal Wildlife Service, government ministries conference marked an early Canadian Fisheries and Oceans, responsible for administering milestone in the study of Quebec Ministry of Tourism, public lands, forests, and wildlife. population dynamics. Hunting, and Fishing), as well as Business problems forced several universities (University of The Matamek Research Station Amory to withdraw from Quebec, McGill University, Some 1 50 acres of mostly Matamek during the mid-1 930s. University of Waterloo, and the timberland at the mouth of the The station was eventually sold, University of Laval). As of this Matamek River were given to and became a salmon fishing date, no proposals have been WHOlin 1966 by the late club. received." ). Seward Johnson. The Matamek Following its acquisition While WHOI, like most land was a commercial fishing by WHOI, scientific other involved parties, would camp for anglers until that time, investigations began in 1967, prefer that the station continue and there is a lodge-and-cabin with studies of the Atlantic as a research facility, the cluster that accommodates up to salmon and other species of fish property on which it is located 30 people. In addition, there are in the lower river, and the fish in falls outside the boundaries of four log cabins in a group on Matamek Lake. Work continued the Matamek Reserve, and Lake Matamek, and three other in 1968 on salmon in the river carries no legal restrictions. cabins scattered in the forest and brook trout in the lake, along The Road to No Return near other lakes. with a preliminary look at other The Matamek Research headwater lakes. Discovery of a The drainage basin of the Station, as it was named, is fishless area led in 1969 to an Matamek River, which until now located on the north shore of the ecological comparison of four has been protected against Gulf of St. Lawrence, 600 headwater lakes, and studies of commercial exploitation, would kilometers east of Quebec City brook trout production in other not be threatened were it not for and 32 kilometers east of Sept- lakes. Because the salmon an omission in the legal lies. The station is at the mouth population was found to be definition of its protected status. of the Matamek River, which small, examination of the salmon It opens the door to an drains a pristine watershed of stocks of other north-shore irrevocable attack on the pristine 684 square kilometers. Along the rivers, the Moisie and the nature of the area. The omission 10-kilometer course of the Corneille, was started in 1969. By is this: neither the Cabinet Matamek River between 1972, a general study of north- decree establishing the reserve in Matamek Lake and the Gulf of shore salmon rivers included 14 1970, nor the subsequent St. Lawrence, there are five salmon rivers. Limnological regulations enforcing its waterfalls. The area is surveys in the Matamek protected status clearly prohibit Precambrian shield, and the watershed covered 31 lakes, logging. The possibility of such vegetation is typical of a boreal ponds, and bogs. Observation logging is mentioned in the forest region with virgin stands of tanks constructed at the second premise of the decree, where it black spruce and balsam fir. falls provided facilities for is stated that "any exploitation or Inland, the Precambrian bedrock behavioral work and experiments exploration of the said territory is close to the surface, but the on supplemental feeding of . . . must be previously submitted coastal area is overlain by salmon parr and brook trout. to the Minister of Tourism, Champlain Sea deposits. In 1984, however, WHOI Hunting, and Fishing, in order Matamek has a history of withdrew from maintaining an that the Minister may study the scientific endeavor. In 1912 active research program at the impact of such exploitation or Walter Amory and his son station. George D. Grice, exploration on the research Copley Amory bought the Associate Director for Scientific program, as well as any property. Amory was a naturalist Operations at WHOI, reports repercussions on salmon and found the area ideal for his that, while lack of adequate production from the river." Since interests. He soon observed that funding was a factor, there were research activities in this area fluctuations in the abundance of others. Among them was the seem to be a thing of the past, fish and game had profound and decision by WHOI to redirect and since research carried out

79 over a period of almost 18 years the station taken over by from some regional organizations has demonstrated that the someone who would preserve (notably from the Corporation salmon production potential of the scientific vocation of the for the Protection of the the Matamek River is modest, territory. Scientists at the Institut Environment of Sept-lies, the this issue has become more National de la Recherche community college in Sept-lies, ambiguous. Scientifique (National Scientific the Quebec Union for Nature The consequences of this Research Institute) and various Conservation, the University of ambiguity are important since Quebec universities were Quebec at Chicoutimi, and even the Quebec Ministry of Energy approached. They, however, had from local political authorities of and Resources is looking with to politely decline the offer, an the MRC (County Regional great interest at the timber attitude that is quite Municipality) of Sept-Rivieres potential of a section of the understandable in these difficult and the municipality of Moisies), Matamek Reserve. The Ministry times of budgetary restrictions. the Quebec Ministry of the is counting on the timber from a No foundation or institute has Environment has proposed section of the reserve to ensure come forward to shed a glimmer establishing an absolute the supply that it has guaranteed of hope for continuing the protected status for the Matamek to Cascades, a pulp and paper research activities that have been Reserve by designating it as an company, by way of the state carried out for the last 20 years. Ecological Reserve. The corporation Rexfor, with the aim The Minister of Tourism, Ecological Reserve status, a of stimulating the Port-Cartier Hunting, and Fishing, who is category adopted by the paper mill. The Ministry of responsible for the government sometime after the already started building roads to administration of parks and original Matamek Reserve was make such exploitation possible. wildlife reserves, today finds established, is considerably more The first centuries-old trees himself handling a "hot potato," restrictive in the permitted uses could be cut down by this year. because he will have to make a of an area and its resources. Within a few months, the decision involving several Some say too restrictive. This ecological integrity of the ministries of the same proposal is still under review. Matamek basin might be lost government, all of which have the Reserve's Integrity forever. already made their preferences Guarding the Even if the logging is done known, and where the opinions Being an untouched region, in compliance with the most of the representatives of the basin of the Matamek River has of strict ecological rules, the region involved also seem to be the almost perfect profile an intrusion of bulldozers and strongly divided. ecological reserve. On the one is of the last logging equipment into this virgin Of course, the Ministry of hand, the river one for natural territory would certainly cause Energy and Resources, refuges reproduction heavy environmental damage. supported by the Quebec by the Atlantic salmon.* This it constitutes a river of Moreover, it could be followed Planning and Development being so, by an intrusion by hunters and Office, is impatiently awaiting a undeniable scientific interest for fishermen in their all-terrain favorable official decision (by the the protection of this species that vehicles, roaring up the Council of Ministers) that would is disappearing from our lumbering roads looking for legitimize its presence in the waterways. On the other hand, game or fresh fish. The local reserve. Even within the Ministry the basin of the Matamek River is hunting and fishing associations of Tourism, Hunting, and Fishing the only complete ecosystem have already made their (more precisely in the that is representative of the intentions clear about taking over department responsible for the environment of the mid-north this precious area. north shore region) a form of that has not yet been disturbed controlled exploitation of by human activities.** For a Label Looking territorial resources is strongly To guard the habitat of The discussion about the legacy favored, most notably by the the salmon from human left by the American scientists creation of a zone for controlled intervention, those running the has only recently been made exploitation (zone d'exploitation research station, as well as public, notably by the Societe controlee, or ZEC). several university scientists Linneenne du Quebec (the Administration along these lines, proposed, as early as 1975, to Linnean Society of Quebec). The if it contributes to a rational turn the Matamek River basin Quebec Advisory Council for exploitation of the wildlife

Ecological Reserves made public, resources, would allow other * Robert /. Naiman, former Scientific a few months an uses of the resources. ago, opinion Villages Coordinator of the Matamek Research that had been sent to the and lumbering could then be Program, and presently Director of the Minister of the in certain areas. Quebec permitted Center for Water and the Environment Environment, Clifford Lincoln. The whole question might at the University of Minnesota, states before all this have been decided if the Long already that, "the salmon run in the Matamek of the environmental had happened, representatives community River is modest, with up to 100 environmental community and a not sounded the alarm. spawning adults. Indeed, there are few Quebec scientists who had Following the intervention of the quite a few other rivers in the area worked at the research station Societe Linneenne, which with equal or better runs of naturally had done their utmost to have succeeded in winning support reproducing salmon."

