EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY

EJE 2019, 5(2): 30-40, doi:10.2478/eje-2019-0011

Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Wild in

1Botany Department, Faculty of Sciences, Uni- versity of Tripoli, Libya Corresponding author, Mohammed H. Mahklouf1* E-mail: mahklouf64@ yahoo.com

ABSTRACT This study was designed to document the use and conservation of edible wild plants in Libya. Data were col- lected through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. A total of 145 edible wild species were identified; of these, herbs represented the majority with 119 species. Regarding the parts used, the most consumed parts were leaves (in 64 species), followed by young shoots (in 39 species), fruits (in 35 species), seeds (in 16 species), flowers and roots (in 14 species each), and 8 species were consumed as a whole plant. Studies on the mode of consumption revealed a total of 12 ways of consumption, of which the majority were consumed raw (90 species), followed by consumption after cooking (56 species) and as a salad (41 species).

KEYWORDS

ethnobotany, edible, rural, raw, cooked, flora.

© 2019 Mohammed H. Mahklouf This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license INTRODUCTION tory of humans. They have a prominent role in both early and Wild edible plants are wild plants with one or more parts that contemporary societies (Carvalho and Barata, 2017). Over the can be used for food if gathered at the appropriate stage of centuries, people have been dependent on this resource for growth and properly prepared. Edible wild plants could be their subsistence as they are efficient and cheap sources of sev- weeds growing in urban areas to native plants growing in the eral important micronutrients (Ali and Tsou, 1997). It has been deep wilderness (Hinnawi, 2010; Kallas, 1996). even suggested that wild food plants are nutritionally superior Indigenous people living in particular areas depend to some of the cultivated ones (Burlingame,2000 ). on the use of wild plants or plant parts to fulfill their needs and Millions of people in many developing countries do often have considerable knowledge of their uses. The people dominate within the investigated area for the benefits of not generally depend on the nearby forest areas to obtain their having enough food to meet their daily requirements, and needs (Acharya and Acharya, 2010). furthermore, people are deficient in one or more micronutri- Wild plants, aside from being used by poor commu- ents. Thus, in most cases, rural communities depend on wild nities, are commonly used today as a supplement for healthy resources including wild edible plants to meet their food needs diets in even the most developed regions of the world (Redzic, in periods of food crisis (Al – Qura’n, 2010). 2006). Approximately 75,000 species of plants worldwide are Edible wild plants include food categories familiar believed to be edible (Walters and Hamilton, 1993); among to everyone: root vegetables (including true roots and under- them, more than 7,000 species are grown in the wild and have ground storage organs like bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes);

European Journal of Ecology European Journal of Ecology been used for human food at some period throughout the his- edible greens (leaves, stems, shoots, including marine algae);

Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY fleshy fruits (berries, pomes, drupes); and grains, seeds, and 2. RESULTS nuts. Other edible products include the inner bark and cam- A total of 145 edible wild plant species belonging to 111 gen- bium of trees, plant-based beverages, plants used for flavor- era and 47 families were recorded in this survey, of which 39 ing, and edible wild mushrooms and lichens. Many of these families belonged to dicotyledons, 5 families were monocoty- wild foods are common and productive, as well as highly nu- ledons, and 2 families belonged to gymnosperms and 1 was of tritious, palatable, and easily harvested. Some, such as Rubus fern family. Out of the 47 documented families, Asteraceae and spp. (raspberry relatives) andRosa spp. (wild roses), yield more were the dominant ones, which were represented by than one type of food (in these cases, both edible fruits and 18 species each, followed by with 14 species, Po- edible green shoots) (FAO, 1988; Kuhnlein et al., 2009; Turner lygonaceae with 8 species, and then Apiaceae with 7 species. et al., 2011; Walsh, 2009). The genus Rumex was dominant with six species, followed by In Libya, most of the rural people still consume wild the genus Vicia with five species, the genera Amaranthus and plants as their routine food and use them especially in prepar- Lathyrus with four species each, and Urtica with three species. ing their traditional meals, even though attention for this tradi- The rest were represented either by two or one species each. tion has declined with time due to civil development and pros- Herbs accounted for the highest number of consumed plants perity. Therefore, this survey was conducted to highlight the and formed 119 species; the rest consisted of 10 trees species, importance of wild plants in providing food value as a source 15 shrubs, and 1 climber species) Table 1). of vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, and microelements and Life form analysis revealed that the majority of con- food security as well, especially for poor people as a food com- sumed species were herbs which were represented by 119 plement, and also to refresh the heritage memory regarding species; the rest consisted of 10 tree species, 15 shrubs, and 1 edible wild plants for people belonging to new generation. climber species. Regarding the parts used, a total of seven edible parts were recorded. Of these, leaves were consumed in 64 1. METHOD species (34.2%), young shoots in 39 species (20.9%), fruits in 35 This study was designed to conduct a taxonomic survey of ed- species (18.9%), flowers in 14 species (7.5%), roots in the same ible wild plant species distributed in the rural areas of Libya number of species, seeds in 13 species (7.00%), and finally 8 with their relevant names and to identify the edible form, life species were consumed as a whole plant (4.3%) (Tables 1 and forms, the part used, way of consumption, and other uses. 2; Figure 1). Moreover, more than one part of several species Ethnobotanical Data Collection. Many informants, can be consumed in different ways (e.g., in Pinus halepensis, both males and females of different age groups, were cho- the shoots can be eaten raw, in a salad, or fried with oil, mus- sen from several villages (rural districts) around Tripoli and tard, onion, salt, pepper, and other flavoring spices; leaves are were asked about the consumption of wild foods in order to boiled in water and used as a substitute for tea; male cone can gain insight into their present-day use, ways of consumption be eaten raw; and seeds can be eaten raw or as a spice for and preparation, the time of collection, and the places where flavoring meals). each species was gathered. The ages of the informants were As regards the mode of consumption, a total of 12 between 35 and 80 years. Semi-structured interviews, field ways of consumption were recorded, of which the majority observation, and focus group discussions were employed for (90 species; 35.7%) were consumed raw, followed by cooking data collection. Focus group discussions were employed for in- (56 species; 22.2%) and as a salad (41 species; 16.2%). The rest vestigation of edible wild plants in order to help in comparison of the consumption modes are shown in Table 3 and Figure 2. of patterns evident among individual interviews and to reject Moreover, many species were reported to be consumed in dif- contradictory information. More data about the parts used ferent ways; for example, the leaves of Cardamine hirsuta can and the ways of consumption of edible wild plants were also collected from the following literature reviews about edible Table 2. Number and percentage of the parts used wild plants (Al – Qura’n, 2010; Andelson et al., 2011; Berihun and Molla, 2017; Ferriera et al., 2017; Hinnawi, 2008 ; Khan et Part used No. of species % al., 1017; Ludwig et al., 2009; Manuel et al., 2006; Polat et al., Leaves 64 34.2 2015; Turner et al., 2010, 2011). Data Analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to Young shoots 39 20.9 analyze the ethnobotanical data of the reported edible wild Fruits 35 18.9 plants and their associated indigenous knowledge. Life form Roots 14 7.5 spectrum of surveyed plant species, number of used parts, and mode of consumption were analyzed to find the ethnobotani- Flowers 14 7.5 cal importance of the edible wild plants in Libya. Seeds 13 7.0

Whole plant 8 4.3

31 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Raw in salad Raw Eaten in salad Eaten Roasted or cooked Roasted Cooked with meals Cooked Eaten raw or with salad raw Eaten Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Eaten as salad and potion Eaten Raw or cooked with meals or cooked Raw Boiled in water to make tea make to Boiled in water Cooked with meals as vegetables Cooked with meals as vegetables Cooked with meals as vegetables Cooked Eaten raw in a salad or fried oil raw Eaten Eaten raw or used in soup flavoring raw Eaten Eaten raw, cooked, dried, and roasted cooked, raw, Eaten Eaten as salad or cooked as vegetables as vegetables as salad or cooked Eaten Eaten raw in a salad or cooked with meals in a salad or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw; ground and roasted to make jam make to and roasted ground raw; Eaten Dried and ground roots blended with coffee roots Dried and ground Eaten as a salad or cooked as a vegetable dish as a vegetable as a salad or cooked Eaten Eaten raw in a salad or cooked with meals as vegetables in a salad or cooked raw Eaten Leaves eaten as a salad mixed with yoghurt, fruits eaten raw fruits eaten with yoghurt, as a salad mixed eaten Leaves raw fruits eaten with yoghurt, as a salad mixed eaten Leaves Eaten raw, roasted, fried, or dried and ground to make bread make to fried, or dried and ground roasted, raw, Eaten Roots Roots Roots Roots leaves Leaves Tubers Tubers Leaves Leaves Part used Part Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Young leaves Young Young leaves Young Young leaves leaves Young Young shoots Young Young braches braches Young Tuberous roots roots Tuberous Roots and seeds Roots Shoots and flowers Young leaves, fruits leaves, Young fruits leaves, Young Flowers, fruits, seeds Flowers, Leaves and hypanthium and hypanthium Leaves Young shoots and leaves Young Young shoots and leaves Young Leaves and young shoots and young Leaves Young stems after removing leaves removing after stems Young

