Chapter - V BUDDHIST EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT
5.1 Introduction
In the foregoing chapter, textual data on the Noble Eightfold Path was presented systematically and the thought conveyed in the Noble Eightfold Path was explored. This chapter will deal with Buddhist educational thought as depicted in the Noble Eightfold Path and its practical implications. The discussion will focus on the principles of education according to Buddhist thought. The chapter is concluded with the section on the relevance of Buddhist thought to contemporary education.
5.2 Educational Thought in Buddhist Tradition
In order to lay a foundation for the discussion on Buddhist thought of education, an overview of Buddhist concept of education and Buddhist approach to education is necessary. In this section, the discussion focuses on two main points: Buddhist approach to education and Buddhist concept of education. 5.2.1 Buddhist Approach to Education
As it is presented in the previous chapter, Buddhist thought began with the Buddha's teaching on the Noble Eightfold Path. This is the path which the Buddha discovered and decided to teach for the first time to a group of five persons, who had committed themselves to the search for meaning of life. And later, he taught this path to many.
From educational perspective, as it is indicated in the Buddha's first discourse, the Buddha himself intentionally described the Noble Eightfold Path and also named it as "the Middle Path." It is through this way of description and nomenclature that the Buddhist approach to education is revealed.
It has been shown that the two ways of living known to the Buddha at that time were self-indulgence and self-motification. They are rooted in two ideologies, namely, idealism and materialism. Responding to the two ideological extremes, Buddhist thought explains the existence of the universe and man with its own philosophy, and at the same time, it opens up an ideal path that avoids both the extremes. At the heart of Buddhist philosophical explanation are the principle of dependent-origination {paticcasamuppadd), the law of cause and effect (kamma), the theory of five aggregates (pancakkhandd), the four ennobling realities {catu- ariya-saccd). Together with this system of philosophy is the Middle Path {majjhima-paUpadd) which is introduced in the framework of the four ennobling truths.
It is revealed that Buddhist philosophy fundamentally deals with human nature and conditions. To be human is to encounter an inescapable predicament of life; and what human beings need is a sort of education that can help to minimize effects of the external predicament and actively transform the internal predicament.
For this kind of transformation, education has an important role to play and the Buddhist approach to education is critical and significant. The Buddhist approach to education is implicit indication rather than being clearly addressed to in the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path; however, in another context, the Buddha expressed it in details straightly. In responding to Kevaddha at Nalanda about his view on miracle, the Buddha said:
Kevaddha, there are three kinds of miracle, that 1 have myself understood, realised and made known to others. And what are the three? The miracle of psychic power, the miracle of telepathy, and the miracle of instruction.""
In this Siitta, the Buddha emphasised that he realised the danger of using psychic power and telepathy, and he claimed to reject them. His claim implied that he prasied and supported only the "miracle" of instruction. From this, it is clear that the Buddha was well aware of the hidden inner potential capacities, which each and everybody, without any discrimination, has by nature. The only thing
DN. 11.3 at DN I 212: T7ni kho imani, kevaddha, patiharivani maya sayam ahhinna sacchikatva paveditani. Katamani tlni? Iddhipatihariyain, adesanapcitihariyaui, anusasampatihariyam. See also AN.3.60 at AN I 167. 144 required for bringing it out and for its proper manifestation is the matter of instruction (amisdsani). It is evident that the Buddha beheved strongly in the efficacy and power of instruction. With instruction, one can use power of speech and behaviour to convince people to change their way of life, adopt new values and reset their new goals. The Buddha appeared to be progressive and innovative in that he upheld the miracle of instruction {anusasani-pdtihariya), when at his time most of the religious teachers resorted to magical performance to win disciples for themselves (Guruge, 2005, p. 125). Taking this account into consideration, Rhys Davids (1992, p. 272) wrote:
[C]ertain people, by reason of special (but quite natural) powers, could accomplish certain special acts beyond the power of ordinary men. These acts are eight in number... The Buddha is represented as not taking the trouble to doubt or dispute the fact of the existence of such powers. He simply says that he loathes the practice of them; and that a greater and better wonder than any or all of them is education in the system of self- training which culminates in Arahatship.
What the view of a western scholar shows is that at the heart of Buddhist tradition is an educational system, which gives importance to self-training. ^^
The Buddhist approach to education is also evident in that the Buddha intentionally engaged in the educational activity and declared that the practice of education can transform people and society.'" According to Buddhist thought, instruction (amisasanl) is a powerful lever {patihciriya) for the transition from immaturity to maturity, from imperfection to perfection, from ignorance to knowledge, from darkness to light.
'" The Buddha himself always engaged in this practice, as he claimed: "Let an intelligent person come to mc, sincere, honest and straightforward; I shall instruct him and teach the doctrine so that on my instructions he would conduct himself in such a way that before long he would know himself and sec himself" {MN.80.16 at MN 11 44: Etii vinnfi piiriso asatho amuyavl ii/iijcitiko. aluiiii aniisasanii. cihaiii clhanmuini desenii: yathanusittham tatha patipajjamcmo na cirass 'eva samanne hassati scimam clakkhiti.) 145 In short, the Buddhist approach to education is characterized by two main points: determination on the middle ground and reHance on the power of instruction. With this flexible approach of education, the Buddha was successful in guiding a great number of people at his time to learn valuable benefits from his teachings. With this effective approach of education, his Dhamma continues guiding people of all times to gain genuine values and enjoy true happiness of life.
