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By Darren Shako Designing a policy framework to universalise adequate household sanitation in Guyana By Darren Shako Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle University, UK July 2018 0 i Abstract Improving sanitation has been on the agenda of Guyana for over a century, but today almost half the population still lack access to facilities and engage in practices that cannot be classified as being adequate. The absence of a dedicated national public policy for sanitation has been cited as one of the factors responsible for the poor state of sanitation. This thesis examines how such a policy should be designed and implementation for Guyana to create the enabling environment to universalise and sustain an adequate level of household sanitation. The methodology adopted for this study combined a comprehensive assessment of the historical development of sanitation in Caribbean, a case study analysis of Barbados’ approach to sanitation improvement (a country with the highest human development index in the region and with almost universal sanitation coverage), and a systematic analysis of Guyana’s sanitation sector. Data was collected using a mixture of methods including desk studies, face-to-face interviews, questionnaires and structural observations. Findings showed that the existing state of sanitation in Guyana is influenced by crippling institutions formed in its formative years of development; institutions that contemporary developers have failed to effectively reverse or abolish. Sanitation viewed as a private responsibility, poor organisation of sanitation services, lack of standards and security of tenure and lack of sanitation consciousness all lead to inadequate sanitation conditions for many households. The results from Barbados showed that political will and leadership must be the cornerstone of a sanitation improvement strategy. Linking sanitation improvement to wider development objectives proved effective in ensuring sanitation improvement is central of development. In developing the sanitation policy framework for Guyana, four conditions were considered necessary; (1) a clear definition of sanitation, (2) establishment of country-appropriate standards, (3) adopting a collective approach that includes obscure groups such as households within informal settlements, and (4) a national approach that takes into account the varying geo-physical and cultural demography of the country. ii iii Dedication In loving memory of A.A.H iv v Acknowledgement There are several persons and institutions whose generous assistance and support contributed significantly to the completion of this thesis. It is with deepest gratitude I say thank you to my supervisors Dr Jaime Amezaga and Dr Charlotte Paterson for their never-ending support, being a source of knowledge and being very accommodating and understanding to my Caribbean persona. Thank you Jaime for always having that positive attitude and seeing potential where most times there were not, and Charlotte for being the captain of this trio ship, steering us back on course, when we frequently drifted off course. Your guidance and support was overwhelming. I extend gratitude to the Barbados Environmental Protection Department, particularly Mrs Donna Gittens. Many thanks for your assistance and for hosting my fieldwork while in Barbados. To the Guyana Ministry of Communities, particularly the Permanent Secretary, Mr Emil Mcgarrell, thank you for facilitating this research and your support especially you volunteering as a research assistant. To Malini Jaikaran, Kwesi Amsterdam, my colleagues in the CEG and the many others who have provided assistance along the way, your support is deeply appreciated. To my extended family, your support and encouragement have not gone unnoticed. Thank you for providing the calm within the many storms. To my wife, Tamika Shako, thank you for your understanding, patience and love, but mostly for holding the reins and being a single parent in many ways to our daughter Arian over the last year. The overwhelming support was undoubtedly a gift from my heavenly father, whom all praise is due. vi vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... II DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................... IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... XIV LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... XVI ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................... XX CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 RESEARCH MOTIVATION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.3 WHY SANITATION – GLOBAL CONTEXT.......................................................................................... 2 1.4 GUYANA’S SANITATION CHALLENGES............................................................................................ 4 1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 5 1.5.1 Research Aim ................................................................................................................... 5 1.5.2 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 6 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................... 7 1.7 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................................. 8 1.8 APPLICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS .........................................................................................10 1.9 STRUCTURE OF THESIS ..............................................................................................................11 1.10 EXPANDED BACKGROUND OF GUYANA .......................................................................................12 1.10.1 Location and history .......................................................................................................12 1.10.2 Geography and Demography .........................................................................................12 1.10.3 Governance and Administration .....................................................................................14 CHAPTER 2 – MAIN CHALLENGES TO IMPROVING COUNTRY-LEVEL SANITATION: A CRITICAL REVIEW ..........................................................................................................................17 2.1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................17 2.2 EARLY SANITATION CHALLENGES .................................................................................................17 2.3 CURRENT GLOBAL SANITATION EFFORTS, PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES ...........................................18 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SANITATION CHALLENGES .............................................................................20 2.4.1 Political Will......................................................................................................................24 2.4.2 Inadequate Enabling Environment ....................................................................................25 2.4.3 Weak Institutions ..............................................................................................................26 2.4.4 Financial constraints ........................................................................................................27 2.5 COMPLEXITIES TO SANITATION DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................28 2.6 NON-MAINSTREAM FACTORS AFFECTING SANITATION DEVELOPMENT ..............................................29 2.6.1 Country Specific challenges based on Historical Development Pattern .............................29 2.6.2 Sanitation Definition .........................................................................................................30 viii 2.6.3 Security of Tenure ........................................................................................................... 31 2.6.4 Culture, gender, social and economic factors ................................................................... 32 2.6.5 Sanitation planning approaches ....................................................................................... 33 2.7 OVERCOMING CHALLENGES TO NATIONAL SANITATION DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 33 2.7.1 Lack of holistic approach to sanitation development ......................................................... 34 2.7.2 Reconsideration for the Policy
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