sign in sign up
<<
Home , History of mobile phones, IBM Simon

ASIA IN FOCUS techno-orientalism Keywords: technology. of global history be, thus contributing to the understanding of power dynamics in the of how the canon of achievements of came to somewhat over time. Furthermore, the paper offers explanationan a dominant techno-orientalist narrative which has changed in form either ignored or otherwise devalued, arguing that this is because of technology that came from Japan have been this discusses paper how inventions in mobile and been largely overlooked. Written from ahistoriographic perspective, country. Nevertheless, its achievements in telecommunications have of being technologically advanced, despite being anon-Western case because over the years it has actually manifested an image classic ‘master of the machines’. Japan in this regard is an interesting science and technology, the West constructs an image of itself as the phone technologies. is As usual with the construction of acanon of as Japan example, for are largely mobile of excluded the history from actors, while inventions that stem from other of parts the world, such development. Most of these achievements are by US or European idea of the kind of technological achievements that led to its When it comes to the history of the , there is ageneral communication technology wireless tele mobile of history the throughout narratives ern West inventions and Japanese Annales Smartphone The DEIRDRE SNEEP DEIRDRE Japan, , smartphone, , of Japan, mobile phone, history smartphone, 14 - - ISSUE 6 - - - - definition of the word, but the debate on this this on debate the but word, the of definition is fact there in as forever on go could question ‘smart word the of definition standard clear no vague a rather however, is, There all. at phone’ general a sense of what smartphone be should is It example). for e-mails, (sending of capable competitors for the title. These for phones, the title. such competitors developed Walker’ foras example the ‘J-Sky by J-Phone (later Softbank), featured the abil and Mail’), (‘Sky e-mails receive and send ity to Other . download carriers,could such for services similar introduced DoCoMo, as 1990s. late the in all users, phone mobile their of PDA’s costly other the or Simon unlike Also, mobile capable e-mail early these 1990s, the very andphones widelywere used. affordable, 20 almost had DoCoMo provider the 1997, In for mobile phone their contractors million More Report, 2012). (DoCoMo service e-mail the ‘i-mode’, introduced DoCoMo 1999, in over, mobile phoneinternet firstnationwide world’s the had that phone mobile first The network. F501i the was browser an use to ability HYPER, manufacturedand by Fujitsu sold by question the answer to Theoretically, DoCoMo. of deserving more is phones these of which depend would on of ‘smartphone’ the the title networks that were established in the second second the in established were networks that be to likely more seem might 1990s the of half called ‘’ with than some a PDA cellular functions. Granted, the Japanese mo years a few market the on came phones bile after useand widespread but their Simon, fair least at them makes access internet early 15 - - - -

Simon’s widespread celebration strikes strikes celebration widespread Simon’s n 2014, TIME published an article on the the on article an published TIME n 2014, re is what of birthday 20th the of occasion IBM’s smartphone: first world’s the as garded US counterparts, and the early Japanese mo or early on 1. worked bile phones that one as somewhat odd as Japanese mobile mobile odd Japanese as one somewhat as 1990s, late to mid the around even phones, were more advanced than their European or Science Museum. Museum. Science London TIME, Der Spiegel and BBC. To honor it, Simon honorTIME, it, Simon Der Spiegel and BBC. To on exhibition the in spot a prominent got even the by hosted was that Age Information the day was celebrated widely in 2014 and made andmade widelyin 2014 celebrated was day as such agencies news European many to it Simon’s popularity. Sales were suspended a a suspended Sales were popularity. Simon’s 50,000 only after launch, its after months few birth sold. were Nevertheless, Simon’s Simons phone calls. Unfortunately, its inconvenient its inconvenient phone Unfortunately, calls. limited costs high and battery life limited size, the world’s first smartphone because unlike unlike because smartphone first world’s the back market the on