Opportunities for Marine Sequestration of Dioxide

Christopher D. Barry SNAME, Panel EC-12

The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or New York, NY official policy of the Coast Guard or the Department of March 20 2018 Homeland Security.

Overview . Global Warming / The . The “Hail Mary” Option . Physical Options . Biological Approaches • Fertilization • Upwelling • OTEC • Kelp • Aeration . Manufacture of Fuel or Feedstocks At Sea . Economics Needed – Carbon Credits / Taxes . Other “Moving Parts” . Major Marine Infrastructure Is Needed . Summary

Opportunities for Marine 2 Sequestration of

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. The Greenhouse Effect Ruh Roh! Scooby Doo . Discovered by Fourier; Tyndale: Role of CO2, H2O o o . Ahrrenius, 1890s, Doubling CO2 = 7 –9 F Rise • Thermal Equilibrium Based on Radiative Heat Transfer • Sun Radiates at ~ 5,778oK; Peak Wavelengths Around 0.6 m • Earth Radiates at ~ 270oK; Peak Wavelengths > 10 m

– Diatomic Molecules (O2, N2) More Transparent Due to Limited Modes of Vibrations, High Natural Frequencies

– Triatomic + (CO2, H2O, CH4, HFC, HClC) Molecules Absorb IR: Many Modes, Lower Frequencies . Simple Calculation Shows Earth Would Be About -18oC Without The Greenhouse Effect o – Historic Levels of CO2 ~ 280 PPM (0.028%) ~ 10 C Average – Current Levels of CO2 ~ 390 PPM – Much Oversimplified Calculation, (Ahrrenius Was More Accurate) Draw a line from -18oC at 0 to ~10oC at 280 and extend it to 390! Opportunities for Marine 3 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Spectra Compared Inbound: 5,778o K 1 m: 1000 nm . Peak at ~600 nm 10 m: 10,000 nm (0.6 m) . CO2 Bands in Low Energy Region . Most of Available Gets To Sea Level Outbound: ~ 270o K . Peak at > 10 m . CO2, H2O Bands in Peak Energy Region . Much Less Radiated Than Black Body Opportunities for Marine 4 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. The Carbon Cycle . About 7x1012 kg Anthropogenic Carbon / Yr • 5.5x1012 kg Fossil Fuel • 1.5x1012 kg Agricultural . About 700x1012 kg In Atmosphere As CO 12 2 • 2.1 Billion Tonnes C – 2.1 x 10 kg (Not CO2) is 1 PPM . Terrestrial Vegetation Roughly Neutral . Ocean Sequestration: 3x1012 kg / Yr • 100x1012 In/Yr, 97x1012 Out . Deep Ocean Storage: 33,000x1012 kg 12 . Sedimentation, RDOM, CaC03: 0.1x10 kg / Yr . Net Gain, 4x1012 kg / Yr – 0.6% Increase • Minus Increased Shallow Ocean Take-up) • Causing Acidification

Opportunities for Marine 5 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Coal . Huge Amounts of Carbon Sequestered During Carboniferous Era (290 – 354 MyrA – 64 Myr) • Trees Evolved to Produce Lignin (A Biopolymer of Phenol, Not Sugar) • Bacteria Couldn’t Break Down Lignin • Lignin Was Buried, Became Coal

• Earth’s Atmosphere Became 30%+ O2 • A Potential Lesson?