80 into an ecological reserve. This proposal was based mainly on the threatened disappearance of the Atlantic salmon and on the interest in preserving intact a north coast ecosystem that was still inhabited by this species, and where it still reproduces in completely natural conditions. The proposal was based on data that had been previously compiled, and on the importance of the area for research and educational activities. Indeed, the value of this parcel of Quebec rests on the overall integrity of its natural environment. For supporters of a network of ecological reserves, the preservation of this area is also a question of principle. The role of the administrator of these territorial banks, the Quebec government, has come under scrutiny. Is it possible, at the whim of the ministers or partisan politics, to withdraw the status of protected areas, a status that has preserved such areas from groups opposed to this form of conservation? Matamek Reserve of last At the beginning Timber Supply Area the Council February, Advisory Lumbering Roads for Reserves took a Ecological Contested Area firm stand and underlined the incongruity of changing the 7. The Matamek Reserve, and the site of the Matamek Research Station. status of a protected reserve: "If Figure we opened up the Matamek reserve to lumbering and exploitation, something that is acceptable, with the aim of exploitation of wildlife, that completely at odds with the avoiding the dangerous would signify, ironically, that it objectives envisaged when the precedent of converting a had been protected for future territory was granted its status." protected area into an area exploitation. Its protection completely open to exploitation. The of becomes, paradoxically, a way of Possibility Sharing A definite plan of the long-term planning for its The permanence of the reserve limits of a possible ecological status, and the stability of the reserve on the Matamek would ecosystems that are presently thus liberate a part of the area ** On this point Naiman agrees, under protection, is therefore in sought after by Rexfor, as well as saying: "In my view, there are two question in the debate the land occupied by the former principal values of the Matamek surrounding the future use of the research station that would be Reserve: it is an 1) outstanding Matamek Reserve. At the required for any future tourist of a small to intermediate example Department of Ecological development. The status of the size river in the subarctic with a region Patrimony of the Quebec reserve also could be defined so watershed that is in a pristine largely Ministry of Environment, an that certain recreational and state. We learned a great deal about effort is being made to delineate educational activities would be river systems and their dynamics in an in a realistic way the territory of permitted, conditional on area unencumbered by lumbering and an eventual ecological reserve, respecting the natural integrity of other operations. Many of our original taking into account the claims of the area. In the same way, hypothesis about this type of system the forest as well as the and (based on data from other systems) industry hunting fishing rights tourist of the were proved wrong, and 2) there potential buildings acquired by aboriginal peoples of the former research station. would be exists a valuable long-term data set for preserved. However, to the usual of or wildlife the Matamek watershed, representing Compared any form lumbering a cost of $3 to 5 million. This requirements of designating an exploitation for commercial considerably enhances the scientific ecological reserve as such, purposes would be excluded value of the area. certain concessions would be from the ecological reserve.

81 For Rexfor, this new neighboring area. However, Quebec are faced with the carving up of the Matamek area several questions concerning the challenge of finding a magic would mean leaving intact a station remain unanswered for formula that will satisfy both the band of territory that had been now. One of these is the use to needs of the local population as well part of the area designated for which the existing buildings as the conditions needed to commercial exploitation. Rexfor could be put, and which group preserve a special ecological would therefore have to find should be designated to inheritance. other sources of supply for the administer them. With the Unless a certain ecological Port-Cartier mill. Cascades, a instigation of the Societe conscience slows down the strong supporter of recycling, Linneenne du Quebec, which thrust of the forest industry, the might have to accept a slight would heartily support an next few months will be crucial, increase in price for its raw Atlantic salmon information because the acts carried out by material in order to make such a center being installed in the the various interested parties compromise possible. This former research station buildings, would have a long-lasting effect. would, however, have as much an organization is being created As such, the few thousand trees ecological flavor as using waste (Territoire Matamek) that would that would be harvested have paper in the production of pulp. properly develop the Matamek greater value than their wood For the anglers, however, Reserve. This organization would alone. If these trees are cut the sacrifice will be more bring together those who are down, the harmony and difficult, because the potential of most interested in the reserve, equilibrium of a vast natural the lakes in the Matamek area is such as the municipalities, the ecosystem will be destroyed, very attractive. Suffice to say that teaching and research along with the confidence that the name "Matamek" is a institutions, as well as the local the environmentalists have in the Montagnais word meaning "trout economic development officers. governmental institutions that are river!" The Ministry of Tourism, Priority would be given, designated as guardians of Hunting, and Fishing has initially, to a feasibility study ecological preserves. estimated that between 25,000 looking at development projects and 40,000 chars would be for the Matamek that would be produced annually in any compatible with a vocation as an possible future ZEC on the ecological reserve. The Ministry Matamek. As far as hunting is of Energy and Resources, for its concerned, it would be less part, is examining the Andre Delisle, a journalist from painful, since the basin presently consequences of all foreseeable Quebec, is a science supports a relatively small uses of the territory: ecological communicator, and a contributor population of moose. This reserve, provincial park, wildlife to several magazines, including population is similar to refuge, or other options. the Canadian conservation neighboring areas, even though magazine Franc Nord. An Protection no sport hunting has been Orphan Seeking practiced in the area for nearly An orphan since the departure of 20 years. the American scientists, the Finally, there is the territory of the Matamek Reserve incontestable tourist attraction of is now under the protection of a the research station on the government with many interests. Acknowledgment Matamek, as well as the river Those who support the Translation from French by Gene itself and the lakes in the preservation of this area of Bourgeau and Vonik Tanneau