L. .

L. L . L . L . L . L. L. L . L. L . L. L . L . Jacq. L . L . L . L . (L.) Lag. (Loefl.) Gay ex Cossom & Kralik ex Cossom & Gay (Loefl.) Ammi majus Rhus coriaria Bidens pilosa Allium roseum Scientific name Scientific Pistacia lentiscus lentiscus Pistacia Cichorium intybus Cichorium intybus Amaranthus viridis Amaranthus Cynara cardunculus Cynara cardunculus Pistacia atlantica Desf. atlantica Pistacia Eryngium campestre campestre Eryngium Smyrnium olusatrum Smyrnium Helianthus tuberosus Helianthus Amaranthus hybridus hybridus Amaranthus Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthus Crithmum maritimum Allium ampeloprasum Cichorium pumilum Pancratium maritimum Pancratium Amaranthus retroflexus L. retroflexus Amaranthus Apium nodiflorum (Lam.) Hook Daucus carota Adiantum capillus-veneris capillus-veneris Adiantum Ridolfia segetum (Guss.) Moris Ridolfia segetum Chrysanthemum coronarium coronarium Chrysanthemum Chamomilla aurea Family Alliaceae Alliaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Adiantaceae Adiantaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Amaryllidaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae 7 8 9 5 6 1 4 2 3 13 14 10 15 16 17 11 12 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 No. Table 1. List of studied edible plants with the parts used and mode of consumption edible plants of studied 1. List Table

32 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY Hot spice of pepper Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten raw Eaten Raw in salad Raw Eaten in salad Eaten Eaten in salad Eaten Eaten raw, in salad raw, Eaten Eaten raw, in salad raw, Eaten Cooked with meals Cooked Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Seeds used as a hot spice Flowers used to flavor juices flavor used to Flowers Eaten raw in salads or cooked in salads or cooked raw Eaten Leaves boiled in “pistic” blend boiled in “pistic” Leaves Eaten raw or cooked with meals or cooked raw Eaten Eaten as salad mixed with yoghurt as salad mixed Eaten Young leaves eaten in salad or fried eaten leaves Young Eaten raw, fried, or dried and roasted raw, Eaten Eaten raw, midribs boiled and eaten as artichokes boiled and eaten midribs raw, Eaten Leaves eaten raw, in a salad, or cooked with meals in a salad, or cooked raw, eaten Leaves Eaten raw, in a salad, cooked with vegetable meals with vegetable in a salad, cooked raw, Eaten Roots eaten raw or boiled, arial parts eaten raw or cooked raw or boiled, arial parts eaten raw eaten Roots Eaten raw as a salad mixed with yoghurt, cooked as vegetable as vegetable cooked with yoghurt, as a salad mixed raw Eaten Eaten raw or cooked, dried and ground to use as a spice instead use as a spice instead to dried and ground or cooked, raw Eaten Roots Roots Roots Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Part used Part Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Hypanthium Young leaves Young Young shoots Young Vegetative part Vegetative Vegetative parts Vegetative Vegetative parts Vegetative Young leaves and seeds leaves Young Young stems and leaves stems Young Leaves and young shoots and young Leaves Young leaves and flowers leaves Young Roots, leaves, young shoots, heads young leaves, Roots,