. World Coal Consumption 2016: Paul R. Tregurtha downbound from 5,537 Mtce ~ 5.54x1012 kg ~ 1.1 Mile3 Duluth/Superior seaport w/ 63,000 LT of coal, to be burned in an Indiana powerplant • Cover Central Park 4,500 Ft. Deep in 18 hours . 1 kg Coal = 3.6 kg CO2 = 28,000 Btu; 7,800 Btu / kg CO2 . 1 kW-hr of Electricity From Coal ~ 1.3 kg CO2

Opportunities for Marine 6 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Oil, Natural Gas . Oil: • Produced Mainly From Marine Sediments of Diatoms, , Phytoplankton, etc., Especially Species That Store Lipids – (Not Dead Dinosaurs) • A Sea is Closed Off, Sediments Become Anoxic, Are Buried, Heat and Pressure Make Petroleum • Conventional Oil Then Flows Into a Geologic Trap • World Consumption 2016: 35 Billion BBL ~ 1 Mile3 – A Reservoir is Described By Era, Rock Type and Trap Type: “Permian Sandstone Salt Dome” (Common West Texas “Play”)

• Less Carbon, CO2 / Btu: 13,500 Btu / kg CO2 . Natural Gas: • Occurs With Both Oil and Coal, From Hydrocarbons Driven Off Coal or Oil, or Broken Down By Too Much Heat and Pressure • World Consumption 3.5 Trillion Cubic Meters

• Even Less Carbon / Btu: 18,500 Btu / kg CO2 = 1 kW / 0.42 kg CO2

Opportunities for Marine 7 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Decarbonize . Minimize Use of Fossil Fuels, Especially Coal . Improve Energy Efficiency: Low Hanging Fruit • Find Alternatives For Other Uses: Metallurgical Coal, Concrete . Improve Agricultural Practices . Alternative Renewable Energy

• Solar: PV, Thermal, Direct H2; Biofuels, Wind, Hydrokinetic, OTEC . Alternative Energy Transport, Storage

• Batteries, Stored Hydro, LNG/ANG/CNG, Hydrogen, NH3, Thermal • 100% Alternative Energy May Not Be Economical . Advanced Nuclear Fission • Small Modular Reactors, Fast Breeders, Thorium Cycle . Fusion: “30 years from now for the last 50 years” • Laser Ignition, Advanced Tokomaks, Exotic Systems . Decarbonization Possible, But We Have To Survive

Opportunities for Marine 8 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. “Stabilization Wedges” . "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the next 50 Years with Current Technologies” S. Pacala and R. Socolow, Science, 8/13/04. . A Useful Tool For Understanding Carbon Control

. Each Wedge Is 1 Billion Tonnes C (Not CO2) / yr

. 15 Wedges: Constant Level of Emissions (Not Total CO2) (But We Need Reduction …)

Opportunities for Marine 9 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The “Hail Mary” Option . Sequestration Isn’t Necessarily The Best Option But . Decarbonization Isn’t Coming On Line In Time • Lots Of Infrastructure Needs To Be Replaced . May Be More Economical Than Some Renewables . Climate Change May Be Proceeding Too Fast . Probably Will Be Part Of A Mix Of Solutions . Some Renewables May Include Sequestration Current Projections Require Negative Emissions To Meet Maximum 2oC Warming

Opportunities for Marine 10 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Physical Options . Deep Ocean Liquid or Clathrate / Hydrate Injection . Basalt Injection st • 1 Problem Is Separating CO2 From The Atmosphere • Ongoing Research and Improvements In Carbon Dioxide Separation . May Use Power Plant Emissions Directly • This Is Just Barely Carbon Neutral • May Need Pipelines, Requires Energy, Generally Expensive – $15 / Tonne ? – But Q45 Tax Credits! . Powered By Ocean Renewable Energy? . Making Fuel At Sea From Ocean Renewable Energy • Wave, Wind, OTEC

• CO2 is More Concentrated in Seawater • Solves The Problem of Stranded Energy • Again, Only Carbon Neutral • Energy Intensive Chemicals Instead?