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82 Supreme Court Rules Against Public Beach Access

by Timothy K. Eichenberg

Summer is the time the public heads for the beach; it also is the time that the decisions of the United States Supreme Court are released from cases argued during the winter and spring. Next summer it may be a little harder for the public to get to the beach thanks to two recent decisions issued by the Court. Nollan v. California Coastal Commission (No. 86-133, June 26, 1987), struck down, as an unconstitutional "taking," a California requirement that coastal development provide for public access along the beach. In First English Evangelical Lutheran Church ofClendale v. County of Los Angeles (No. 85-1 1 99, June 9, 1987), the Court found that In June, 1987, the United States Supreme Court handed down two rulings that are where the government has likely to affect public beach access; Nollan v. California Coastal Commission, and "taken" private property by land First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. County of Los Angeles. The justices use regulation, a landowner may of the Court are (seated from left): Thurgood Marshall, William Brennan, Chief recover even monetary damages justice William Rehnquist, Byron White, and Harry Blackmun; (standing from left) if he was only temporarily Sandra Day O'Connor, Lewis Powell (retiring at the end of this session), John denied the use of his property. Stevens, and Antonin Scalia. Voting to strike down the California access provisions Read the cases together, appear in Nollan were: Scalia, Rehnquist, O'Connor, White, and Powell. Voting to award shift in the to indicate a Court's damages for a temporary "taking" in Lutheran Church were: Rehnquist, White, views on the delicate question of Marshall, Powell, and Scalia. how far government may go in regulating private development of course, may be taken where a owner also is entitled to receive for the public good. The federal, state, or local "just compensation." The classic consequences may bode ill for governmental entity initiates example of inverse communities that wish to condemnation proceedings condemnation involves provide for public access and under its power of eminent government action causing a other public amenities through domain for public purposes, physical invasion of private development exactions* and such as highways, urban property, such as the flooding of other land use planning renewal, airports, and the like. In land as the result of the techniques. such cases, the 5th Amendment Both cases address the that the owner * requires property Development exactions refer to a con- issue of land receive when governmental "just compensation." tribution by a developer to a munici- use effects a also be regulation "taking" Property may pality as a condition to carrying forward is "taken" no condemnation of private property, which when a project. Examples include contribu- prohibited by the 5th and 14th proceedings are initiated. In such tions of land for streets, parks, and si- Amendments of the United circumstances, the property is dewalks; or fees paid in lieu of such States Constitution without "just said to be "inversely dedications to be used toward afforda- compensation." Private property, condemned" and the property ble housing or public transportation.

83 construction of a dam; but it also owners had made accessible to The Nollan Case may occur from more temporary navigable waters was a "taking," and less physically intrusive but a zoning ordinance that In Nollan, by a 5-4 vote, the invasions, such as from airport reduced the density of Court struck down a practice noise, or even cable TV unimproved land was not a utilized by the California Coastal installations. "taking." Commission requiring that public Property may even be As perplexing as the access to and along the sea be "taken" without a physical question of when governmental provided as a condition for invasion or divestiture of title police powers "go too far" and granting permits for coastal when government action causes become a regulatory "taking" is development. The controversy a substantial interference with the question of what remedies arose when James Nollan, an the free use and enjoyment of should be available to those who assistant Los Angeles city property, or deprives land of all have their property "taken." attorney, and his wife, applied to its economic value. Such cases Several legal scholars and a the Commission for a permit to typically involve zoning land as number of state jurisdictions tear down their one-story 504- open space after unsuccessful have been of the opinion that square-foot cottage, and erect a attempts to acquire the property. even when property is so two-story structure that covered Although zoning ordinances may excessively burdened by 2,464 of the 2,800 buildable properly restrict the use of regulation that it constitutes a square feet on their lot. property under governmental "taking," the appropriate remedy The Nollans' property was police power authority for such should be invalidation of the part of the Faria Tract located in purposes as growth controls, regulation rather than payment Ventura County, consisting of historic preservation, open of "just compensation," which is beachfront lots located between space, and environmental required when property is taken two popular publicly used protection, it may become a by eminent domain or is beaches. Since 1979, the State regulatory "taking" if it "goes too inversely condemned. had required that permits for far" and imposes too heavy a The public policy development upon the Faria burden on property rights. justification for this view was Tract be conditioned on the clearly articulated in Agins v. dedication of the dry sandy Tiburon (24 Cal 3d 266, 598 P. beach area for public use to 2d 25, 1978; affirmed on other "pass and repass" between the Decisions Conflicting grounds, 447 U.S. 255, 1980), two beaches. The Nollans did where the California Supreme not object to people walking Anyone reviewing the Supreme Court stated that if local along their beachfront, which Court's treatment of the "taking" government entities and officials was a narrow strip of sand issue is bound to be confused by were subjected to claims for between their 8-foot high the conflicting nature of the damages for designating zoning seawall and the water. However, decisions and the Court's densities, "the process of they resisted formalizing the inability to draw a clear line community planning would public's right to do so as a between the proper exercise of either grind to a halt, or condition to their development, governmental police powers and deteriorate to publication of and sued the Commission for an unconstitutional regulatory vacuous generalizations damages alleging that the access "taking." Justice Oliver Wendell regarding the future use of land." condition constituted an Holmes called it a "question of The threat of damage awards unconstitutional "taking" of their degree," and the Court itself also would deprive public beach. recognized that it "quite simply officials of the "reasonable California pointed out that has been unable to develop any latitude" necessary to effectively the state constitution guarantees " 'set formula' for making such a plan for and implement the public's right of access to determination. As a result, legitimate land use goals. It tidelands and navigable waters analogies have been drawn therefore held that a zoning (Article X, Section 4), and State between the Court's test for a ordinance that reduced the law (Section 302 12 of the "taking" and its test for density of property from 5 units California Coastal Act) requires pornography; "I don't know what to 1 unit per acre was not a all new development to provide it is, but I know it when I see it." "taking." for public access to and along The Court has regularly The Nollan and Lutheran the sea. It also argued that the fallen on either side of the issue. Church cases indicate that: 1) the access condition satisfied the It recently found, for example, current majority on the Supreme constitutional requirements for that federal environmental Court may be predisposed to the exercise of valid police regulations prohibiting the use of finding that government powers because it served an eagle feathers did not "take" pre- regulation "goes too far" and important public purpose, did existing Indian artifacts, while therefore constitutes a "taking," not deprive the Nollans of all certain governmental controls of and 2) the Court may more economic use of their property, the pesticide industry could favorably view the awarding of and did not interfere with the amount to a "taking" of trade monetary damages once a Nollans' investment-backed secrets. It also held that requiring "taking" by regulation has been expectations (tests established by public access to a lagoon that the found. previous Supreme Court rulings).

84 r

The Nollans' home at low tide (at high tide the beach is covered by water). The Court's ruling invalidates California's requirement that the Nollans dedicate the beach in front of their seawall for public passage. The public's right to cross their beach remains unsettled, unless the beach is purchased or public rights are asserted through additional litigation under the public trust doctrine (as public tidelands) or under the doctrine of implied dedication.

Furthermore, the condition beachfront house did not impose requirement to limit the height merely permitted the public to additional burdens on public or width of the structure, pass along the Nollans' beach, access along the beach. prohibit the construction of a most or all of which was public California argued that the fence, or even provide a public tidelands. development increased private viewing spot on the Nollans' to The Court, however, use immediately adjacent property, it did not sufficiently struck down the public access public tidelands, created a burden the ability of the public condition as an unconstitutional "psychological barrier" by to pass along the beachfront. "taking." It found that the walling-off the coastline, and Therefore, it could not justify the burdens imposed by the interfered with "visual access" dedication of the Nollans' beach reconstruction of the Nollans' thereby preventing the public for public use. Without a proper house were not sufficiently from knowing public tidelands "nexus" (link) between the public related to the public access were accessible nearby. In the access condition and the public condition required by the state. words of the California appellate burdens imposed by the It also held that appropriating a court that upheld the access development, the Court held public easement across their condition, the Nollans' house that the restriction "is not a valid beach deprived the Nollans of was "one more brick in the wall regulation of land use but 'an the right to exclude others, separating the people of out-and-out plan of extortion/" which is "one of the most California from the State's and if California thinks that essential sticks in the bundle of tidelands." public access along the Faria rights that are commonly The Supreme Court, Tract serves a public purpose characterized as property." however, found these arguments and "wants an easement across In the Court's view, the unpersuasive. While the the Nollans' property, it must enlargement of the Nollans' development could justify a pay for it."