were that PDA’s other the receive and make to ability the had it then, of that, it could be used to make phone calls calls phone make to be used could it that, of did not ‘smartphone’ the word with. Although as seen widely now is Simon then, back exist gram to send and receive emails with (albeit (albeit with emails receive and send to gram top On process). set-up difficult a rather after in the sense that it had all the usual attributes attributes usual the all had it that sense the in as a(such calendar and option, a a calculator, a pro with equipped also was and notepad) Digital Assistant (PDA), which entered the US US the entered which (PDA), Assistant Digital PDA a regular was It 1994. 16, August market ‘Simon’ (Aamoth, 2014). Simon was a Personal a Personal was Simon 2014). (Aamoth, ‘Simon’ I ASIA IN FOCUS munications. munications. behind the writing of the history of telecom is created, thus showing the power dynamics achievements telecommunications mobile of an explanation on how and why acanon of offering and developments happened certain graphic perspective, paying attention to why tion Age’. This paper is written from ahistorio Japan’s contributions to current our ‘Informa how it came to be that so little is known on telecommunication mobile of history the and try. In this article, Iwill discuss the writing of inventors that are not from a‘Western’ coun telecommunication of history by technology inventions that ignore any contributions the in celebrations of series European American or of phone’ but as the most recent example in a rather not beseen as ‘the world’s first smart celebrationbirthday therefore should perhaps know it that are of non-Western origin. Simon’s to as we development the smartphone the of several crucial technologies which are deemed to no mention. Nonetheless, there are in fact any country outside of the West) receives little was developed by DoCoMo in 1999, Japan (or which internetphone mobile network, first except perhapscontexts, mentioning for the at discussions popular in phones mobile of . addition, looking In when and Bell Graham Alexander are mind to come immediately that names other back, further If we look at the history of telecommunication made the ‘first mobile phone’ in 1973. nies. IBM made the ‘first smartphone’ in 1994, made by US or European inventors or compa nology. ‘world’s The predominantlyare firsts’ tions in the history of communication tech that show prominence the Western of inven gin. and, furthermore, that this device is of US ori that is said to bethe world’s first smartphone therefore remarkable that there still is a device IBM’s Simon is only one of the examples ------16 sake of the length of this paper, Ihave made a technology in global history, as well as for the telecommunication Japanese and Japan of ing aim of this paper is to deepen the understand the very theme of the paper). However, as the mentioned (ironically as omission perhaps, is there are without doubt many that I have not countries other countries or besides Japan, as to mean not ignore contributions the these of ceptionally active over the past few years. Ido players. In particular, South Korea has been ex South Korea and have also been main technology, other Asian countries such as cus on Japan, when it comes to mobile phone be noted that although this paper has afo While it is true that the mobile phone only mid-1990s the between sometime now. and technologies that phone bile were developed is limited to afew decades, starting with mo history its that nature, and in revolutionary ly entailsidea is essential that smartphone the as a‘revolutionary’ form of technology. The smartphone the portrays that narrative sistent communication per there technology is a When it comes to the history of mobile tele Phone Mobile the of Master invented in 1940 by Hedy Lamarr). the basis very for Internet itself, which was example the case of CDMA wave technology, exclusion (thinksees gender on based for of telecommunications mobile of history also to race or ethnicity, the documentation of the that while this paper focused on exclusion due ar. Thirdly, Iwant to make the reader aware was actually aterm coined by aJapanese schol as well. The word very ‘Information Society’ contributions significant made has ciety, Japan Information the sion of Age Information or So ing, I want to add that in the academic discus focused in this paper on ahistory of engineer Furthermore, although have I selection. mainly Before