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Article Title: A Preponderance of Evidence: The 1852 Omaha Indian Delegation Daguerreotypes

Full Citation: Joanna Cohan Scherer, “A Preponderance of Evidence: The 1852 Omaha Indian Delegation Daguerreotypes,” Nebraska History 78 (1997): 116-121

URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1997Daguerreotypes.pdf Date: 4/02/2013

Article Summary: The author describes the research process that helped her to identify two Indian daguerreotypes. She studied details of clothing and accessories, previously identified photographs, newspapers, and a diary in order to name some of the Indians pictured and determine locations where such images might have been made.

Cataloging Information:

Names: Millard Fillmore, Joseph Ellis Johnson, Francis J Wheeling, Henry W Miller, Almon Babbitt, Luke Lea

Members of the Omaha Delegation: Yellow Smoke, Garner Wood (“Chief”), White Buffalo, Great Traveler, Great Master of All Animals, Life Guard, Tireless Man, Fearless Warrior, Mountain Bear, One Who Dies for a Friend, White Blanket, Roman Nose, White Swan, Mountain Dove, Moon Returning, Flower of the Plain, Louis Sanssouci (interpreter)

Place Names: Rochester, New York; Council Bluffs, Iowa; Washington, D.C.

Keywords: daguerreotype, Yellow Smoke, Garner Wood (“Chief”), Louis Sanssouci

Photographs / Images: (Fig 1) seven Indians including Yellow Smoke and Garner Wood; (Fig 2) handwritten inscription on verso of Fig 1, “Indians from Council Bluffs”; (Fig 3) six Indians and interpreter Louis Sanssouci; (Fig 4) manufacturer’s impression on recto of Fig 3, “Scovill MFG Co EXTRA”; (Fig 5) Yellow Smoke; (Fig 6) Garner Wood; (Fig 7) photograph with hand-written names Louis Sanssouci, No Knife, Joe La Flesh (LaFlesche)

The 1852 Omaha rr Jl1l Jit a Jl1l Delega ~ it ((J) Jl1l Da 1UI. ce rr rrce({)) ~ ce§