. L. L . L. R.Br . L. L. L. Goun L. L. (L.) Roth. (L.) Medikus (L.) Medikus (L.)Hill (L.) Gaertner . (L.) Desv (Forsk.) Boiss. (Forsk.) (L.) Weber ex Wig g ex (L.) Weber Sinapis alba Eruca sativa Eruca Scientific name Scientific Lactuca serriola Lactuca Lepdium sativum Borago officinalis Sonchus oleraceus L . Sonchus oleraceus Cardamine hirsuta L. Cardamine hirsuta Sonchus asper Lepidium latifolium Raponticum aquale Raponticum Scolymus hispanicus Scolymus Scorzonera hispanica L . hispanica Scorzonera Cardaria draba Vahl. Vahl. undulata Scorzonera raphanistrum L. Raphanus raphanistrum Nasturtium officinale Nasturtium Notobasis syriaca (L.) Cass. syriaca Notobasis Brassica tournefortii tournefortii Brassica Diplotaxis acris Diplotaxis Reichardia picroides Reichardia Silybum marianum Capsella busa-pastoris Capsella Tarxacum offiicinalis Tarxacum Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Boraginaceae 48 47 46 26 44 45 28 27 42 43 34 33 29 41 36 35 31 32 30 40 39 38 37 No.

33 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY Eaten raw raw Eaten Raw and juice Raw Raw and juice Raw Vinegar and spice Vinegar substitute for coffee for substitute substitute for coffee for substitute Cooked as vegetables as vegetables Cooked Cooked as a vegetable Cooked Fruits sweet, eaten raw eaten Fruits sweet, Fruits sweet, eaten raw eaten Fruits sweet, Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Shoots eaten raw in a salad raw Shoots eaten Shoots eaten raw in a salad raw Shoots eaten Seeds ground to make bread make to Seeds ground jam make used to raw, Eaten Seeds ground to make bread make to Seeds ground Eaten raw, used to make jam make used to raw, Eaten Eaten in salad or cooked in meals in salad or cooked Eaten Seeds used a substitute for coffee for Seeds used a substitute Eaten raw, roasted, boiled in water roasted, raw, Eaten Eaten raw, in salad, or cooked in meals in salad, or cooked raw, Eaten Eaten raw, in a salad mixed with yoghurt in a salad mixed raw, Eaten Boiled in water, used as a substitute for tea for used as a substitute Boiled in water, Eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable in meals as a vegetable or cooked raw Eaten Dried, ground, and used to make sweets (halawa) sweets make and used to Dried, ground, Tuber eaten raw or boiled or cooked or used as a spice or boiled cooked raw eaten Tuber Tuber eaten raw or boiled or cooked or used as a spice or boiled cooked raw eaten Tuber Shoots boiled to make tea, fruits eaten raw or used as a spice raw fruits eaten tea, make Shoots boiled to Eaten raw as a salad mixed with yoghurt, cooked as vegetable as vegetable cooked with yoghurt, as a salad mixed raw Eaten Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Fruits Roots Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Part used Part Fresh fruits Fresh Whole plant Fruits, tubers Fruits, tubers Fruits, tubers Fruits, tubers Young shoots Young Shoots, seeds Shoots, seeds Young stems and leaves stems Young Young shoots and leaves Young Young shoots and leaves Young Young shoots, fruits, seeds Young

L . L . L . . (L.) L.

L. L . L . L . L. L . Bieb . Pam (L.) Schrader (L.) Vill (Moench) Garcke Scop. Scientific name Scientific Lathyrus cicera L. cicera Lathyrus Cyperus longus Sisymbrium irio Sisymbrium Sinapis arvensis L. Atriplex halimus Atriplex Ceratonia siliqua Ceratonia Capparis spinosa L . Juniper oxycedrus Thuja occidentalis Thuja occidentalis Arbutus pavarii Cyperus esculentus L . Cyperus esculentus Anthyllis vulneraria Anthyllis Stellaria media Stellaria Chenopodium album Chenopodium murale Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnus angustifolia Gypsophila elegans Gypsophila Sisymbrium officinale Sisymbrium (L.) Mill. ficus-indica Opuntia Silene vulgaris Citrullus colocynthis Citrullus colocynthis Family Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Erecaceae Cactaceae Cactaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Capparaceae Capparaceae Elaeagnaceae Cupressaceae Cupressaceae Cucurbitaceae Caesalpiniaceae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae 68 67 66 69 65 64 63 62 61 54 57 55 58 56 59 60 53 50 52 49 51 No.