beginning this discussion, it should should it discussion, this beginning Before ------ISSUE 6 ------vi-Strauss, vi-Strauss, e There are several problems with this the this with problems There several are image of itself as, as Lévi-Strauss (1952, p. 47) 47) p. (1952, Lévi-Strauss as as, itself of image the of master machines’: des ‘maître it, puts Asia that it undeniable is Although machines. role in the development a crucial played has of dawn the since technology and science of alphabet, the algebra, only of – history ities concerning information and knowledge information concerning ities transfer through history 2004), this (Callinicos, for timeline specific and a linear theory creates the On twofold. are results The IT. of history the documen the in a schism creates it hand, one of history a vast ignores and history, of tation ‘sud as devices IT portraying by technology 2004; Callinicos, 2017; (Blyth, inventions den’ Information has always Hardt& Negri, 2001). –circulated societies always economical have networks on relied socially, and politically, ly, long be 2014), & Burke (Briggs of information oth the On Internet. the of invention the fore determinist a by technological er driven hand, ‘IT Revolution’ the of idea the thinking, of way it and firsts’, world’s ‘the of canon a to led has a West to prone especially is that canon this is Technolo ofern thinking. or way Euro-centric of pillars fundamental the of one is all, after gy, (L supremacy Western of ideas the an developed has West the Historically, 1952). ent from our previous eras (‘Zeitgeists’), and and (‘Zeitgeists’), eras froment our previous new our of center the at Information poses the of because Castells, to According society. shifted society 1980s, late the in IT of invention ‘information to societies industrial being from net Internet by driven are which societies’ has it, calls Castells as ‘IT revolution’, This works. supposedly thoroughly changed the nature of systems worldwide. and economic political In portrays it that is issue main the but ory, and revolutionary as Technology formation Not do only Castells -new. something vision this pursue who scholars other and tech information of history the take hereby nologies out of context continu and ignore 17 ------of the IT boom of the 1980s and 1990s, Castells Castells 1990s, and 1980s the of boom IT the of differ eraas revolutionary current defines our nologies. Central to this narrative of the ‘smart the of narrative this to Central nologies. theory on Castells’ Manuel is revolution’ phone Because 1998). (Castells, Age’ ‘Information the ogies as hyper-renewing and ‘disconnected’ ‘disconnected’ and hyper-renewing as ogies tech of forms communication from previous technologies (i.e. Agar 2004; Katz Agar (i.e. telephone technologies re all has This 2014). Woyke 2002; Aakhus and technol smartphone of a narrative in sulted ten focus only focus onten the ‘telephone’ aspect, and of forms previous to only device the connect current ‘epoch’. In addition, if the history of the the of history the if addition, In ‘epoch’. current smartphoneor mobile at phonedoes receive of researchers research, of form the in tention well as other ICTs as a sudden revolutionary revolutionary a sudden as ICTs other as well our regarded defining is as that development ignored or overlooked as it goes against the the against goes it as overlooked or ignored Technolo ofpopular the ‘Information image as phones mobile treats which Revolution’, gy ry of communication devices are important, media of transformation the us show they as often nevertheless are they but ages, the over technologies (Blyth, 2017), especially with the the with especially 2017), (Blyth, technologies histo early the about Details phone. mobile out of historical context and portray it as a ‘rev as it portray and context historical of out olutionary’ – this yet development and recent information of case the in happening is what is (Briggs & Burke, 2014, p. 12), it would be incor would it 12), p. 2014, & Burke, (Briggs smartphone the as such a device take rect to 2004), and even older, paper media (Briggs papermedia (Briggs older, and even 2004), always a medium that Seeing 2014). & Burke, media other of spectrum a broad to relates 2004; Natsuno, 2002), smartphones2004; Natsuno, 2002), actually communi a of wireless long tradition continue (Ling, technology from stemming cation are relatively obvious and have been dis and have obvious pagerrelatively are Ling, 