By Joanna Cohan Scherer

In 1991 during a visit to the Rochester search to reconstruct the historical con­ Bluff or Council Bluffs was used to refer Museum and Science Center in Roches­ text of the two group images. to the entire region from the original site ter, New York, I saw three daguerreo­ Catalog number 66.132.19 was an southward to present Bellevue, Ne­ types of Native Americans in the Lewis original daguerreotype measuring 8 112 braska. In 1837 an Indian subagency, Henry Morgan Collection. I They had cm. high and 11 cm. wide (fig. 1). known as the Council Bluffs Subagency, been tentatively identified as possibly Scratched on the verso was "Indians was established at Traders' Point on the Plains, 1852, by an unknown cataloger from Council Bluff" and above this in­ east side of the Missouri River near the many years before. Too many early im­ scription was a badly deteriorated re­ present city of Council Bluffs, Iowa. This ages lie buried in archives and special peat, "C...... Bluff" (fig. 2) . Catalog num­ subagency was for the Potawatomi, Ot­ collections, exotic in their imagery, but ber 66.132.16 was a copy daguerreotype tawa, and Chippewa, who had been re­ useless in informing us about the measuring 8 112 cm. high and 11 cm. settled in the area. The Omaha, Pawnee, peoples and cultures they depict. This wide (fig. 3). Impressed on the lower Oto, and Missouria were under the juris­ paper reestablishes the historical con­ right side, recto, is "Scovill MFG Co. diction of the Council Bluffs Agency lo­ text for two of these early images. EXTRA" (fig. 4) . cated west of the Missouri River at One image (cat. no. 66 .1 32.14) is a The evidence for determining that Bellevue. This agency was discontinued portrait of a young man holding a gun figure 3 was a copy daguerreotype is the in 1854, and a new agency for the and tomahawk, and is not related to the black line (edge of the copper plate) Omaha was established in northeastern other two images (cat. nos. 66.132.16 that appears very clearly in figure 4, di­ Nebraska in present Thurston County.4 and 66 .132.19), which were group sit­ rectly above and to the right of the The modern city of Council Bluffs, tings, each of seven Indians. Three indi­ Scovill MFG Co. marking, and that this Iowa, on the Missouri River across from viduals appear in both group sittings, al­ daguerreotype was much higher in con­ Omaha, was first called Kanesville, and though their clothing and accessories trast than the other.2 These bits of infor­ was founded by Mormon emigrants in are not identical, thus raising the possi­ mation allowed the study to proceed. 1847 as a winter way station on the bility that the images were made on two The silver-plated copper on which fig­ route to Utah. The name was officially different occasions. ure 3 was copied was manufactured by changed to Council Bluffs City in 1853, I was aware of these daguerreotypes William H. Scovill and J. M. Lamson. Lo­ but it was known simply as "Council in the Morgan Collection, but had never cated in Waterbury, Connecticut, they Bluffs, Iowa" well before that time.5 actually seen them until the 1991 visit. made daguerreotype plates from 1839 to Based on the placename, I felt sure the My interest was primarily in the group im­ 1854. Scovill and Lamson later merged Indians in the image lived in western ages which, as a result of years of study­ and changed their company's name; the Iowa or eastern Nebraska. The test ing historical photographs, I assumed de­ firm still operates today under the name would be whether cultural details, cloth­ picted a delegation to Washington, D. C. Agfa Ansco. The "Scovill MFG Co. EX­ ing, artifacts, or identified individuals Removing the daguerreotypes from their TRA" plates were manufactured from could verify this deduction. archival containers (they were not in 1850 to 1854.3 Thus it appeared that this The "Council Bluff" identification their original cases) I discovered infor­ daguerreotype was copied during that also suggested the possibility that these mation that allowed me to begin the re- period or soon afterwards. individuals were of the Council Bluffs The original Council Bluff was the band (or United Bands), a group made Joanna C. Scherer is research scientist with the site of Lewis and Clark's 1804 meeting up of Potawatomi, Chippewa, and Ot­ Handbook of North American Indians Project with local Indians. This Council Bluff is tawa, who, as a result of the 1833-34 at the Smithsonian Institution. Her publications located on the Nebraska side of the Mis­ Treaty of Chicago, had been moved include Indians: The Great Photographs that Reveal North American Indian Life, 1847-1929 souri River, north of Omaha. In the years from southern Wisconsin and northern (/973). that followed, the designation Council Illinois westward to the prairies of lowa.6

116 Omaha Indian Daguerreotypes

Fig. 2 Rochester Museum & Science Center. Rochester. New York Fig. 1 Rochester Museum & Science Center. Rochester. New York

Fig. 4 Rochester Museum & Science Fig. 3 Rochester Museum & Science Center. Rochester. New York Center. Rochester. New York