85 In Nollan, therefore, the Lutheran Church, the floodplain There will undoubtedly Court found that exactions not ordinance was not ruled to be a be overly cautious planners and specifically related to the "taking." However, by specifying opponents of public access who burdens imposed by the that monetary damages may be will use the decisions to development constitute an an appropriate remedy during discourage the use of exactions, unconstitutional "taking." The the time that government and other land use planning Lutheran Church case addresses regulation effects a "taking," the techniques, to obtain public the issue of what appropriate Court has subjected local benefits from private remedies are available when governments to risks that they development. Furthermore, the government regulation "takes" may be unwilling to take. cases seem to indicate that the private property. Cautious planning boards and Court is now headed toward the balk at city councils may now direction of protecting private measures that restrict adopting property rights and away from The Lutheran Church Case development for public safety, the use of local police authority The First English Evangelical growth controls, or to provide public benefits. As a Lutheran Church of Glendale, environmental protection result, access to public tidelands California, operated a because they are advised by and the sea may suffer. campground for handicapped counsel that they may be forced children known as "Lutherglen," to purchase the property or pay which was located in a canyon damages if successfully sued for along the banks of the Middle a "taking." No longer may they Fork of Mill Creek in the Los simply invalidate the ordinance Timothy K. Eichenberg is a Angeles National Forest. without considering the Postdoctoral Investigator in the Marine Lutherglen was destroyed by a economic effects of damage Policy and Ocean Management flood rains in 1978 awards. during heavy Center at the Woods Hole and to the Likewise, in Nollan, the protect public safety, Oceanographic Institution. Los Angeles County adopted an Court did not prohibit the use of ordinance prohibiting the development exactions in construction of any structures providing for public access. In within the Mill Creek floodplain. fact, it even suggested that a When the Lutheran Church more onerous condition sought damages against the requiring the placement of a the County for, among other things, public viewing area on denying them all use of Nollans' property would be Lutherglen, the lower courts acceptable. Nevertheless, the dismissed the case on the case also may cause a reluctance grounds that under Agins v. to utilize creative land use Tiburon, the remedy for a planning techniques, such as "taking" is limited to development exactions, because nonmonetary relief, such as the the linkage between the exaction invalidation of the ordinance. and the burden imposed by the The Supreme Court did development must be made not find that the floodplain unmistakably clear. ordinance constituted a "taking" This may discourage the of Lutherglen. However, it did, use of development exactions to by a 6-3 majority, remand the obtain public benefits, like case back to California for a parkland dedications and ruling on the "taking" issue, with beachfront access. It may instructions that if the ordinance jeopardize existing programs, in was found to be a "taking," then such cities as Boston and San the government must provide Francisco, where extensive Letter Writers compensation for the period regulations require downtown during which the "taking" was office development to provide effective. Simply invalidating the low-cost housing and The editor welcomes letters ordinance without payment of transportation amenities if that comment on articles in this fair value for the use of the specific links to the burdens issue or that discuss other mat- the of the the property during period imposed by development ters of importance to the ma- "taking" would be a cannot be substantiated. Nollan rine community. "constitutionally insufficient also raises the question of remedy." whether the Court will be willing Early responses to articles have to recognize the cumulative the best chance of being pub- effects of individual projects, The Effects lished. Please be concise and Psychological which by themselves may not have your letter double-spaced The psychological effects of have adverse impacts, but taken for easier reading and editing. these two cases is likely to be together may significantly impact greater than their legal effect. In a community.

86 Robert George Weeks

A Man of Many Skills

by Michelle K. Slowey

Versatility has been Robert G. Institution (WHOI). Currently the machinist, welder, rigger, Weeks' trademark for the 36 supervisor of the WHOI qualified SCUBA (self-contained years he has worked at the mechanical shop, he also has underwater breathing apparatus) Woods Hole Oceanographic served the Institution as a diver, aircraft pilot for single and

87 multi-engined planes, and in many other capacities.

I met Robert Weeks in his tiny office on the WHOI dock- right in the thick of the deafening commotion of machine work. A ruddy-faced man of medium build with a quick, friendly smile, he sat down in his chair, leaning forward, then back, then forward again. Here was someone who obviously was not used to sitting still. "So," he said, "let's get started." Robert (Bobby to Bobby Weeks and scientist Jed Spenser alongside the Stinson Voyager in Florida in Weeks is a everyone) George the late 1 950s. genuine Cape-Codder born in Falmouth 60 years ago, just 2 miles from Woods Hole, near managed to acquire a private Florida because that was a good Quissett Harbor. Like the rest of pilot's license under the Gl Bill. area to observe thunderstorms. the Cape, Falmouth has changed In 1951, he had an offer We attached a fiberglass pole dramatically in the course of his to come to WHOI as a member with radioactive material on the or so- of it to with lifetime. "When I was born," he of the mechanical shop, end each wingtip, tells me, "Falmouth had a called "garage gang" responsible wires coming back to record the population of about 5,000. Now for getting the WHOI ships and positive and negative charges. for as well all it has a winter population of equipment ready sea, We flew around the storms about 27,000 and a summer as a variety of other projects. like that, checking out the population of around 70,000." There was little specialization at electrical currents. It was pretty Weeks came by his love for the time, and the members of exciting. boats honestly, growing up on the crew were necessarily men "Later the biologists used the harbor, where his father, of many skills. Young Weeks did the plane for whale-watching. George Weeks, was a master whatever was needed of him Bill [William E.] Schevill and Bill boat builder. "When I was a kid, "The more things you can do, [William A.] Watkins and I spent that's I never got involved in sports; I the more valuable you are, many hours flying up and down a in search of was too busy with the boats. I been my philosophy." He was the coast, whales spent all my time on the water- mechanic, welder, painter, (mostly right whales) and his in sailing, racing, quahogging, rigger, and electrician. But porpoises." Whale-watching clamming." As a boy, Bobby newly acquired pilot's license the Stinson was somewhat quickly learned the many aspects opened up a new phase of his awkward though, as the plane of boat maintenance, while at career. could not fly slow enough to the same time delivering closely observe the mammals' Pilot Western Union telegrams, and behavior. the local paper. At 14, he joined The walls of Weeks' office are In 1959, at the request of the Falmouth Fire Department as covered with photos of ships and Schevill, WHOI bought a helio- a junior callman, accompanying planes, mostly planes. He points courier pontoon plane. Much firemen on alarms. to a small single-engine craft. lighter than the Stinson, the Weeks first worked for "That's the Stinson Voyager, the helio-courier could fly as slow as if WHOI in the summer of 1944 as first plane I flew for the 30 miles per hour, and, a deckhand for its small, wooden Institution." WHOI acquired the manipulated properly in a research vessel called the Stinson in 1951 and found an headwind, could fly at a Asterias. His job included setting eager and able pilot in Weeks. standstill, or even backwards. off explosives, dredging, and the Whenever asked, which was The plane's pontoons allowed placement of scientific often several times a week, the pilot to fly low over water instruments. Bobby would leave the "garage and to land in inland bays and That fall he left to serve gang" to spend an afternoon, a lakes if necessary. 3'/2 years in the Navy as a day, or perhaps a week, flying. The helio-courier was Boatswain's Mate gaining Sometimes this involved ferrying ideal for whale-watching. Weeks experience in the navigation and about Institution equipment or spent the next 10 years flying rigging of Navy transports. VIPs. Often it meant actively with Schevill and Watkins After discharge from the doing research with one of the observing and photographing Navy in 1947, Weeks returned to scientists. whales along the New England Quisset Harbor boatyard, where "One of the main things coast, and along the coasts of he did carpentry, painting, and we used her for at first was Florida, Canada, and the engine work for three seasons- studying lightning. Al [Alfred] Bahamas. scalloping and quahogging in the Woodcock (a WHOI Schevill (now Scientist off-seasons. In his spare time, he meteorologist) and I would fly to Emeritus at WHOI) remembers