2016; (K. Ito, elsewhere length in cussed vice has a much longer a history has much connectsvice that similarities the While media. other many to it the or PDA the and smartphone the between made its entrance among the general public among the general public made its entrance de the speaking technologically 1990s, the in ASIA IN FOCUS nese technological supremacy to an inhuman, an to supremacy technological nese of being seen as human: by attributing Japa and Robins (1995) argue, that it is at the cost at cost the something of else.perior Morley 2002). Japanese technology can only besu Nakamura, (Chun, 2000; techno-orientalism fiction(Yu, 2008), and heavily influenced by by ideas reminiscent science postmodern of nologies –acontext that is much very shaped Japan is seen as acountry of advanced tech 2014). Yet it is only in aparticular context that are also relatively well-known (Lim &Goggin, in mobile phone technology in the early 2000s future (Morley &Robins, 1995). Their advances became associated with technologies of the time at the end of the last century, Japan even timelinetechno-historical inventions. of Some position in the struggle for a mention on the ‘granted’ a been actually has Japan countries, from researchers from other non-Western research scientific of neglect blatant Unlike the documentation of the history of technology. Euro-centric drive a to create self-glorifying a in out completely left has or ignored been try which in Asian coun an story ern-oppression simply reduce this to atypical victim-of-West When it comes to Japan, however, we cannot (Pre-)Keitai hunen (2008, p. 516). concepts,” Western-based ter on states Ten countries, to cen tendency which to a has led of mobile phones –has focused on Western alongside – ies research appropriation the on nology. lion’s “The of technology stud wireless and mobile telecommunication tech no different when it comes to the history of (see also Bala, 2006; Park, 2014; Raj, 2007). It is in ways flattering to the Eurocentric imaginary” (2013,Stam 14) p. “organizes argue, knowledge of sciencery the West always, as Shohat and Europe via Asia –when it comes to the histo and astronomy for example, which all came to ------18 the Japanese mobile phones were Japanesethe phones generally mobile culture, thriving a phone mobile developed Japan has paid. When in the early 2000s Japan science,hegemony modern of is price the it Western the have that countries challenged genaar, 2016). one As of the first non-Western Japan is portrayed as ‘crazy’ and ‘weird’ (Wa ofa part arecent form of Orientalism in which is This achievements. technological their little be and ridicule also but Japanese, the manize are ‘crazily’ into technology not only dehu abouttypes Japanese as ‘technophiles’ who ridiculingvious factor, stereo example as for thus devalued. Besides this, there is also an ob achievements technological their and manized dehu are Japanese quality, the mechanical cation technologies were made by Japanese towards wireless and mobile telecommuni evenpan, though many early crucial steps overlookedpletely Ja by of scholars outside communications before 2000, Japan is com referring to as such. it by deliberately phones mobile of not history al vice, as if to detach the device from the gener topic as ‘keitai’, the Japanese name for the de ly referred to in English-spoken research on the anese mobile phone was also almost exclusive an almost alienating way. At that time, the Jap mobile phone users “Tokyo thumb tribes,” in (2002) young Rheingold labels cultures. phone (2004, p. 246) example, for comparing mobile latest technological gadgets” states Srivastava the sporting are regularly who seen people ic tion that the Japanese are ahighly technophil the Japanese: one “No will deny the percep essentialthe (obsessive) ‘technophile’ side of expression as perhaps an more - ofnomenon was sometimes more seen as acultural phe tava, 2004). Yet even this was something that royd & Coates, 2007; Rheingold, 2002; Srivas communication technology (Hill, 2003; Hol as impressiveseen advanced mobile forms of Yet when it comes to the history of tele ------ISSUE 6 ------2010). Some even argue that the underlying the underlying that argue Someeven 2010). tele wireless develop to sentiment nationalist during not only was present communications lat present but also was discoveries the early p. 2009, (Hjorth, 2000s and 1990s the in on er situation current the at look we if Indeed, 91). National Pride do was Japan