34 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY coffee Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw raw Eaten Substitute for tea for Substitute Eaten raw or cooked or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw or roasted raw Eaten Cooked as a vegetable Cooked Spice for flavoring meals flavoring Spice for Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Raw or cooked with meals or cooked Raw Eaten raw or consumed as tea or consumed raw Eaten Spice to flavor meat, pizza, and so on pizza, meat, flavor Spice to Spice to flavor meat, pizza, tea, and so on pizza, meat, flavor Spice to Dried and ground and used to flavor vegetable ghee vegetable flavor and used to Dried and ground Eaten roasted, ground to make bread and cakes, substitute for substitute and cakes, bread make to ground roasted, Eaten Pods Fruits Fruits Roots Seeds Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Part used Part Fresh pods Fresh Fresh pods Fresh Fresh pods Fresh Fresh pods Fresh Fresh fruits Fresh Fresh fruits Fresh Fresh fruits Fresh Fresh fruits Fresh Fresh fruits Fresh Young shoots Young Young shoots Young shoots Young leaves and shoots leaves Leaves and flowers Leaves Leaves and flowers Leaves Young shoots, leaves Young

L . L. L.

Moench. L. (L.) Lam. (L.) Lam. L. L. L. L. Parl. L . (L.) Bartal. L. (L.) DC (L.) L’Her. (L.) Hoff.m Roth. (L.) Hudson Vicia sativa Vicia hybrida Vicia hybrida Laurus nobilis Quercus ruber Scientific name Scientific Vicia peregrina Ononis spinosa Vicia villosa Sideritis montana L. Sideritis montana Vicia narbonensis Fumaria officinales Fumaria Lathyrus gorgoni Lathyrus Psoralea bituminosa Lathyrus ochrus Lathyrus Geranium tuberosum L . Rosmarinus officinalis Rosmarinus Forsk. stellata Trigonella Erodium gruinum Erodium Thymus capitatus capitatus Thymus Lathyrus pseudocicera Pamp. pseudocicera Lathyrus Mentha longifolia Mentha Calamintha incana (Sm.) Heldr. incana Calamintha Onobrychis crista-galli Onobrychis crista-galli Onobrychis caput-galli Onobrychis caput-galli Medicago orbicularis Medicago purpureus Tetragonolobus Family Fagaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Lauraceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Fumariaceae 87 86 91 92 93 94 88 84 89 85 90 83 82 81 80 77 76 78 79 75 74 73 72 71 70 No.

35 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY bread Eaten raw raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Eaten roasted roasted Eaten Seeds eaten raw Seeds eaten Seeds eaten raw Seeds eaten raw Seeds eaten Seeds eaten raw Seeds eaten Eaten raw or in salad raw Eaten or in salad raw Eaten Male cone eaten raw eaten Male cone Fruits sweet, eaten raw eaten Fruits sweet, Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Leaves cooked with meals cooked Leaves Leaves cooked with meals cooked Leaves with meals cooked Leaves Leaves cooked with meals cooked Leaves Fried or cooked with meals Fried or cooked Seeds eaten raw or as a spice raw Seeds eaten Cooked as a vegetable in meals as a vegetable Cooked Eaten raw or cooked with meals or cooked raw Eaten Consumed after boiling in water boiling in Consumed after Cooked with eggs as a vegetable Cooked Leaves used as a substitute for tea for used as a substitute Leaves Shoots eaten raw, in salad, or fried raw, Shoots eaten Boiled in water to make sweet juice sweet make to Boiled in water Leaves eaten raw or cooked in meals or cooked raw eaten Leaves Cooked as a vegetable dish or in soup as a vegetable Cooked Seeds ground to make bread and cakes bread make to Seeds ground Dried and ground and used for the preparation of mush and the preparation and used for Dried and ground Bulbs Fruits Fruits seeds Seeds Tubers Tubers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Part used Part Fleshy roots Fleshy Young shoots Young Young shoots Young Leaves and fruits Leaves and fruits Leaves Leaves and fruits Leaves Leaves and seeds Leaves Young leaves, seeds leaves, Young Young shoots, leaves Young shoots, leaves Young Flowers and flowering buds and flowering Flowers Young shoots, flowers, pods shoots, flowers, Young Young shoots and leaves, male cones, male cones, shoots and leaves, Young .