117 Nebraska History - Fall 1997

This band, however, signed another and crossed the Mississippi at Rock Is­ treaty in 1846 ceding all their Iowa land­ land. The journey to Chicago was by holdings and began their migration to a wagon, and from there by raiLII The reservation in Kansas. Several of the in­ companies were mentioned as being in dividuals in the daguerreotypes wear Chicago, November 1- 6,1851, in Detroit turbans, which were common men's (dates not given), and in Cleveland, headgear among the Potawatomi, November 20-22, 1851. The Cleveland Chippewa, and Ottawa during this pe­ Daily Plain Dealer reported that the riod. Additional research, comparing Omahas, under the leadership of the individuals to other available por­ Wheeler, Miller, and Johnson, "will be traits of men of those tribes, failed to re­ exhibited this evening at Firemen's Hall veal any positive identifications. . .. [and] will give specimens of their The focus of the research then dancing, singing and feats of agility. The shifted from the Council Bluffs band to Chicago papers represent the scenes in the Omaha, Pawnee, and Oto. The their exhibitions as [of] the wildest and Omaha, a tribe speaking a Siouan lan­ most captivating nature." 12 guage, resided near the old Council Next the delegation went to Roches­ Bluffs Agency at Bellevue between ter, New York, December 12-13, and about 1847 and 1855, when they began was in Syracuse from December 25 the move to their new agency. By com­ through January I, 1852. They are also paring the daguerreotypes to photo­ known to have stopped two days in graphs of Pawnee, Omaha, and Oto del­ Owego, New York, to visit Charles P. egates to Washington in the late 1860s Avery, but the exact dates of the visit are and 1870s, I was able to identify several not known. 13 Early in January the delega­ of the individuals as Omahas. tion presented exhibitions in Susque­ Based on the dating of the daguerreo­ hanna, Pennsylvania; in Binghamton, type plate, I began checking newspa­ Hancock, Port Jervis, Otisville, Middle­ pers , as well as records in the National town, Albany, and Goshen (all in New Archives, and discovered that an unoffi­ York); and in Patterson,'Passaic, and cial Omaha delegation left Council Newark, New Jersey. 14 Bluffs, Iowa, in September 1851 to visit The Omahas reached Washington on Washington, D. C. The delegation was January 21, 1852, met with Pres. Millard sponsored by Joseph Ellis Johnson, Fillmore on February 2, and left for Fig. 5 National Anthropological Arc hives, Henry W. Miller, and Francis J. Wheel­ home on March 4. Because they were Smithsonian Institution ing, all of whom were Mormons.7 The an unofficial delegation and had come delegation traveled to Washington as on their own initiative, they had diffi­ right feather headdress and multiple two companies, one group with Miller culty getting paid for their expenses of brass neck rings of a type found in an and Wheeling, the other with Johnson.8 "near $8,000. "15 The sum of $2 ,500 was Omaha archaeological site.18 This is the The delegation had two main pur­ finally appropriated by Congress to help same man in figure 3, front row, third poses. The first was to request the fed­ defray the costs. 16 from left. Note he is wearing two rings eral government's protection from dep­ Several of the eleven individuals in on his left hand in the original da­ redations. The Omaha were suffering the daguerreotypes have been almost guerreotype (fig. 1); the correct orienta­ losses inflicted by the Sioux, Pawnee, certainly identified by comparison with tion in the copy daguerreotype (fig. 3) Kansa, Oto, and Osage, as well as by other photographs. 17 In figure I, front shows the rings on his right hand. California-bound emigrants trekking row, second from right, is Yellow In figure 3, back row, far left, is Louis through their territoryH The second was Smoke, wearing a peace medal and Sanssouci or Sansoci, the interpreter to request assistance in agriculture and holding out his hand, palm up (com­ (compare with fig. 7). The women are related technologies.lo Both companies pare with fig. 5) . In the back row, far probably two wives of Yellow Smoke. 19 of the delegation supported themselves left, is Gahfge-zJge ("Chief"), also known The man seated on the front row, far during their travels by putting on perfor­ as Garner Wood (compare with fig. 6) . right, with bare chest, has paint or tat­ mances in various cities. The men in the back row wear finger­ tooed lines along his arm and chest. He The delegation traveled overland woven or cloth turbans. The man in the is also in figure 1, back row, center. His from Council Bluffs, Iowa, into Illinois front row, on the far left, wears an up­ headdress is the same in both images.