that however, a reason, is There the in technologies radio of field the in well ing early 20th century – strategic imperial expan of assessment historical his in (2010), Yang sion. technology of imperial the telecommunication progress early rapid the that out points Japan, and breakthroughs Japan made inthe field be should at telecommunications of wireless tributed to the imperial expansions that Japan centu 20th the of beginning the at undertook fieldof the in wireless The advances early ry. be therefore should seen telecommunication asmilitary developments, ofsimilar to many the Russia in Europe, developments technological same the around made were that USA the and are that fields are technology and Science time. but power, military with connected historically in particu developments telecommunication militarist, by driven being of a history have lar nationalist or semi-nationalist purposes (Yang with its comb-like shape on the roofs of many many of roofs the on shape comb-like its with used is world, the around all cities in houses re for and radio for configuration most Japan’s of one became quickly It ception. importantand ground-breaking of inventions in US the to went Yagi after century, 20th the 1950, By invention. his about a talk give to 1928 Iron world. the over all used was the ically enough, it actually playeda large role in Second the in army Japanese the of defeat the used was antenna Yagi-Uda the as War, World in communication effective for troops US by realiz even Japanese the without military, the had become invention countrymen’s ing their 1991). (Sato, overseas popular so 19 ------inventors Uda Shintarō and Yagi Hidetsugu. Hidetsugu. and Yagi Shintarō Uda inventors The antenna, Yagi-Uda still prominently visible 464). In 1926, another pioneering in Japanese another In 1926, 464). telecommuni wireless to contributed vention cation: the antenna, Yagi-Uda named after its at all, it is often only briefly mentioned in one one in mentioned briefly only often is it all, at p. 1999, Sitaram, example for (see sentence day’s weather is clear, this is Toba, Kami Island, Island, Kami Toba, is this clear, is weather day’s these Still, words never make itKami to Island”. TYK discussed the If is accounts. historical most wa Toba, kochirawa wa Toba, Kami-shima,Kami-shima” to clear, is weather “Today’s or, n.d.) (Anritsu, ken through a wireless telephone device that that telephone device a wireless through ken could cross significantdistance were “Honjitsu wa seiten nari, honjitsu wa seiten nari, kochira munication system not too long after the turn turn the after long too not system munication spo words first the 1914, In century. 20th the of the need to quickly be able to communicate communicate to able be quickly to need the Elec Annaka why is which areas, bay around com developed a wireless Corporation tronic wireless telephone (radio telephone). As mar telephone). telephone (radio wireless itime transport had become increasingly cru became there economy, Japanese the for cial known as the multinationalcorporation An first TYK, the world’s the manufactured ritsu) less electromagnetic communication methods methods electromagneticless communication Furthermore, in Tokyo. River the Sumida over Electric Annaka (now Corporation in 1912, dio transmissions, engineer Shida Rinzaburō wire with experimented successfully already communication throughout the 19th and and the 19th throughout communication years ten 1885, in example, For century. 20th onwork long-distance ra beforeMarconi’s 1990s and 2000s. In his historical overview, overview, historical his In 2000s. and 1990s inven Japanese the all lists (2006) Morishima wireless of field the to contributed that tions ger history, which logically led to the invention invention the to led logically which history, ger late phones of the mobile advanced ofthe frontrunner when it comes to wireless com wireless to comes it when frontrunner advanced its that and technology, munication lon a much mobile have phone technologies inventors. Engineer and historian Morishima Morishima and historian Engineer inventors. a been always has Japan that states (2006) ASIA IN FOCUS phones from the early 2000s were extremely 2006). Although it was clear that the Japanese (Zysman Newman, economy & national the ing nate result of failing policies aimed at boost on its own). This has been called the unfortu countries developing and technologies new ‘Galapagos’ effect (i.e., closed off from other ket, which