Opportunities for Marine 11 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Deep Ocean Injection I

. As Liquid: o 0oC CO2 At 2 C / 4,000 PSI Is Denser Than Seawater . 9,000 Feet Down! 4oC . CO At 2o C, Liquefies 2 o At 532 PSI 2 C

. Pools of Liquid CO2 In the Deep Ocean 10oC . Energy Cost To Liquefy And Pump . Potential Leaks – Acidification

Opportunities for Marine 12 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Deep Ocean Injection II

. As Clathrate / Hydrate:

CO2 Trapped In Matrix of Ice - Sinks . Much Lower Pressure Requirements: 1400 Ft. . Made By Mixing Liquid

CO2 And Water . Has Been Tested At Sea . May Also “Leak”

Opportunities for Marine 13 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Basalt Injection . Basalt: Volcanic Ca, Na, K Silicates & Quartz

. Basalt + Seawater + CO2 + Pressure = Carbonate Minerals: Aragonite/Calcite (CaCO3) + Heat . Deep Sea Basalt = Seawater & Pressure . Much Less Depth, Much Less Energy Required . Doesn’t Leak: Locked In Mineral Form . Some Controversy Associated With The Science

. Successful Test in Iceland: 250 tonnes CO2, • 95% Became Calcite in 2 Years 86 Days 1334 Days

Opportunities for Marine 14 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Deep-Sea Basalt Regions

. Proposed Project Off NJ 70 M Offshore, 600 Ft. Deep • The Palisades are Basalt . Other Sites: Washington; Oregon Coast . Hundreds Of Years Of ©2008 by National Academy of Sciences Storage Capacity Opportunities for Marine 15 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Fuel Production At Sea . Use Ocean Energy (Waves, Wind, OTEC) To Make Hydrogen • Progress In Efficient, Inexpensive Electrolysis via Nano Catalysts

. Use CO2 In Seawater And Hydrogen To Make Or Alcohols (Ethanol, Butanol) Or NH3 . Use Methane To Make Hydrocarbon Fuels . Why? • Use Stranded Energy

• CO2 Much More Concentrated In Seawater (Especially Deep Water From OTEC) . No End Of Practical Questions . Decarbonization Strategy: Still Only Carbon Neutral, No Net Sequestration

Opportunities for Marine 16 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Biological Sequestration

. Ocean Is The Major Sink For CO2 . Biological Uptake Is The Conduit • Mainly Via Sedimentation Of , Etc. • The (N, P; May Limit Takeup) . Tropical Ocean Fertility Very Small • 100 mg Carbon Takeup / m2 / yr • Tropical Water Is Nutrient Poor: Deep Cold Water Traps Nutrients • Nitrates, P, Fe Limited . Approaches: • “Geritol Option” – Iron Fertilization • Upwelling: Lovelock & Rapley (Nature, 09/07) • Kelp Farming / Kelp Forest Restoration • Littoral Aeration

Opportunities for Marine 17 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The

. Plants on the Surface Use Solar Energy to Take Up CO2 • Microalgae (Phytoplankton, Diatoms), Macroalgae (Kelp); Some Die and Sink • Animals Consume Algae, Some Die and Sink, Some Get Eaten – At Each Stage Substantial Mass Is Chitin (A Sugar Biopolymer), Some is Lipids, (Copepods, Diatoms) Which May Become Oil – Chitin Is Hard to Biodgrade, So Some Gets Into The Deeps, Becomes Refractory Dissolved Organic Material (RDOM)

– But Chitin is (C8H13O5N)n, Almost Exactly The Redfield N Ratio So Some N Needed For Plant Growth Goes Down Too

– Some Becomes CaCO3 = Limestone (Some Disassociates) – Some Carbon Goes Down With Siliceous Diatoms, Is Trapped

• Most N Stays Near Surface (Marine Animals Excrete NH3, Not Urea) • Enough For Continued Plant Growth? • What About Phosphorus?

Opportunities for Marine 18 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Ocean Biological Pump

“Improving the Efficiency of the Ocean’s Biological Carbon One common aggregating phytoplankton is Pump”David M. Karl “and friends” Botryococcus Brauni, which may be the major University of Hawaii contributor to fossil oil as well as a source for biofuels.