118 Omaha Indian Daguerreotypes

Fig. 6 National Anthropological Archives. Fig. 7 NSHS-1394-90 Smithsonian Institution

The different orientation of the feathers White Buffalo (Tte-s~); Wash-com-a-ney, Ta-son-da-bee, Flower of the Plain (Tte­ of the headdress is understandable be­ Great Traveler (Waska-M2~j, Hard s~da-bi , Buffalo That Flashes Lightning) . cause the original daguerreotype (fig. 1) Walker) ; Wha-net-wha-ha or Wa-ne-ta­ The interpreter, Louis Saun-sa-see reversed the image, while the copy da­ wa-ha, Great Master of all Animals (Sanssouci or Sansoci) was a mixed­ guerreotype (fig. 3) shows the correct (Wanitta-waxe, Lion); An-gar-ho-?o-ney blood Omaha. According to a February 9, orientation. Also in figure 3 the man in or AI-go-hom-ony, The Life Guard 1852, letter by Joseph E. Johnson and J. J. the front row, far left, is the same man (Agaha-m~;;j , Walks Ap'-art); Sha-do-mi­ Wheeling to Luke Lea, commissioner of as in figure 1, back row, far right, as yet ne, The Tireless Man, (Seda-m~~j); A-da­ Indian Affairs, there were nineteen in the unidentified. The men wear cloth shirts min-ga (The Fearless Warrior) ; Ta-da­ delegation, probably the sixteen Omahas, and have blankets wrapped around nig-augh (Mountain Bear); Sha-do-mau­ including the interpreter, and Johnson, themselves. na (One Who Dies for a Friend); White Wheeling, and Miller. Before reaching From reports, the delegation is known Blanket, and Roman Nose. 20 Washington, Miller left the group and to have included the following Omaha There were three women in the del­ Almon Babbitt took his place.22 men: Mun-oha-on-a-ba, Two Bears egation: Pa-coo-sa, The White Swan Who took the daguerreotypes is not (Mgc hu-n~ba , Two Grizzly Bears) , also ( Pp~kka-se , She is Pale); Mee-chee-noo­ known for sure. The entry in Joseph E. known as Yellow Smoke; Gi-he-ga, Great kee (Mountain Dove), according to Johnson's diary for Sunday, February Feaster (Gahige-zjga, "Chief"), also Johnson, or more likely Migthitoi~ Moon 29 , 1852, says, "Glorious! The sun shines known as Garner Wood; Tha-thaugh , Returning, wife of Yellow Smoke ;21 and brightly again-Got two letters from