.

L. L . L . (L.) Ruj L . L . L . Mill. (Willd.) DC (L.) Wild. sp. Agave Alcea rosea L . Alcea Smilax aspera Scientific name Scientific Plantago major Plantago Papaver rhoeas L. Papaver Malva sylvestris L. Malva sylvestris Malva parviflora Oxalis pes-caprae L. pes-caprae Oxalis Oxalis corniculata L . corniculata Oxalis Myrtus communis Myrtus communis Muscari comosum comosum Muscari Malva nicaeensis All. Malva nicaeensis Pinus halepensis Asparagus aphyllus Asparagus aphyllus (L.) Delile. nolotica Acacia Cistanche violacea (L.) Ruj violacea Cistanche Asphodelus microcarpus L. Asphodelus microcarpus Acacia farnesiana Acacia Glaucium corniculatum Glaucium corniculatum Syzygium guineense Syzygium Family Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Pinaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Oxalidaceae Oxalidaceae Mimosaceae Mimosaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Plantaginaceae Orobanchaceae 99 98 96 97 95 105 104 113 112 108 109 110 106 103 114 111 107 101 102 100 No.

36 Bereitgestellt von University of Kansas Libraries | Heruntergeladen 15.01.20 14:17 UTC EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY Eaten raw Eaten Eaten in salad Eaten Fruits eaten raw Fruits eaten Eaten raw or boiled raw Eaten Eaten raw or cooked or cooked raw Eaten Fruits sweet, eaten raw eaten Fruits sweet, Fruits sweet, eaten raw eaten Fruits sweet, raw eaten Fruits sweet, Fruits eaten raw or dried raw Fruits eaten Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Young shoots eaten with salad shoots eaten Young Eaten raw or cooked with meals or cooked raw Eaten Leaves used as a substitute for tea for used as a substitute Leaves Eaten with salad or cooked with meals with salad or cooked Eaten Eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable dish as a vegetable or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw with salad or cooked with meals with salad or cooked raw Eaten with meals with salad or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw with salad or cooked with meals with salad or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw with salad or cooked with meals with salad or cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw or in salad, or cooked with meals or in salad, cooked raw Eaten Eaten raw, cooked, or used in dough stuffing cooked, raw, Eaten Eaten raw, cooked, or used in dough stuffing cooked, raw, Eaten Pith eaten raw or used to make a sweet juice a sweet make or used to raw Pith eaten Eaten raw, as a salad, or cooked as vegetable dish as vegetable as a salad, or cooked raw, Eaten Leaves and buds eaten in salad or used to make tea make in salad or used to and buds eaten Leaves Rhizome boiled and eaten or ground to make bread make to or ground boiled and eaten Rhizome Stem Stem Fruits Fruits Fruits Seeds Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Part used Part Whole plant Young shoots Young Young shoots Young Young flowers flowers Young Stem and leaves Stem Whole young plant Whole young Young leaves and fruits leaves Young Leaves and young shoots and young Leaves Leaves and young shoots and young Leaves Young leaves, flowering buds, fruits flowering leaves, Young

. . .

.

L .

L. L. L’Her. L . Scop. L. (L.) Spach. L. (L.) Peas. (Car.) Train (Car.) Forssk (L.) Camp sp. (L.) Lam. sp. Rubus Setaria Setaria Crataegus sp. Crataegus Rumex crispus Rumex Rumex pulcher L. Rumex Scientific name Scientific Rumex acetosa acetosa Rumex Rumex vesicarius Rumex Rumex tingitanus tingitanus Rumex Rumex pictus Rumex Ranunculus ficaria Ranunculus ficaria Portulaca oleracea L. oleracea Portulaca Zizphus Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculus muricatus Sanguisorba minor Emex spinosus Emex Saccharum officinarum Saccharum Calligonum comosum Ochradenus baccatus Delile Ochradenus baccatus Sorghum halepensis Ziziphus spina-christi (L.).Willd Ziziphus spina-christi Phragmitis australis Sarcopoterium spinosum Sarcopoterium Family Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Resedaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Portulacaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae 128 129 132 134 133 127 130 131 135 125 126 136 124 120 123 118 119 121 122 117 116 115 No.