Opportunities for Marine 19 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The Redfield Ratio . Most Ocean Water, Most Biological Tissue Is Near The Redfield Ratio . May Limit Biological Sequestration . Carbon To Nitrogen To Phosphorus • Originally 106 C: 16 N: 1 P, Now 117 C: 14 N: 1 P – Maybe 166 C: 20 N: 1 P • Extended Redfield Ratio- 106 C: 16 N: 1 P: 0.1-0.001 Fe • Diatoms: Redfield-Brzezinski Ratio- 106 C: 15 Si: 16 N: 1P . May Be A General Average Rather Than A Requirement . Phytoplankton Can Vary From The Redfield Ratio . Biological Fixing Depends On Available Nutrients • Especially As Regards N, P • N, P Pollution From Shore is Another Problem And Maybe A Solution

Opportunities for Marine 20 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Chlorophyll Levels In The Pacific

Low Biological Productivity of Tropic Waters Despite High Solar Energy

Opportunities for Marine 21 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

“Geritol” Option . Theory Is That Lack Of Trace Amounts of Iron Is The Problem . (See Extended Redfield Ratio) . Early Experiments In Iron Fertilization Not Clear Regarding Ultimate Sequestration (Sinking) • 50% or 5% Carbon Sequestered? • “Political Issues” From Early Efforts • “Large Scale” Experiments Banned “The Iron Hypothesis isn’t wrong, but it’s much more subtle than usually stated. Achieving optimum carbon sedimentation from plankton growth may require the right “recipe” of iron and other trace nutrients to grow the right kind of phytoplankton, … “You can grow a lot of Brussels sprouts, but kids won’t eat it. The same appears to be the case with diatom phytoplankton and zooplankton. It’s the zooplankton community that determines carbon sedimentation.” Jim Bishop, Carbon Explorers Project Opportunities for Marine 22 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. HNLC Iron Fertilization

. High Nitrogen, Low Chlorophyl Regions . Added Iron Produces Bloom; • In Bottle Experiments In MidScale Experiments . Unresolved issues • –C:Fe stoichiometry • –C export ?? • –Unexpected ecosystem

consequences (CH4, N2O production) • –Patch-to-system scaling considerations

“Improving the Efficiency of the Ocean’s Biological Carbon Pump” David M. Karl “and friends” University of Hawaii Opportunities for Marine 23 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Upwelling . Tropical Upwelling (Humboldt / Peru Current) • 1.8 kg Carbon / m2 / yr 2 • 6.8 kg CO2 / m / yr . Artificial Upwelling . Wave Powered Pumps Humboldt Current . But – Deep Seawater Already

Has Substantial CO2 . Redfield Ratio: C May Just Cycle Up And Down – No Net Takeup • However, Phytoplankton May Exhibit “Super Redfield Ratio” Growth . Artificial Upwelling Is Also a Controversial Solution • One Study Suggests It Might Only Provide “One Wedge” • Also Location, Species, Chemistry Dependent

Opportunities for Marine 24 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. The Questions

. What Is The Level Of Nutrients Vice CO2 Release? • How Does This Vary With Depth? • How Does This Vary With Location? • How Does This Vary With Season? . How Do The Nutrients Mix? . What Optimizes Biological Takeup?

• How Much Becomes CaCO3? • How Much Becomes Chitin or Lipids, Then RDOM, POM? • How Much N, P is Lost to the Depths, Limiting Further Growth? • How Much Becomes Locally Accessible Carbon? • How Does This Vary With Local Species? (Copepods, Diatoms) • Diatoms: Important Role, But Also Need Silicon . What Is The Effect Of Increased BOD? . How Do We Design & Build Equipment? . How Much Does It Cost? Opportunities for Marine 25 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Wave Powered Artificial Upwelling . Most Artificial Upwelling Schemes Use Wave Power • Works In Cold Water • Relatively Unsophisticated Devices Tested So Far – Jerk Pumps, Overtopping Devices • Test Devices Haven’t Survived • Limited Amounts of Water Pumped . A Specific Opportunity for Engineers • State of the Art Wave Energy Devices Much More Efficient • State of the Art Pumps Much More Efficient • Upwelling Cold Water Pipe May Provide Reference For WEC • Solves The Problem of Exporting Stranded Energy? • May Be Combined With Other Energy / Cold Water Uses – BitCoin Mining / Server Farms at Sea + Carbon Credits Can Google, Microsoft and Amazon Save The Earth? Opportunities for Marine 26 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. OTEC