88 requesting that Weeks be the sole pilot of the plane, as he felt he was "the consummate, careful pilot. Bobby was smart enough to know when to fly and when not to fly. He was always learning more about what the plane was capable of he could get her in and out of any tight spot. He knew all about inlets, sandbars, and about open water. He knew how to stay in the same piece of water after a whale had dived, even with the wind blowing and that's a very difficult thing to do. He knew how to tell one whale from another better than most scientists." The same attributes that made the pontoon plane ideal for whale-watching made it well- suited for dropping and picking instruments, up oceanographic Weeks at the controls of the helio-courier near the Woods Hole Oceanographic for lost instruments, searching Institution docks in the early 1960s. and for aerial photography. Several times a year, Weeks at would fly down the coast, from decades WHOI, diving intensive training session with a Rhode Island to Florida, with a became an integral part of Navy time-lapse camera, photograph- Week's job as well. As a boy, he Team. They soon became ing the coastline 600 feet off the went diving in Quisset Harbor involved in a variety of scientific water documenting coastal with a home-made helmet built projects all along the East erosion and changes. He had from a copper tank. Later, in the Coast studies of beach profiles, some amazing experiences: on Navy, he did more diving with a examination of scallop beds and one occasion he reached Florida "hard hat" helmet. So, when the lobster holes, observation of just before a hurricane ripped up Navy bought WHOI two sets of otter-trawl nets in action, the coast; on the return trip he SCUBA gear in 1952, Weeks was experiments with underwater was able to document the terrific quick to volunteer to use it. acoustics, and the placing of damage done. was a oceanographic instruments on Weeks was involved in relatively new phenomenon at the ocean floor. many other projects, and flew the time. Encouraged by the Like the flying, the diving several other planes (he also was exploits of , was done on an "on-call" basis. co-pilot for WHOI's four-engine and reports from the Scripps Whenever needed, often with C-54Q aircraft operating in the Institution of Oceanography, little or no notice, Weeks left his Indian Ocean and elsewhere). which had started a diving job at the machine shop to don His extensive flying for the program the year before, WHOI diving gear. Many times this Institution has resulted in the decided that diving might play a involved going to sea for several collection of considerable role in its research as well. Yet days or weeks as part of a diving scientific data. there was still much convincing expedition. WHOI phased out most to be done when Weeks and Richard (Dick) Edwards, a of its flying program and sold its David Owen, a deep sea much-decorated Navy diver in planes in the early 70s. Today photographer who would later the Korean War, joined the small most observational work is done (in 1955) become the supervisor of Owen and Weeks by satellites and buoys. Weeks is of the WHOI diving program, in 1954. He remembers riding still the chief pilot for the started diving for the Institution. around on the tops of trawl nets Institution though, and The two virtually taught with Weeks in Cape Cod Bay. sometimes is asked to charter a themselves the first year. The Biology Department was small, single-engine plane to They began by using the studying the effectiveness of check on various instruments equipment where it was most certain nets: holding on to the and buoys deployed for scientific obviously useful in dock and nets, the divers would be towed purposes. vessel inspection, mooring along by fishing boats- inspection, recovery of lost observing firsthand how different objects, and repairs taking nets caught or did not catch fish. Diver countless nets and wires out of Edwards describes those dives as Though flying took up much of propellers. In 1953, the being terribly cold: "SCUBA gear his time during his first two Institution sent them to an was considerably different back

89 then. It was much harder to get in and out of and it was much thinner (only V* inch thick). We did a lot of diving in New England waters in the winter and it could be miserable." But, according to Edwards, Weeks often made the work fun. "He was such a great person to be with. So versatile, so friendly. He had such a rapport with people. He would shuffle around, meeting strangers, next thing you know, everyone was giving us a hand." Weeks made his last dive for the Institution in 1980, but his impact on the WHOI program, along with that of Owen and Edwards, can certainly be attested to. Due in large part to the early divers' groundwork, others at WHOI were introduced to diving including scientists. Today the informal "in- The WHOI dock area in the summer of 1 945. house" diving program has grown from a handful of employees to more than 70 that Weeks made three 10-day of oxygen, the ham and cheese Institution-affiliated people. trips on the Chain, searching for sandwich was soggy but edible! But Weeks did not the Alvin, WHOI's submersible, Its discovery led to new areas of confine his diving to the which was lost for nearly a year chemical research at the Institution. In 1953, he bought in 1968. The Navy finally located Institution. his own SCUBA gear and set the sub and hauled it up but Mechanical Shop Supervisor about working on the side as a Weeks was the first on board. commercial diver in a variety of Inside he found the famous bag Between diving and flying for to situations, including wharf lunch left behind when the WHOI, Weeks found time maintain his close ties with the construction, dam inspection, occupants of the submersible in Institution's mechanical and ship salvaging. It was as a made their quick escape. Due shop, with consultant to a recovery team part to the extreme cold and lack where he continued to help ship maintenance. In 1974, noting his years of varied experience, WHOI designated Weeks supervisor of the mechanical shop. He is responsible for organizing and supervising personnel required for the support of WHOI's ships and scientific departments. The job is demanding. At any given moment he and his "gang" may be involved in repairing engines, generators, plumbing or designing a chemical hood or sediment trap for a scientist. The work sometimes takes place in the shop, but often is done in the bowels of the ship, under difficult conditions. Weeks' enthusiasm and friendliness are obviously the keynotes of his managerial style. He and the other shopworkers seem to take a personal interest in each cruise. The team has an

Weeks, "flying" off the WHOI dock in the late 1 950s, while shopworkers watch. outstanding project completion