119 Nebraska History - Fall 1997

P.O. from Esther & William-took the In­ country, the number and strength of the Finally, newspaper and textual people, and how great their Great Father records can help pinpoint the historical dians up for Oaguerrah likeness I sat is. Their Great Father had many chiefs un­ yesterday myself-pictures brot in this der him to attend to the different affairs of context detailing, in this case, the move­ Eve." Thus it would appear that da­ his children; it was his (Col. Lea's) busi­ ments of the Omaha delegation and the guerreotypes were definitely made in ness to look after the interests of his red locations where daguerreotypes might Washington on February 29, but it is not children.... You cannot much longer live have been made during their travels. It as you have been living for the past ... appears that these two daguerreotypes known whether they included one of you must change your manner of living... those under consideration here.23 . Now your condition must continue to get were made on two different occasions, Another possibility is that Joseph E. worse and worse unless you devote your­ probably by different photographers, but Johnson, who owned a daguerrean stu­ selves, like whitemen, to cultivate and de­ of the same Omaha group during their pend upon the fruits of the earth for sub­ 1851-52 journey to Washington, D. C. dio in Council Bluffs, Iowa, during the sistence rather than on the results of the early 1850s, could have had the da­ chase. This, I am happy to learn, is your I use "preponderance of evidence" liter­ guerreotypes taken before the delegates wish.... But you ought to know, as men ally, because in the final analysis, I take began their trip.24 Still another possibil­ of sense ... that all this cannot be done in a leap of faith in "positively" identifying ity is that the daguerreotypes were a day, month or even a year. . .. these images as the unofficial Omaha Yellow Smoke addressed a few words delegation of 1852. made in Cleveland between November to th ~ Commissioner in reply, acknowl­ 20 and 22, 1851. The Melodeon Gallery, edging how greatly his feelings had been run by Thomas Faris, advertised its da­ changed for the better, and saying that Acknowledgments now he had got all he asked for and all he guerreotype portraiture business. The I was fortunate to find several studentslinterns Daily Plain Dealer came to Washington to get. ... Orders Cleveland also men­ were then given that the Indians be forth­ who helped dig out many of the details for this tioned on November 20 that the Omaha with furnished with suitable apparel. ... project: Elizabeth Noznesky, Rosa Anchondo, and delegation was to "exhibit at the Melo­ The Indians appear quite reconciled and Christian Carstensen. Thanks are also due to several deon. "25 Perhaps one of the daguerreo­ satisfied and to have been relieved from colleagues. Paula Fleming of the Smithsonian Insti­ the anxiety which of late seems to have tution, National Anthropological Archives (NM), types was made at that time, although it kindly lent the newspaper clipping files she has col­ pressed upon them . 26 is less likely because the group traveled lected on early Indian delegations to Washington, in two separate companies. The final Johnson's diary for that Monday, D. c., as well as her valuable listing of daguerreans question, which still remains unan­ March 1, 1852, reads: "Weather pleasant. in the capital in 1852. John Carter 01the Nebraska Visited the Commissioner-and got Med­ State Historical Society suggested early on that I swered, is who made the copy da­ compare existing portraits of Yellow Smoke to the guerreotype and why? als & Clothing for the Indians & was busy daguerreotypes under study, confirming the Omaha The daguerreotypes are portraits of all day-Ind dance-wrote letters and lead. Elisabeth Tooker led me to The Saint Nicho­ some of the leaders of the Omaha dur­ Closing business to leave tomorrow." las: A Monthly Magazine (1854), which mentioned I have detailed the research process the delegation of Omahas as having traveled ing a difficult period in their history. The through New York state in 185 1on their way to Daily Nationallntelligencer of Washing­ that allowed me to identify two previ­ Washington. Raymond DeMallie, Indiana State Uni­ ton reported March 2, 1852, on the final ously unidentified daguerreotypes as versity, read and commented on the paper. interview of the Omahas with the com­ representing the Omaha delegation of 1852. Textual information survived, missioner of Indian Affairs held the pre­ Notes vious day. The following excerpts give a documenting that daguerreotypes were sense of the posturing by both federal taken of this delegation, but no images I A daguerreotype is a direct image on silver­ officials and Indians that characterized were, until now, so identified. plated copper, recognizable by its brilliance and Photohistorians seem to be primarily because it cannot be viewed well from every such a visit: angle. Daguerreotypes, unless corrected, are also Col. Lea told his red friends that he had interested either in particular photogra­ reversed left to right. They are often housed in sent for them to come and meet him once phers, or in the photographic process of elaborate cases. Popular in the United States from more before they set out for their distant image-making. Too frequently the ethno­ their inception in 1839, daguerreotypes had no homes. He was sorry they had been de­ graphic subject is virtually ignored. Infor­ competition until 1854, when the ambrotype (a di­ tained in Washington so long .... When mation on the subject can, however, of­ rect image on glass, viewed as a positive when Indians come to Washington, invited by placed against a dark background) was devel­ their Great Father, he has every thing ar­ ten be extracted from the image when it oped. By 1860 the daguerreotype had become out­ ranged before hand, and then every thing is treated as a primary historical docu­ moded by the wet-plate method of photography, goes on well. But when they come here ment. To do so requires a content analy­ which produced prints on paper and made it easy without his previous notice he is not pre­ sis of the image, using material culture to duplicate images. pared, and then matters do not go on so details to help narrow the identification The ethnological collections of Lewis Henry well. In their case (the Omahas) the best Morgan (1818-1881) are primarily in the Roches­ had been done that the circumstances of the people depicted. By comparison ter Museum and Science Center. Morgan willed permitted.... They had by their visit en­ with other photographs, individual iden­ his personal collection of archaeological and eth­ joyed a good opportunity to see this vast tifications can often be made. nological objects (including the daguerreotypes)