. Ocean Thermal Energy Makai Ocean Engineering . Heat Engine Running Between Surface Water (30o +C) and Deep Cold Water (2o +C)

• Poor Thermal Efficiency Carnot = (Thot –Tcold) / Thot (In Kelvin) ( 303o K – 275 o K ) / 303o K = 9% (At Best) • Engineering Issues: Cold Water Pipe, Biofouling Heat Exchangers, Highly Efficient Pumps, Turbines, Heat Exchangers … • Ongoing Research and Trials Opportunities for Marine 27 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

OTEC Upwelling - The Opportunity If Upwelling Alone Works . Prodigious Amounts Of Cold Water: 15 m3 / s / MW . Depending On Dilution Scenarios, Etc. (Best Case) 7 10,000 Tonnes (1x10 kg ) CO2 / MW / yr . 1 Wedge: 3.6 Billion Tonnes CO2 / yr For 360,000 MW . OTEC Plant ~ $5,000,000 / MW (Very Best case) For €80,000 / MW Of Carbon Credits (2008 EU Price) • Alternate Uses For Stranded Energy: BitCoin Mining, Server Farms If Upwelling Effect Is Sufficient

. NH3 Fertilizer and Fish – “Solve World Hunger” . Does Upwelling Work In Tropic Waters? . Trade Offs Between Sequestration and Economics?

Opportunities for Marine 28 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Other OTEC Options . Energy for Ocean or Basalt Injection • Bringing Up Deep Water Lowers Pressure, Warms It • Dissolved Gases Come Off – Might Be Captured (Need To Warm Water Above Plant Thermodynamic Needs) • OTEC Provides Energy To Pressurize & Cool CO2 . OTEC Energy Could Provide NH3 For N Lost To Depths • Substantial Progress In Hydrogen and NH3 Synthesis Processes • (Limits Availability of Energy For Other Uses – Lost Revenue) • Need For Other Nutrient Supplementation? . Hybrid OTEC • Take CO2 Out of Cold Deep Water (CO2 Solubility >> 10% of Deep At Surface Temperature, Pressure) • Use OTEC Energy To Covert CO2 > CO > CH4 > Ethylene, or NH3 • Used OTEC Water: C Reduced Below Redfield Ratio NOW THE BIOLOGICAL PUMP WORKS !

Opportunities for Marine 29 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Hybrid OTEC

IUPAC: Ethene (CH2)2

Conventional OTEC Plant

Opportunities for Marine 30 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Littoral Aeration

. Use Marine Renewable Energy To Aerate Dead Zones • Wave Powered Pumps Surprisingly Effective . Increased Biological Activity Sequesters Carbon • Consider The Carbon Taken Up By The Historical Chesapeake Oyster Harvest; 10,000,000 40 Lb Bushels/Yr, 1900 Now Less Than 1% of Historic Yields . Plenty of Nutrients Due To Pollution

• But, Will RDOM In Dead Zone Become CO2? • Will Aerated Zones No Longer Reduce N Pollution? . New Finding: Dead Zones Produce Methane

• Much More Powerful Greenhouse Gas Than CO2 . Need More Science, Study, Research . Probably Needs To Be Carefully Monitored

