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Developmental Psychology HANDBOOK of DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Jaan Valsiner and Kevin J. Connolly SAGE Publications London’ Thousand Oaks’s New Delhi 21 Adult Cognitive Development: Dynamics in the Developmental Web KURT FISCHER, ZHENG YAN and JEFFREY STEWART Adulthood normally spans more than 60 years, LADDERS AND WEBS: META-METAPHORS starting from aboutage 20, andthecognitive changes OF ADULT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT during those years are vast. Accumulated evidence indicates that cognitive development in adulthood is rich, complex, and dynamic, perhaps even more so The history of science shows that differeirt mets- than in infancy and childhood, with many factors metaphors functioning as central mental models have acting together in various contexts to produce had tremendous impact on scientific thinking (for systematic, dynamic variation. For instance, it can bc example, viewing the earth as the center of the observed that adults frequently show regression universe, seeing the spiral as the structure of DNA, performances and move down to lower levels of consideringthe personas adigital computer). Like- cognitive skill and then construct higher levels, wise, different meta-metaphors drive fundamental instead of always following a simple forward viewsof adult cognitive development. We categorize progression. This kind of backward transition two major types of meta-metaphors for adult phenomenon in adult cognitive processes shows an development — ladders and webs which engender interesting and important cognitive advancement, different portraits of adult cognitive development. one that may seem frustrating and counter-intuitive Developmental ladders characterize development to manyintelligent adults. as a simple fixed progression, following monotonie Backward transition is just the tip ofthe large ice- change, with one step following another in a single bergofcomplex cognitive development in adulthood. direction. As shown in Figure 21.1, the develop- In this chapter, we reframe adult cognitive develop- mental ladder-like trajectory has at least three ment dynamically. resynthesizing research findings features: (1) development simply follows a single to revealthe complex dynamics behind the variability straight line; (2) each step is fixed, following the in adult cognitive development, and reexamine the previous step alongthe line; and(3) forward progres- limitations oftraditional cognitive analyses (Fischer, sion along the line is the sole fonn of development. 1980b; Fischer & Bidell, 199$; Valsiner, 1991; van Piagefs (1983) cognitive developmental model, Geert, 1994). A constructed web (like that built in as it is us~sallyunderstood, is one of the most nature by a spider) serves as the meta-metaphor for common ladder-like models of human cognitive development, and from the weh we elaborate three development (although Piaget himself had a more Important typesofdynamic pattemsin adult cognitive dynamic view, as in Piaget, 1975). According to this development: dynamic ranges, dynamic strands and model, thinking progresses througha series ofstages networks, and dynamic constructions. With these and then stops at the level of formal operations Concepts, we begin to capture the richness and coin- during adolescence. Many scholars have built upon Plexity of adult cognitive development and to offer a this Piagetian framework by extending the model new story abotit what, how, and why adult cognitive vertically or horizontally in adulthood, adding development takes place over time. more stages or more unevenness across domains 492 DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOL) development, like child cognitive development, ash FINISH static progressive process unfolding along aseries ~ fixed ladder steps, either through stages or through~ linear ability scales. In short, this meta-metaphordoh~ simplify complex developmental phenomena and sketch general developmental trends, but at th~ expense of neglecting, downplaying, and even mis- representing the variability and richness of adult cognitive development. In contrast, developmental webs portray adult cognitive development as a complex process of dynamic construction within multiple ranges in Single multiple directions. As illustrated in Figure 21.2, the Trendline of developmental web has at least three important Development features: (I) development occurs in acomplex multi- in One Fixed Steps level range; (2) developmental pathways undergo Direction dynamictransformation throughmultiple strands or network links; and (3) multidireetional construction is the form of development. Dynamic skill theory (Fischer & Bidell, 1998) analyzes development as involving a constructed web that captures much of the rich variability in human behavior. Central to the variability, it tums out, is the fact that activities take place in specific START contexts. People do not act in a void. Growing adaptively in a dynamic world with various social, emotional, technological, and physical challenges Figure 21.1 A developmental ladder means that behavior must fit the immediacy of the situation. For adescription ofdevelopment that aims at both rigor and honesty, these contexts cannot be (Alexander et a!., 1990; Baltes, 1987; Basseches, ignored. A web captures the interconnected com- 1984; Berg, 2000; Commons et al., 1998; Dawson, plexity of skills in diverse contexts, as shown in 1999; Erikson, 1968; Gardner, 1983; Gruber, 1981; Figure 21.2. Each web contains distinct strands for Kegan. 