120 Omaha Indian Daguerreotypes

to the University of Rochester, which loaned them IS Johnson Diary, Feb. 10, 1852; "Abstract of Ex­ lations; and finally, current spellings of Omaha to the Rochester Municipal Museum in 1919, penses of the Om-Ma-Ha Indian delegation now in names and translations if different from the origi­ which later changed its name. Washington conducted and in part paid by F. J. nal. The current Omaha spelling and English trans­ Some of Morgan 's elhnological materials were Wheeling and J. E. Johnson. Company consisting of lation is based on aulhor's personal communica­ purchased from the estate of Judge Charles P. nineteen. Expense of transportation from Council tion with John E. Koontz, Linguistics Dept., Univer­ Avery (d. 1872) . Avery and Joseph E. Johnson Bluffs to Washington [$]775.80; Four months vict­ sity of Colorado., Aug. 1992. were known to be good friends. Rufus D. Johnson, ualling on the way [$]2355.75; Blankets, clothing 21 Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 159, 169; Fletcher J.E.J. Trail to Sundown: Cassadaga to Casa and various necessary articles, [$]351.65; Medicine, and LaFlesche, "Omaha Tribe," pI. 26, 153, 185. Grande, 181 7-I 882, The Story ofa Pioneer, Joseph medical attendance, etc. [$]251.50; One months Ellis Johnson (Salt Lake City: Joseph Ellis Johnson board in Washington [$] 1200; Paid Interpreter for 22 Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 174. Family Committee, 1961), 166. Evidently Johnson time and service [$]400; Six months service of 23 There was no city directory for Washington for had supplied Avery with Omaha Indian artifacts. Wheeling and Johnson 600 each, [$] 1200; Amount 1852. Notes supplied by Paula Fleming, Smith­ Hiram A. Beebe, "Historical Cabinet," The Saint req uired to return home [$] 1425. [Total:] $7959.70." sonian Institution, National Anthropological Ar­ Nicholas: A Monthly Magazine I (12) (Feb .-Mar. Wheeling and Johnson to Luke Lea, commissioner chives, list the following daguerreans and galleries 1854):415-16. This may suggest Ihe provenance of of Indian Affairs, Feb. 9, 1852, Microcopy 234, roll in advertisements and the 1853 city directory: these daguerreotypes: from Joseph E. Johnson to 218, Letters Received by the Office ofIndian Affairs Nahum S. Bennett, John Hawley Clarke, James A. Charles P. Avery to Lewis H. Morgan to the Roch­ from the Council Bluffs Agency, 1824- 1881, RG75, Cutting, Augustus and William McCarty, Odeon ester Museum and Science Center via the Univer­ Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, National Daguerrean Rooms, Blanchard P. Paige, Plumbe Na­ sity of Rochester. Archives and Records Administration. tional Daguerrian Gallery, Marcus Aurelius Root, 2 Personal communication to author from Roger 16 "Estimates for an Appropriation to Defray Ihe Roots National Daguerreotype Gallery, Root & Clark Watson, International Museum of Photography at Expenses of a Party of Omaha Indians," H. Exec. (Clarke), Root & Co. (M. A. Root & John H. Clarke), the George Eastman House, Rochester, Oct. 30, Doc. 76, 32nd Cong., 1st Sess. , 1852. Madge? Talmage, E. C. Thompson, Thompson's Sky­ 1996. light Daguerrean Gallery, Julian Vannerson, Charles 17 Photographs used in identification of individuals: H. Venable, Jesse H. Whitehurst and the White­ 3 Floyd Rinhart and Marion Rinhart, The Ameri­ Yellow Smoke (fig. 5): Smilhsonian, NAA: 3992­ hurst's Daguerrean Gallery. can Dagueffeotype (Athens: University of Georgia A (photographed in 1883, age seventy-five, at the Press, 1981),419: Robert Sobieszek and Odette M. According to Fleming, 1996, the most likely Colonial Exposition in Amsterdam); Fannie Reed daguerrean of an Indian delegation at Ihis time Appel, The Dagueffeotypes ofSouthworth and Gi ffen, Oo-Mah-Ha Ta-Wa-Tha (Omaha City), with Hawes (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1980, would have been the Whitehurst Studio, Thomp­ illustrations by Susette La Flesche Tibbles (Bright son, or the Plumbe National Daguerrian Gallery. 112; Robert Taft, Photography and the American Eyes) (Lincoln: The Authors, 1898),46-47; Alice C. Scene: A Social History, 1839-1889 (New York: Fletcher and Francis La Flesche, "The Omaha ,. From advertisements in Ihe Frontier Guardian The Macmillan Co., 1938),54- 55. Tribe," 27th Annual Report ofthe Bureau ofAmeri­ (1849-52), the known daguerreans in Council Bluffs were Smith, from 1852; Chaffin, from April 4 Data furnished by Richard E. Jensen, Nebraska can Ethnology for 1905-1906 (Washington: GPO, State Historical Society, May 1997. 1911, rpt. New York: Johnson Reprint Corp, 1970), 1851; and Johnson, who advertised as "[h]aving fig. 50; Roland Bonaparte, "Peaux-Rouges": Autour employed an able artist in the ... business" of 5 Charles H. Babbitt, Early Days at Council Bluffs de la collection anthropologique du prince Roland "Daguerrean likenesses," beginning on April 18, (Washington, D.C.: Press of Byron S. Adams, Bonaparte. Sous la direction de Benoit Coutancier 1851. 1916). (Paris: Phototheque du Musee de I'Homme, 1992), 2S Daily Plain Dealer, Nov. 19,20, 1851. 6 James A. Clifton, "Potawatomi," in Handbook of 52-64. North American Indians, Bruce Trigger, ed. (Wash­ Garner Wood (fig. 6): Smithsonian, NAA: 3930 26 Daily Nationallntelligencer, Mar. 2, 1852. ington, D. C. : GPO, 1978). (photograph by William H. Jackson, 1868-69); Fletcher and La Flesche, Omaha Tribe, pI. 36. 7 Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 156-73. Louis Sanssouci with No Knife and Joseph 'Ibid., 167. LaFlesche, "Educated Omaha Indian Chiefs" (fig.