90 record. In fact, Weeks accepted and Emergency Medical the night at the Fire the job because "we had always Technician for the Falmouth Fire Department." been so proud of getting the Department. He's still active in This sense of their cruises on ships ready for the Fire Department today. responsibility to the Institution, time. I was afraid someone else "Tonight will be my third night to the community, this sense of would come in and botch it all on this week. It's duty my hobby pride is perhaps Bobby Weeks' up." His crew has never been and I guess it's a service to the greatest contribution. Pride in his the cause of a cruise How town. I'm in radio contact with delay. flying. "It's more than just flying does he do it? the 24 hours a "Priorities," I says department day, the damn airplane. hope I Weeks. "I've so much talent seven a week. got days When you helped all the people I flew for

in this I turn a call for an shop just job ambulance, chances over the years." Pride in getting over to the right people and it are we'll be there first." For many the ships out on time. "I almost gets done." There is indeed a lot years, he was the department's never refused to work of talent the staff. As among only diver, using his own overtime nights, weekends, Elizabeth T. Bunce, Scientist equipment. He has recovered Christmas Eve." Pride in being Emeritus at WHOI, and one who more than 30 bodies from Cape part of a team. "I worked with has worked closely with the waters. "Somebody has to do some of the nicest people. They mechanical shop on many it it's nothing you'd pin a always understood your occasions, notes: "The shop is an medal on for," he says quietly. problems, always helped you absolutely key part of this Over the years, Week's out. Today so many people do because has served Institution, sea-going emergency training their job and go home. It is cruises still form the backbone of the Institution well. In his files, I always more than that for me." oceanography." found many laudatory letters, Weeks showed the author thanking him for his presence of around the large shop and mind and assistance in various dock the electricians' floods. through hurricanes, snowstorms, Michelle K. Slowey is an Editorial the and area, welding shop, "When there's a hurricane or a Assistant at Oceanus, published by the mechanical shop. He pointed to storm," he explains, "I first Woods Hole Oceanographic the huge cranes one capable of mobilize the people here in the Institution. lifting 5 tons, another capable of shop get the ships and lifting 25 tons. The noise was equipment secured, send overwhelming, but some of the everyone home, and then spend equipment lies idle. "When I have work," he says, "I love this job. When there's not enough work for everyone, it's a pain. We used to be busy all the time, The Sea-Bird CTD System: the choice used to work around the clock. of today's ocean science professionals. Now funding is down and there aren't quite so many cruises. We They like the design and what comes only have three boats the with it. For compelling reasons: Knorr, the Atlantis II, and the Oceanus. See the Knorr out there Unapproached dynamic accuracy. Unmatched Unlimited on the dock? It'll sit out there for reliability. Unexcelled ease of use. nine months this year." flexibility. Sophisticated software. Service A Sense of Responsibility and support from a good company Clearly a man who thrives on that puts your needs ahead of work, Weeks has never confined anything else. his energies to his job. He speaks proudly of his wife Doris, three Choose a Sea-Bird CTD System as the center grown children Phyllis, Wayne, piece of your experi- and Carolyn and mental program. granddaughter Ashley. If one can conceive of another activity in You'll be in this man's life he lives on a good company. horsefarm, which he and his wife run along with his daughter, Manufacturers of cable telemetering and internal recording CTD Systems, modular sensors and data Carolyn. "I do all the loggers for conductivity temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and other environmental variables. maintenance and transportation of the animals," he says. "We like to that's what keep busy, keeps SBE\smaaa/*imf Sea-Bird Electronics, Inc. us young." All the years Weeks dived 1808 136th Place, NE, Bellevue, WA 98005 USA. and flew for the Institution, he Telephone: (206) 643-9866. Telex: 292915 SBEI UR. also was on call as chief diver

91 wishing to establish a marine reserve, is confronted with the question of deciding on the area that such a reserve should encompass, and the jurisdictional issues that might arise when this is beyond the internationally recognized limits of territorial waters. the To the Editor: Considering initiative taken by the Sanctuary Programs Division, National Oceanic and Administration It is difficult to be very concise when commenting upon an Atomospheric (NOAA) of the U.S. of it is not to article such as that by Dr. Kilaparti Ramakrishna in your Department Commerce, going be long before summer 1987 issue [The Galapagos Marine Resources many developing countries embark upon the creation of marine areas in their Reserve, Vol. 30, No. 2, p. 1 7]. If authors are also enjoined protected respective jurisdictions, it for them to deal with to be concise, perhaps that accounts for his legal opinion making imperative such issues. For this leaving the following questions: reason, the following assumptions are made in the article. the article does 1 . First, not deal with What language in the Ecuador decree of May 1 3, the of Ecuadorian claim to 1986, claimed the waters within the baseline as archipelagic question archipelagic status for the islands. it waters? I can find none. Galapagos Nor does deal with the of the 2. On what basis does Ecuador claim authority to appropriateness joining islands by straight baselines. the article not it join the islands by straight baselines? Likewise, does deem necessary to offer a view on 3. What language in the decree claimed whether a 200-mile territorial sea is consistent or not with international law. For the "sovereignty" over the 15-mile zone beyond the baseline? sake of argument, it Does the term "exclusive domain" make such a claim? might even be said that the article accepts the Ecuadorian all 4. In what sense is the 200-mile territorial sea position on these issues. Before the claimed by Ecuador "comparable" with a 200-mile answering remaining questions, it may bear to that exclusive economic zone? Has Ecuador retreated from its repetition concede the reasoning advanced with to the case of stand 200-mile territorial sea? If it has not, why is the 15-mile belt respect specific Galapagos would or fall on how the issues referred to considered important? Is it the author's view that a 200-mile depending above are resolved. All this territorial sea is inconsistent with international law? notwithstanding, it is contended that issues raised in the article are relevant for 5. The author says it is unclear what restrictions other countries Ecuador proposes in the 15-mile belt. He later refers to interested in creating marine reserves for the protection and of "required restrictions" in this area. What are these and preservation their marine environment. That where did they come from? said the question of comparableness of 200- 6. In mile territorial sea with the 200-mile exclusive economic light of the unilateral decree, in what way is it zone is raised. It is true that helpful to Ecuador that other nations elsewhere have Ecuador has not retreated from its 200-mile territorial sea. But the Latin reached international agreements calling for international writings by American scholars and others interested in consultations and cooperation for the protection of other the region when ocean areas? focused on the kind of jurisdiction exercised by Latin American coastal states in their claimed territorial 7. The author states that there is no "clearly seas, there does an that recognizable general principle of international law" appear understanding the claimed territorial seas are with the now concerning protected areas and that customary law is not comparable recognized of the exclusive economic zone. Francisco well developed. In this light, what are the "valid legal bases" concept Orrego Vicuna in his edited for Ecuador's "required restrictions" in the 15-mile belt. book on the Exclusive Economic Zone: A Latin 8. What competence does the United Nations American Perspective (Westview Press, Boulder, 1 on the other dealt with the Food and Agriculture Organization have in respect of 984), hand, question of the status of the exclusive proposed special area regulation? legal economic zone (EEZ). The from 3 would be of interest: 9. The author seems to suggest that Ecuador is following excerpt page bound to follow the procedures of Part XII of the 1982 Convention before instituting pollution regulations in the The problem that has been of most lively concern to the 1 5-mile belt. If this is what is the for so, authority instituting Latin American countries in regard to the Exclusive such regulations without following those procedures? Economic Zone has indubitably been that of its legal I the author will be the hope permitted space status. The long-standing discussions as to whether the required to address the above to the extent of questions jurisdiction exercised by a coastal state over its adjacent their relevance. seas is (1) a type of specialized projection of its powers, or (2) a manifestation of its territorial sovereignty, William T. Burke, identical with or similar to its sovereignty over the Professor of Law, territorial sea, have continued to crop up in relation to University of Washington the legal status of the EEZ. These differences arose at the School of Law, outset among the members of the Permanent Seattle, Washington Commission of the South Pacific; Chile was decidedly in favor of the first approach; Ecuador leaned towards the second; while Peru modalities that REPLY: The author, though overwhelmed, would like to adopted special thank Professor revealed a preference for the latter. Burke for the opportunity to clarify and elaborate on some of the points made in the article in