caused a Japanese mobile phone catering and ing Japanese the mar for only manufactur Japan in resulted This export. for functioned on PDC, which made them unfit was that only Japanese the phones mobile between the PDC and most other networks, difference only world. the The of ferent parts technologies by different used countries dif in otherthere of cellular were plethora a network Access Multiple vision (CDMA). these, Besides recently, and the US used Code-Di so-called was ironically not a global system until very Communicationstem Mobile for (GSM), which rope used acellular system called Global Sys Eu Cellular (PDC), while Digital Personal called specific worked a cellularphones on network late 1990s and throughout the 2000s, Japan’s forms of technologies. For a long time in the interchangeable aligned, globally been always have not networks phone mobile 5G network, wards realizing world’s the nation-wide first providers are currentlyphone all to working . Korea’s South others, , ’s and an international ‘first-to-5G’ race with, among realizing on working this ambitious in pledge provider, DoCoMo, isphone currently NTT mobile largest country’s The running. and up to bethe first country to have a 5G network Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, Japan pledged no-nationalist intentions. In their goals for the competition that shows clear tech underlying first to successfully implement a 5G network - a competition several among countries the to be technology, phone mobile of a we clearly see Although world’s the leading mobile ------20 phone network in 1979, the network, which actually the country that set up the first mobile that it so often goes unnoticed that Japan was is technologies cellular Japanese on discussion 2005). Perhaps the most striking aspect of the all over the world quite successfully (Holroyd, applied and internetphone were exported however, Japan’s that phone device market, it is important to note, pan’s physical presence mobile global the on Ja nullified 1995). essentially this Although technologicalof ‘othering’ (Morley Robins, & Japan’s achievements form a by projecting the Galapagos effect made it easy to devalue because of their early mobile , countries other most to compared advanced cuses European on other in American, and or telecommunication history ‘timeline’ that fo have been systematically ignored in amobile US the and Europe of outside realm cultural a from came that breakthroughs technological its purpose is to show how several important wireless communication technologies. Rather, world’s titles first’ in the history of mobile and cle is not to show that Japan has aright to ‘the camera, MMS, etc.), but the purpose of this arti WiFi, phone mobile the phone mobile tion of ogies have been omitted (such as the inven manyoverview; Japan’s of technol pioneering ogy. This article does not provide acomplete less telecommunication mobile and technol contributions to development the wire the of In the above, Idiscussed some of the Japanese Conclusion implement 3G (Ahonen, 2009). was also one of the last developed countries to slow and to implement cellular new networks, 1983.been in only traditionally has US The late, and implemented their first 1G network were quick to follow; the US was actually quite Copyingkyo. Japan’s other countries network, was put into use for the first timein by NTT To technologies for mobile for ------ISSUE 6 - - holdsan M.A. in Area Studies [email protected] Deirdre Sneep research a with Studies, Urban in a PhD and focus on the relationship between technolo currently She Japan. in society urban and gy Uni the at researcher a postdoctoral as works versity of Duisburg-Essen. Email: 21 ------tors from outsides of the West. the of outsides from tors to keep its most prized title of ‘master of the the of ‘master of title prized most its keep to science of fields the where era an in machines’ rivaled ac by and technology increasingly are mobile phone technology can in this regard regard this in can technology phone mobile struggling West the of a reflection as be seen acknowledge Japan’s mastery of a powerful a powerful of mastery Japan’s acknowledge ‘theirs’ and technol – science considered trait in breakthroughs of history of writing The ogy. a Euro-centric history of technology. All of this this of All technology. of history a Euro-centric to able selectively only is West the that implies undiscussed oronly veryundiscussed brieflyin mentioned technology, general