1982; King & Kitehener, 1994; Kohlberg, differentcontexts andactivities, sometimes converg- 1969; 1984; Loevinger, 1976; Sinnott, 1998). These ing through coordination, sometimes diverging models either have substantially expanded Piaget’s through separation or differentiation, always built model along the vertical dimension by adding higher through specific sensorimotor and mental activities. cognitive stages such as post-formal operations and Emotional states also shape strands, such as the advanced reflective thinking, or have extended separation of positive and negative activities (good Piagets model along the horizontal dimension by and bad, nice and mean, approach and avoidance). including more eognitivç domains such as moral The web metaphor stresses that many components reasoning and self-understanding. contribute to ally activity, producing diverse shapes Other models that are grounded primarily in of development. A person acts interactively, engaged psychometric research, such as standardized ability with his or her many environments, and the action testing, often haveacknowledgedphenomena similar process is dynamic and nonlinear because the to Piagetian stages, but have emphasized certain outcome of an action involves more than adding upward anddownward general developmental trends together the behavior of the individual and the associatedwith age on standardized tests of abilities environmental components that contribute to it. (Baltes, 1987; Birren, 1964; 1970; Craik, 1977; Craik Specifically, each person constructs a unique web, & Salthouse, 199!; Horn, 1982; Horn & Cartell, while at the same time ordering principles help 1967; Salthouse, 1984; 1992; Sternherg, 1985). generalization across individual webs. Some abilities, such as crystallized intelligence, The web also incorporates skill variation within increase well into old age, while others, such as fluid each strand. Eachstrand is structured by a composite intelligence, begin to decrease by early or middle of available levels — the developmental range — with adulthood. reference to the experiences and contextual supports These various developmental models have sub- that contribute to its construction, For any single stantially added to knowledge of cognitive develop- domain of action(single strand), a person’s compe- mental changes and variations in adults, but all tence is not fixed at a particular point on the strand of them, to differing degrees, share an underlying but can vary along a portion of the strand. Practice ladder-like meta-metaphor. They treatadult cognitive and familiarity with a domain, contextual support for ADULT COGNITJyE DEVETClEMENT:DYNAMICS IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL WEB 493 multiple strands 0 a, > ‘I, a, -na a E 0) a -c0 a,C E a 0 a, a,> ~0 Figure 21.2 A developmental web complex activity, andjoint participation with others Rethinking adult cognitive development requires all affect the level of a person’s activities along a establishing newmeta-metaphors to replace old meta- strand. Each single strand shows the developmental metaphors. Developmental webs can capture more range in skill and knowledge of the individual for of the richness and complexity of adult cognitive that particular task and domain given varying development than ladders. As a powerful meta- amounts ofexperience and contextual support. Later metaphor, the web can facilitate better understanding in the chapter we will elaborate how this variability of what, how, and why adults’ cognition changes in can be integrated into the web metaphor. complex situations overtheextremelylong period of Conceptually, the developmentalweb differs from life after childhood. a developmental ladder in at least six important ways: I The web places variation in activity at center DYNAMICRANGES IN TFIE WEB stage, whereas the ladder downplays variation, relegating itto marginality as error or individual differences, Research shows that the complexity levels of adult 2 The web is based on individual cognitive cognition continueto change in two important ways. performance, whereas the ladder is primarily First, for the same cognitive
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