Opportunities for Marine 31 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Kelp (Macroalgae) . Macrocystis spp. . Cooler Temperate or Arctic Waters, High Nutrients . Associated With Upwellings . Need Substrate . Annual and Perennial Species . Fronds Grow Kip Evans, NOAA From The Holdfast . Perennials: Holdfast Doesn’t Age . Fronds Grow 1’ 2’ Ft / Day Opportunities for Marine 32 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Kelp Farming . Kelp Is a Substantial • Artificial Farming Could Theoretically Cover All 15 Wedges • Artificial Kelp Farming Proven (Currently Small Scale, Shallow Water) • Ongoing Tests, Trials and Projects For

Deep Water: “The Ocean Food and Energy Project” http://w3.shorecrest.org • Current Ongoing DoE Work (USNA Capstone Projects) • May Help With N, P Pollution From Shore Sources • Bioengineered Kelp? • May Require Nutrients (From Artificial Upwelling?) In Deep Water • Not Proven How Much Is Sequestered Long Term • Will Require Artificial Structures In Deep Water • What Other Environmental Impacts? • Kelp to Fuel Is Approximately Carbon Neutral, Not Negative

Opportunities for Marine 33 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Natural Kelp Forests; Sea Otters

. Restoring Natural Kelp Forests (And Leaving Them Alone) • Sea Urchins Eat the “Holdfasts”, Kelp Dies • Hunting Sea Otters Decimated Pacific Kelp Forests Something We “Otter” • Current Otter Population Sequesters 4 – 8 Mtonne C Think About – Perhaps 1% Of “Natural” Population; 1/10th Wedge +

May Be Possible With Historic Otter Populations Marshall Hedin https://commons.wikimedia. • Low Cost Compared to Credits org/w/index.php?curid=661 • Impact of Pollution, Etc. on Otter Population 40539 – Otters Appearing With Feline Diseases – Discarded Kitty Litter – Drowning in Nets / Oil Spills, Shark / Orca Predation • Not Exactly Sure How To Promote Otter Recolonization • Artificial Otter Homes / Kelp Ranches?

Opportunities for Marine 34 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Artificial Floating Wetlands

. Sea Otters Like Shallows • Protection From Predators . National Aquarium Project In Baltimore Harbor Since 2010

Opportunities for Marine 35 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Plastic Kelp Sea Ranch? . Another Polymer; Like Lignin, It’s Hard to Eat • Plastic Pollution: Because It Doesn’t Biodegrade 11 • World Production 300 Million Tonnes / Yr ~ 5x10 Kg CO2 (1/3 Wedge) . Almost Exclusively Carbon, Hydrogen . Renewable Energy to Make Feedstocks . Farm Kelp At Sea With OTEC / Upwelling . Harvest Kelp – Make Methane Biologically . Convert Methane to Ethylene (Feedstock For Plastic) . Ship Ethylene Ashore, Make Plastic . Throw The Plastic Away • Or Better, Put it In A Landfill, Pump Slurries Into Mines, or Make Roads . It Stays Inert In The Environment For Millennia . (Distant Future Source Of Fossil Fuel?)

Opportunities for Marine 36 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Economics . Carbon Taxes, Carbon Credits, CCS Tax Credit: 45Q . Cap And Trade: Prices Rise As Caps Lowered . Depends On Competing Source Costs, Carbon • Price Of Oil, Natural Gas, Nuclear, Other Alternative Energy . Prices For Carbon Credits:

• 2008: € 8 / Tonne CO2 • 2018, California (Market) Exchange: $15 – $22 Tonne CO2 • New IRS 45Q CCS Credit: $50 / Tonne (CO2) Direct or $35, Reused – 2009: Was $20 / $10, Limited Total; Now Also Unlimited Total • Steiglitz: $40 Required by 2020 To Decarbonize Energy • Canada: To Set $ 50 CDN / Tonne By 2020 • One Wedge = $45 – $120 Billion . Many Sequestration Schemes Probably Very Expensive . Think About Business Models: Tax vs. Credits vs. ?