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. Eaten raw Eaten raw Eaten Eaten raw Eaten Figure 1. Number and percentage of the parts used. Cooked like spinach like Cooked Mode of consumption Mode of consumption Shoots cooked with meals Shoots cooked Cooked with meals as a vegetable Cooked Cooked with meals as a vegetable Cooked with meals as a vegetable Cooked

Pollen used as a substitute of flour used as a substitute Pollen Table 3. Mode of consumption Seeds used as a substitute for coffee for Seeds used as a substitute potatoDried rhizome ground to make bread make to ground rhizome potatoDried Mode of consumption No. of species %

Fresh rhizome eaten raw, fried, or cooked as a substitute for as a substitute fried, or cooked raw, eaten rhizome Fresh Raw 90 35.7 spikes ground to make bread and cakesMature seeds roasted and cakesMature bread make to ground spikes Young shoots eaten raw or friedYoung spikes boiled or friedDried spikes or friedYoung raw shoots eaten Young Cooked 56 22.2

Salad 41 16.2

Spice 13 5.1

Roasted 9 2.3

Boiled 8 3.2 Fruits Fruits Leaves Part used Part Whole plant Young leaves Young Young leaves Young leaves Young Mature fruits Mature Tea 8 3.2 Young shoots, fruits Young Bread and cakes 8 3.2

Fried 7 2.8

Coffee 5 2.0

Juice 4 1.6

. Sweets 3 1.2 . Kuntz L.

L . L.

be eaten raw directly, or in salad, or can be cooked with veg- Urtica urens L. Urtica Urtica dioica L. dioica Urtica Typha latifolia latifolia Typha Scientific name Scientific Galium aparine Urtica pilulifera L. pilulifera Urtica Solanum nigrum

Physalis angulata L. angulata Physalis etable meals (Tables 1 and 3; Figure 2). (Forssk.) Sscher (Forssk.) Nitraria retusa Tetragonia tetragonoides tetragonoides Tetragonia 3. DISCUSSION Although rural people have been consuming wild plants for a long time, it is not yet known that many wild plants are con- sumed as edible plants, and our cultural heritage and tradi- tional use of these plants are not recorded by ethnobotanical studies; therefore, this study is the first attempt to document edible wild plants in Libya. Family

Rubiaceae The study revealed that approximately all household Typhaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Tetragoniaceae Tetragoniaceae Zygophyllaceae members were involved in the collection and consumption of edible wild plant species. This helps to ensure the mainte- nance of indigenous knowledge associated with edible wild plant species. Many research studies were conducted which 137 138 139 140 141 143 142 144 145 No. revealed that the edible wild plants are rich in carbohydrates,

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.

Figure 2. Mode of consumption

proteins, vitamins, and mineral salts that can maintain good The informants rated agricultural land expansion, health and prevent various diseases (Berihun and Molla, 2017). mainly due to increasing demand for arable land due to increas- However, in general, there is a decline in the consumption ing human population, as the principal threat to edible wild of edible wild plant species that were used during periods of plant species diversity; other important factors are overgrazing, drought and famine. The local knowledge about the nutritional uncontrolled fire setting, and overharvesting and overexploita- composition and side effects of the edible wild plant species tion of edible wild plants. The introduction of new grazing land is very scanty, and little is known about the undesirable side due to high livestock density has possibly resulted in overgraz- effects such as toxicity originating from the edible wild plants ing of large areas. Similarly, the informants claimed fuel wood (Polat et al., 2015). Apart from their food value, most of the collection to be equally hazardous as overgrazing in threatening identified edible wild plant species are used for other different edible wild plant species. An uncontrolled fire setting was also purposes. The local people harvest edible wild plants not only another major threat to wild plant species. It was observed that for food, but also for medicinal purposes, construction, fire- many woody species were severely affected by such fires where wood, and furniture. Thus, this has led to a high level of threats the tree and shrub stands decline and some are completely to the edible wild plant species. burnt and made to disappear.

References

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