To it is question. begin with, difficult to be concise in It comes out that Ecuador is in favor of attributing the traits responding to Professor Burke on his many queries. Given of territorial seas to that of the EEZ. This obviously appears the of the scope Oceanus article, the following answers as a contradiction given the distinction between sovereignty should suffice. and sovereign rights. It hardly needs explaining that if At the outset, the author would like to state that his Ecuador indeed had claimed sovereignty over 200 miles intention in commenting on the international legal issues of under its earlier decree there is no reason whatever to wish the Marine Galapagos Resources Reserve is more to look at to have sovereignty over the 200-mile EEZ too. Likewise, if a situation hypothetical where any developing country, Ecuador seriously believed that it is exercising sovereignty

92 over 200 there would have been no need to claim in miles, are likely to be the area of navigation and fishing. If that "exclusive over domain" the 15-mile buffer zone around indeed is the case, it is argued that Ecuador is on a firm the Galapagos. footing, given the fragility and uniqueness of the Galapagos, The next set of questions from Professor Burke deal to impose the required restrictions. with the procedure to be followed in the creation of a special zone. The article under reference sought to Kilaparti Ramakrishna, Marine and Ocean establish: that the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Policy Management Center, Woods Hole and other multilateral conventions provide for the Oceanographic Institution procedures to be followed; that some countries pursuant to these have concluded international agreements; and that To the Editor: there is nothing objectionable in attempting to set up a This letter is in to summer 1987 issue on the special legal regime in anticipation that it would eventually regards your Marine Resources get wider acceptance. Galapagos Reserve. The articles and of this For these reasons, the article holds that while photographs unique group of islands were very

I and them. I do have Ecuador is within its rights to create the special zone, it had interesting enjoyed reading However, a to a to a on done very little to gain acceptance from the competent question pertaining caption photograph page 27 of that issue. It is located at the end of the international organizations. The last paragraph of the article article on reads in fact as a sermon of sorts on how and what Ecuador "Diving in the Galapagos" by Godfrey Merlen. The lower has the should do to gain wide international acceptance of this photograph caption naming the zone. pictured animals Galapagos manta rays. It appears to me to be a school of Aetobatus Lastly, the question of "required restrictions." It is spotted eagle rays (probably

narinari). In at The I have found widely held that a coastal state can declare any or all of its my experiences Living Seas, that there seems to be a lot of confusion EEZ as a special protected area. Reference was made to the between the two the establishment of a protected area "contiguous to the especially by general public.

I wanted to inform of this and if I am frontier or to the limits of the zone of national jurisdiction of just you

mistaken I would it if another party." Such measures indeed were lauded as appreciate you would let me know. paving the way for better protection and preservation of the Sherri Betros, marine environment. Only when these measures conflict Living Seas Aquarist, with navigation and/or fishing activity would the The Living Seas, concurrence of the competent international organizations, Walt Disney World Co., in the present case, the International Maritime Organization Lake Buena Vista, Florida and the Food and Agriculture Organization, be needed. It is true that the Ecuadorian proclamation did not state the -They were spotted eagle rays. We made an editorial restrictions that it would like to impose in the area. For the error. Ed. reasons given earlier in this reply, the author believes that Ecuador seeks to impose certain restrictions and that they

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in Coastal Aquaculture Biological Science Long-term Changes Benthic Communities, edited by C.

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95 of the Crab: Marine Animals in Year Physical Science Ships and Sailing Modern Medicine by William Sargent. 1987. W. W. Norton & Co., New York, NY. 191 pp. $14.95. Stable Isotope Geochemistry, 3rd Battlecruiser Invincible The History edition by Jochen Hoefs, Springer- of the First Battlecruiser, 7909- 76 by Verlag, Berlin. 1987. 241 pp. + x. V. E. Tarrant. 1987. Naval Institute MD 21402. 158 Marine Policy $49.50. Press, Annapolis, pp. $14.95.

Topics in Geophysical Fluid Cities on the Beach: Management The Construction and Fitting of the Dynamics: Atmospheric Dynamics, Issues of Developed Coastal Barriers, English Man of War 7650-7850 by Dynamo Theory, and Climate edited by Rutherford H. Platt, Sheila Peter Goodwin. 1987. Naval Dynamics by M. Ghil and S. G. Pelczarski, and Barbara K. R. Institute Press, Annapolis, MD Childress. Applied Mathematical Burbank. The University of Chicago 21402. 276 pp. + xi. Sciences 60. 1987. Department of Geography Research Springer- Verlag, New York, NY. 485 pp. Price Paper No. 224. 1987. The University unavailable. The 100-gun Ship Victory by John of Chicago Department of Geology, McKay. 1987. Anatomy of the Ship. Chicago, IL 60637. 324 pp. + vii. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD $10.00. 21402. 119 pp.

Natural Resources Economics and Strategic Antisubmarine Warfare and Policy Applications: Essays in Honor Naval Strategy by Tom Stefanick. of lames A. Crutchfield, edited by Science Communication 1987. Institute for Defense & Edward Miles, Robert Pealy & Disarmament Studies, Lexington Robert Stokes. 1986. The University Books, Lexington, MA 02173. 390 of Washington Press, Seattle, WA. Scientific Controversies: Case Studies pp. 440 pp. Price unavailable. in the Resolution and Closure of Disputes in Science and Technology, edited by H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr. Warrior The World's First Ironclad, The Whale War by David Day. 1987. and Arthur L. Caplan. 1987. Then and Now by Andrew Lambert. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, Cambridge University Press, New Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD CA 94109. 168 pp. $9.95. York, NY. 639 pp. + x. $59.00. 21402. 192 pp.