Opportunities for Marine 37 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Lots of Moving Parts

. Need More Research on Marine Biology, Chemistry . Need More Awareness of Marine Biology, Chemistry for Naval Architects, Ocean Engineers . Need Developments In Chemical Engineering (Catalysts) . Need to Work With Scientists, Oceanographers . Need More Ideas on Possible Schemes . Need To Work With Environmentalists . Need Supporting Public Policy (Talk to Activists) . Need Supporting Economics / Business Models . Need Lots of Engineering Details . Need Fuller Understanding of Environmental Impacts “It seemed like a good idea at the time.”

Opportunities for Marine 38 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Opportunities For The Marine Industry . Injection Schemes: Standard Oil Patch Operations “Making Hole In The Ocean” • Injection Platforms • Where Does The Energy Come From? • Injection Platforms With Wind Turbines / Wave Harvesters? . Standard Opportunities For OSV Fleets, Drilling Rigs, . Big Pipelines – Possibly At High Pressure . Biological Schemes: • Lots Of Small Units (To Be Designed, Built, Installed, Etc.) • Big OTEC Plants / Maybe Product Carriers • Wave Energy Harvesters, Upwelling Pumps, Aeration Pumps • Kelp Farm Structures, Harvesting Ships …

Opportunities for Marine 39 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

Nav Archs / Marine Engineers Ship builders are the true pioneers and great innovators in history… Buckminster Fuller Engineering for the oceans: A sunset profession or the dawn of a new era? Peter Noble, SNAME Texas Section 2018 . “A Mile Wide and an Inch Deep” . The Breadth of Disciplines Involved In Ship Design, Construction, and Operations Requires Wide Knowledge . The Requirement to Design and Integrate the Whole Ship Teaches Interactions and Connections . Innovation Comes From Seeing Interactions and Connections and Bringing Them Together . NA’s / ME’s Are In a Unique Position To Attack Problems of The Environment

Opportunities for Marine 40 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. Summary Don’t stop thinking about tomorrow… Fleetwood Mac Marine May Be A Substantial Contribution To Preventing Catastrophic Climate Change

. Not A Silver Bullet – Need Alternative Energy, Efficiency . May Be Opportunities For The Marine Industry . Depends On Carbon Credit Economics, Tax, Policy . Depends On Better Science, Engineering Details . Keep Thinking, Keep Alert For New Ideas Thank You For Listening Any Ideas? Opportunities for Marine 41 Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide

The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and are not to be construed as representing official policy of the U.S. Coast Guard. REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

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Bliss, M. Crans, C. Jung, M., Pixa, C. Smallberg, M., “Offshore Macro-Algae System for Bio-Ethanol Production”, United States Naval Academy, Senior Capstone Projects, April, 2017

David M. Karl, Ed., “Deciphering ocean carbon in a changing world”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, March 2016

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Wilmers, C., Estes, J., Edwards, M., Laidre, K., Konar, B., “Do Trophic cascades affect the storage and flux of atmosphereic carbon? An analysis of sea otters and kelp forests.”, Frontiersin Ecology and the Environment Oct. 2012

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Matthew B. Loomis, “CO2 Sequestration Strategies Using Coccolithophorid Algae Near Potential OTEC Plant Deployments” Massachusetts Maritime Academy January 2011

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ALGIX, “Formulating the Potential of Algae”, Kimberly-Clark Corporation, www.buyalgae.com

Peter Noble, ‘Why Civil Society Needs Engineers, Especially Naval Architects, Marine & Ocean Engineers” SNAME Texas Section, Jan 2018

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University of Portsmouth, “Iron Fertilization To Capture Carbon Dioxide Dealt A Blow: Plankton Stores Much Less Carbon Dioxide Than Estimated”, ScienceDaily, Jan. 2009 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090128183744.htm

University of Calgary “Could Ice-like Cages Be Used To Trap Carbon Dioxide Underground?”, ScienceDaily. 2009, January 14 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090114162235.htm

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And finally, for fun and inspiration, Clarke, The Deep Range, 1957 (available on Kindle and Audible from Amazon: ASIN: B00AHK95JU)