theories on information of construction the of a tradition with line in or wireless telecommunication achievements achievements telecommunication or wireless left often are Japanese the by made previously long tradition of Orientalism, which has taken taken has which of Orientalism, long tradition past the in Japan of case the in forms new on mobile decades. that is The second condition dehumanizes the Japanese, and portrays them obsessed or human) not (thus robotic either as a of continuation the is It technology. with attributed to a peculiar ‘technophile nature’. This devalues technological achievements as it telecommunications technology seems be to telecommunications The undertwo only first possible conditions. often is excellence technological this that is in the early 2000s. Nonetheless, Japan being being Japan Nonetheless, 2000s. early the in of history global the in player a as recognized West as a country that has significant techno significant has that a country as West well-known relatively is it and prowess, logical that Japan had a thriving mobile phone culture from other mobile phones completely. Howev from mobile phones other completely. fromthe slowly mid-twentieth cen Japan, er, tury onwards, is gradually recognized by the erature, were often not referred to as ‘mobile oftenwere not referred‘mobile as to erature, it distinguish to if as ‘keitai’, as but phones’, glish language scholars for their of invention and system Internet mobile successful first the lit scholarly in – which, phones high-tech their words, Western achievements. It is only in the the in only is It achievements. Western words, En by attention received Japan that 2000s ASIA IN FOCUS Holroyd, (2005). C. DoCoMo as a Global Force: The Challende of Exporting Hjorth, (2009). L. Hill, (2003). R. AMobile Phone of One’s Own: Japan’s “Generation M.” Hardt, &Negri, M., (2001). A. DoCoMo Keitai Report. denwa wo no fukyūki sasaeta “mova” saabisu, 19 nen Chun, W. (2000). K. H. Orienting Orientalism, or How to Map Cyberspace. In R. Castells, (1998). M. Callinicos, (2004). A. Myths of the New Economy. In F. Webster &B. Dimitrou Briggs, & Burke, A., P. (2014). T.Blyth, (2017). ? challenges The displaying of information and Bala, (2006). A. Anritsu. Tsūshin sekaihatsu jitsuyō - no onjyō wo tadoru mugendenwa. genryū no Ahonen, T. (2009, November 13). Celebrating 30 Years Phones, Mobile of Thank Agar, J. (2004). Aamoth, D. (2014, August 18). First Smartphone Turns 20: Fun Facts About Simon. References (Eds.), (Eds.), Internet tion-age/ http://journal.sciencemuseum.org.uk/browse/issue-03/informafrom communication technologies. Macmillan. rate-information/track/origin (n.d.). Retrieved https://www.anritsu.com/ja-JP/about-anritsu/corpo from japan.html /2009/11/celebrating-30-years-of-mobile-phones-thank-you-ntt-of- You of Japan. NTT Retrieved from http://communities-dominate.blogs.com/ logical-developments.pdf docomo-as-a-global-force-the-challenge-of-exporting-japanese-techno 10(3). Retrieved http://www.icommercecentral.com/open-access/ from Japanese Developments. J mobile Studies Asian of Journal binary/pdf/info/news_release/report/120316.pdf no rekishi ni maku. (2012). Retrieved from https://www.nttdocomo.co.jp/ Cyberspace Wong Lee C. &S.-L. C. (Eds.), Millennium. of End Retrieved http://time.com/3137005/first-smartphone-ibm-simon/ from Manuel Castells,Manuel Volume I . London and New York: New London and . Routledge. . Polity press: Polity Press. Polity press: Polity . The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science. Constant Touch: AGlobal History of the Mobile Phone (pp. 3–36). Routledge. Mobile Media in the Asia-Pacific: Gender and the of beingart The InformationThe Age: Economy, Culture. and Volume Society III: Cambridge MA and Oxford UK Blackwell. UK Oxford and Cambridge MA , 5(1),, 178–194. Empire A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the ournal Internet of Banking and Commerce Asian America.Net: Ethnicity, America.Net: Nationalism,Asian and Science Journal Museum Group . London: Harvard UP. London:. Harvard (pp. 207–218). London: Sage. 22 , 3(3)., Retrieved . Icon.. New ZealandNew Palgrave - - - , ISSUE 6