A handful of eminent scientists have written for with a flair and that AView the lay public ingenuity convey the excitement of their fields. In this new work, the distinguished physical oceanographer Henry ofthe Sea Stommel provides a lucid account of the ocean's circulation a subject that has seldom if ever been explained for the many general readers who are interested in the study of the oceans. Professor Stommel adopts an unusual technique of clarify- ing the intricacies of his topic: he puts his explana- tion in the form of a dialogue between the "mildly curious" chief engineer of a research vessel an intelligent and practical man who knows machin- ery and the sea and an oceanographer on the same ship. He also includes an appendix of pro- grams that can be run on most personal com- A Discussion between a Chief Engineer puters with color graphics capability. and an Oceanographer about the Machinery Cloth: $19.95 ISBN 0-691-08458-0 of the Ocean Circulation

AT YOUR BOOKSTORE OR HENRY Princeton STOMMEL University Press 41 WILLIAM ST. PRINCETON, N) 08540 (609) 896-1344

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vui. zj.j, ran i-ou. Vol. 27:4. Winter 1984/85 Options for the U.S. EEZ. Summer Issue, Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps, 1980, Vol 23:2 Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs, Georges Vol 27:3, Fall 1934 A lull on vent science. report Bank, and more. El Nino, A Decade of Big Ocean Science, Vol. 27:2, Summer 1984 An atmospheric phenomenon analyzed. Vol. 23:1. Spring 1980. Industry and the Oceans, Ocean Energy, Vol. 27:1, Spring 1984 Vol. 22:4, Winter 1979/80. Oceanography in China, Sound in the Sea, Vol. Winter 26:4, 1983/84 Vol 20:2, Spring 1977 The use of acoustics in navigation and oceanography

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Ul IVJ Ul same ship. He also includes an appendix of pro- grams that can be run on most personal com- A Discussion between a Chief Engineer puters with color graphics capability. and an Oceanographer about the Machinery Cloth: $19.95 ISBN 0-691-08458-0 of the Ocean Circulation

AT YOUR BOOKSTORE OR HENRY Princeton STOMMEL University Press 41 WILLIAM ST. PRINCETON, NJ 08540 (609) 896-1344

96 AK\ MBL WHO! I Oceanus

Galapagos Marine Japan Oceanus Resources Reserve and the Sea

Vol. 30:1, Spring 1987 The Vol. 30:2, Summer 1987 In first comprehensive view of 1986, Ecuador declared the Japanese ocean science waters and seabed sur- written primarily by Japa- rounding the Galapagos Is- nese authors. Describes how lands a marine reserve. The tradition and innovation

legal, political, management, combine to continue forging and scientific aspects are de- a strong link between Japan scribed. Includes descrip- and the sea. Includes fishing, tion of 1982-83 El Nino, and submersibles, SWATH ves- historical articles on Darwin, sel, recovery of uranium, r.Jfle Galapagos and on the taking of whales ocean space, and much, Marine Resourfgs R and tortoises in the 1800s. much more.

Changing Climate The Titanic Oceanus and the Oceans Revisited Vol. 29:4, Winter 1986/87- Forecasts of near-term cli- Vol. 29:3, Fall 1986 The mate change have chal- second visit to the site, and lenged scientists to under- the first visit by Alvin and the stand complex interactions remote vehicle, Jason jr., is between the atmosphere, described, and new findings the ocean, and the Earth. are reported. Other articles The wobbling Earth, chang- address the radioactivity of ing sunlight, carbon dioxide, the Irish Sea, the growth of polar ice sheets, and defo- U.S. aquaria, Japanese restation along with a new ocean architecture, and the Changing Climate of research sat- collaboration of Stein- and theOceans generation John ellites are described. beck and Ed Ricketts.

o o o

The Great Barrier Reef: Science & Management, Offshore Oil and Gas, Vol. 29:2, Summer 1986 Describes the world's largest system. Vol. 26:3 Fall 1983 The Arctic Ocean, Summer Issue, Vol. 25:2 Coastal resource acoustic Vol. 29:1, Spring 1986 An important issue on an active frontier. 1982, management, tomography, aqua- culture, radioactive waste. The Oceans and National Security, Summer Issue, Vol. 28:2, Summer 1985 The oceans from the viewpoint of the modern navy, 1981, Vol 24:2 Aquatic plants, seabirds, oil and gas. strategy, technology, weapons systems, and science. The Oceans as Waste Marine Archaeology, Space, Vol. 24:1, Spring 1981. Vol. 28:1, Spring 1985 History and science beneath the waves. Senses of the Sea, The Exclusive Economic Zone, Vol. 23:3, Fall 1980. Vol. 27:4, Winter 1984/85 Options for the U.S. FEZ. Summer Issue, Deep-Sea Hot Springs and Cold Seeps, 1980, Vol 23:2 -Plankton, El Nino and African fisheries, hot springs, Georges Vol. Fall 1934 A full on vent science. 27:3, report Bank, and more El Nino, A Decade of Big Ocean Science, Vol. 1984 An 27:2. Summer atmospheric phenomenon analyzed. Vol. 23:1, Spring 1980. Industry and the Oceans, Ocean Energy, Vol. 27:1, Spring 1984 Vol. 22:4, Winter 1979/80. Oceanography in China, Sound in the Sea, Vol. 26:4, Winter 1983/84 Vol. 20:2, Spring 1977 The use of acoustics in navigation and oceanography.

Issues not listed here, including those published prior to 1977, are out of print. They are available on microfilm through University Microfilm International, Send orders to: 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106.

Back issues cost $4.00 each, except for Great Barrier Reef and Titanic issues, Oceanus back issues which are $5. There is a discount of 25 percent on orders of five or more. Subscriber Service Center Orders must be make checks to Woods Hole Ocean- prepaid; please payable P.O. Box 6419 ographic Institution Foreign orders must be accompanied by a check payable to Oceanus for 5.00 per issue (or equivalent). Syracuse, NY 13217 It's Maui. A woman hangs sus- pended in the Pacific depths. Eye to eye with the great humpback whales of Hawaii. She holds her space. Intent. Unflap- pable. Dr. Sylvia Earle never turns from a challenge. Marine biologist. Oceanographer. Botanist. Dr. Earle led Americas first team of women . Leadership has been her lot ever since.

She has directed or participated in Inside Deep Rover, undersea vehicle. more than forty expeditions. Few have exceeded her record of five thousand hours under waters as diverse as the Pacific Earle Ocean and the Sylvia . earths other But not all probes space. her fame has been achieved submerged. Rallies support for the endangered She has lectured in thirty countries. whale. Catalogs unknown underwater Written more than life. Creates

fifty articles. Auth- devices to ored the National explore virgin Geographic book, sea worlds. Exploring the Deep That she Frontier. relies on a she Rolex is Though Confrontation with a embodies the ad- not un- Humphead Wrasse in the Red Sea. Dr. Earle asks no less of venturist spirit, expected. Dr. Earle is her timepiece than she does of equally herself. Performance must be commit- predictable in unpredictable cir-

Hawaii in . i , , i Descent off cumstances. And the JIM . high purpose preservation of must always be artfully exe- the seas. And ardent in her cuted. The accomplished defense of all life within them. make no compromise with Today, she searches out excellence. methods ofocean conservation. ROLEX

Submariner Oyster Perpetual Date in stainless steel and 18kt gold. Write for brochure. Rolex Watch U.S.A., Inc., Dept. 358, Rolex Building, 665 Fifth Avenue, New York.New York 10022-5383. 1985 Rolex Watch U.S.A., Inc.