9 Daily Nationallntelligencer (Washington, D.C.), 7): Nebraska State Historical Society 1-394-90 (Pho­ Feb. 4, 1852. tograph possibly by William W. Metcalf, White­ hurst Gallery, Washington, D. C., personal commu­ 10 The Daily American (Rochester, N.Y.), Dec. 12, nication to aulhor by Paula Fleming, Oct. 1996). 1851. 18 John M. O'Shea and John Ludwickson, Archae­ " Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 156-62. ology and Ethnohistory ofthe Omaha Indians; The 12 Daily Plain Dealer (Cleveland, Ohio), Nov. 20, Big Vii/age Site (Lincoln: University of Nebraska 1851; see also Chicago Daily Democrat, Nov. 1-6, Press, 1992), 190. 1851. 19 According to Ihe Daily National lntelligencer, 13 The Daily American (Rochester, N.Y.), Dec. 12, Jan. 30, 1852, the principal chief "Mon-choo-ne-ba 13, 1851 ; Syracuse Daily Standard, Dec. 31, 1851 , is accompanied here by two of his five wives." The Jan. I, 1852; Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 166, 168; Daily American, Rochester, Dec. 12, 1851, noted, Beebe, "Historical Cabinet," 413-20. For Avery's "The Head Chief has wilh him two of his wives, possible connection to the provenance of the da­ exceedingly pretty squaws seventeen and fifteen guerreotypes, see note 1. years of age."

14 Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 168-73; Joseph 20 Format of Names: Original Omaha spellings Ellis Johnson Diary, 1852, Marriott Library, Univer­ (from Johnson, Trail to Sundown, 159, and The sity of Utah, Salt Lake City. Daily American, Dec. 12, 1851); then original trans­

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