- - , 3, , 14(4), , 14(3), Info Asia in Focus in Asia 19(3), 663–666. 19(3), (pp. 301–318). (pp. 301–318). Perpetual Contact: Perpetual Contact: IEEE ANtennas and Basic Books. New Press. SUNY Press. SUNY Palgrave Macmillan. Palgrave The Post-Mobile Society: From the Society: the The Post-Mobile From Civic Discourse: Intercultural, Inter Intercultural, Discourse: Civic 23 . London: New York: Routledge. New York: . London: Paris: UNESCO. Paris: Spaces of Identity:Spaces Global Media, Electronic Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. & Sons, Wiley UK: John Chichester, (pp. 81–92). Routledge. 81–92). (pp. Innovation Nation: Science and Technology in 21st in 21st and Technology Science Nation: Innovation (pp. 461–479). Ablex Publishing Corporation. Ablex Publishing 461–479). (pp. Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the and the Multiculturalism Eurocentrism: Unthinking , 33(3), 7–18. , 33(3), he Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute he Anthropological Journal of the Royal Cybertypes: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet. the on Identity and Ethnicity, Race, Cybertypes: Race etRace Histoire. Africa, Asia, and the History of Philosophy: Racism in the the in Racism Philosophy: of History the and Asia, Africa, . Harvard University Press. University . Harvard . Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Next The Social Mobs: . Smart The Mobile Connection: the Phone’s Impact on Society. Phone’s Cell the The Mobile Connection: . Palgrave Macmillan.. Palgrave i-Mode Strategy. i-Mode Strategy. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Journal of Computer-Mediated Smartland Korea: Mobile Communication, Culture, and Society. and Society. Culture, Mobile Communication, Smartland Korea: The Smartphone: Anatomy ofThe an Industry. Smartphone: Anatomy Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and of the Construction Circulation ModernRelocating Science: Technology of Empire: Telecommunications and Japanese Expansion Telecommunications of Empire: Technology . Routledge. 46–54. 1883-1945 in Asia, 234–251. T India. in Logistics 515–534. Media (Eds.), & K. Sitaram S. M. H. In Prosser tions. andnational, Global Media Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650-1900. Europe, and Asia South in Knowledge Magazine Propagation Routledge New York. 1780–1830. Canon, Philosophical the of Formation Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. 239–301. 6, Chōsahōkoku, Keitōka No Gijyutsu chōsa. keitōka Boundaries and Cultural Landscapes, Cambridge UniversityCambridge Press. Imperatives. University of Michigan Press. (Eds.), E. Katz & M. A. J. In Aakhus Theory Apparatgeist. of -Public Performance Talk Private Mobile Communication, Century Japan (Ed.), H. Tomita In context.” rich in ‘me’ new Smart/Mobile Offline Second to vi-Strauss, C. (1952). C. (1952). vi-Strauss, e Woyke, E. (2014). E. (2014). Woyke, (2010). D. Yang, Wagenaar, W. (2016). Wacky Japan: A new face of orientalism. orientalism. of face A new Japan: Wacky (2016). W. Wagenaar, Tenhunen, S. (2008). in the Village: ICTs, Culture, and Social Social and Culture, ICTs, Village: the in Technology Mobile (2008). S. Tenhunen, Srivastava, L. (2004). Japan’s ubiquitous mobile information society. society. information mobile ubiquitous Japan’s L. (2004). Srivastava, Sitaram, K. S. (1999). Epilogue: The Interculturalness of Electronic Communica Electronic of Interculturalness The Epilogue: K. (1999). S. Sitaram, Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (2013). R. (2013). E., & Stam, Shohat, Rheingold, H. (2002) antenna. Yagi the story about secret A G. (1991). Sato, Raj, K. (2007). K. (2007). Raj, Natsuno, (2002). T. K. (2014). J. P. Park, Nakamura, L. (2002). Morishima, M. (2006). Idōtsūshin tanmatsu: Keitaidenwa gijyutsu hatten no no hatten gijyutsu Keitaidenwa tanmatsu: Idōtsūshin M. (2006). Morishima, K. (1995). & Robins, D., Morley, Ling, R. S. (2004). R. (2004). S. Ling, L and Issues Asia: in Communication Mobile G. (2014). & Goggin, S., S. Lim, Katz, J. E., & Aakhus, M. A. (2002). Conclusion: Making Meaning of Mobiles - a - a Mobiles of Meaning Making Conclusion: M. A. (2002). E., & Aakhus, Katz, J. Jin, D. Y. (2017). (2017). Y. D. Jin, Ito, K. (2016). Recreation and “The future of mobile content: a a content: mobile of “The future content mobile and Recreation K. (2016). Ito, Holroyd, C., & Coates, K. (2007). K. (2007). C., & Coates, Holroyd, ASIA IN FOCUS Zysman, J., &Newman, (2006). A. Yu, T. (2008). Oriental Cities, Postmodern Futures: “Naked Lunch, Blade Runner”, University Press. Press. University National Responses, Market Transitions, Technology. Global and “Neuromancer.”and MELUS, MELUS, 33(4), 45–71. 33(4), How RevolutionaryHow was the Digital Revolution? 24 Stanford