5.2.2 Buddhist Concept of Education
Although there is a vast body of literature about what the concept of education is (Wilson, 2003, p. 102), it is very difficuh, even for philosophers of education, to get a clear comprehension of this concept (Hamm, 1989, p. 29).
In the East, the concept of education refers to the process of developing the potentials of man to the optimum level in order to enable him to lead a productive and happy life in society. It is concerned with the production of behavioural changes that are individually and socially desirable (Lohithakshan, 2002, p. 131). In India, education has always been regarded as a source of illumination and power, which transforms and ennobles human nature by the progressive and harmonious development of their physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual powers and faculties (Altekar, 1948, p. 8).
In the West, education is generally understood as a normative concept that denotes something (activity or process) which is intrinsically worthwhile. Being worthwhile is a basic criterion to which a series of activities must conform in order that such activities can properly be identified as educational activities (Gilroy, 1999, p. 24; Peters, 1966, p. 25). According to R. S. Peters (1970, p. 17), a family of processes is identified as educational to the extent that it is able to initiate people into what is worthwhile in some depth and width of understanding, or contribute to the development of desirable qualities in someone.
Regardless of the specific goals which education aims at, the notion of "worthwhileness" or "desirableness" is central to both Western and Eastern concept of education. The Buddhist concept of education also shares this central
146 value. When the Buddha decided to teach the Noble Eightfold Path to the group of five devoted truth-seekers, it was the Noble Eightfold Path that represented the most worthwhile learning item. According to Buddhist thought, this learning content ought to be understood and achieved by any human being who wishes to live a meaningful life.
Since the Buddha and true Buddhist practitioners have actively engaged in the process of teaching the Noble Eightfold Path, there is a good reason to argue that from its inception, Buddhist tradition could be properly identified as an educational tradition. Therefore, to study the Buddhist concept of education is to understand the worthwhileness of the Noble Eightfold Path and on what grounds it is conceived to be worthwhile. In other words, the process of transmitting the Noble Eightfold Path and the purpose of this transmission represent the Buddhist concept of education.
In the Sutta-pitaka, there are two terms which can be said to express the activities that are associated with the concept of education. They are sikkhd and anusdsanl.
Sikkha literally means 'study' or 'training' (PED). The Buddha often used this concept when he talked about learning or training oneself (sikkhati), guiding principles {sikkhdpadd) and training oneself in the guiding principles {sikkhdpadesu). In the Sutta-pitaka, these words are used frequently to signify educational processes involving the three main principles: sTla, samddhi, and pannd. It has been pointed out in the foregoing chapter that these three principles form an alternative pattern of the Noble Eightfold Path and the term sikkhd is used to name this threefold model of education {tisso-sikkhd or tisikkhd)} This reveals a close connection between the Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist concept of education.
"" DN.2.41 at DN I 63: Samadaya sikkhati sikkhapadesii (He adopts and trains himself in the precepts). See also SN V 187; It 118; Sn 962. "' In the Mahaparinibbcma-sntta (DN. 16.4.2 at DN II 122), the Buddha is represented to say that it is due to not understanding and fully comprehending the four things - morality, concentration, wisdom and liberation - that we wander aimlessly on in this world, caught between birth and death, and subject to innumerable sufferings. 147 While the term sikkha indicates the desirable activities that the individual is expected to do for his/her own sake, anusasam denotes the activities that the individual is expected to do for the benefit of others. Anusasam means 'instruction', 'advice' or 'teaching' (PED). The term anusasam appears repeatedly in the Suttas dealing with engagement in teaching the path of happiness to others. This is the task which the Buddha always emphasised. ' At times, engagement in teaching is taken as a criteria to value and appreciate individuals. According to the Khippanisanti-sutta (AN.4.97 at AN II 96-97) and the Sikkha-sutta (AN.4.99 at AN II 97-98), individuals who practise for the benefit of their own and others are highly appreciated. The Buddha appreciated those who are quick and sharp in observation, memorization and mastering the dhamma, able to examine and understand the meaning of the dhamma, and more importantly, instruct, inspire, incite, and gladden the learners (i.e. to teach) with appropriate language."^
Further, bhavana in Buddhist literature is also conceived under the term 'education.' Bhavana means "application, developing by means of thought or meditation, cultivation by mind" (PED). In the scheme of threefold training, bhavana refers to moral, emotional and intellectual development. They are three principles of education and actually they are three essential aspects of human being. According to Buddhist tradition, the practice of bhavana is concerned with mental cultivation (sarnddhi), peace {upasama), equanimity (nibhida), dispassion (virdga) and cessation of craving (nirodha), etc. All of these elements are essential aspects of human being and all are dealt with in Buddhist education.
' '^ AN.4.93 at AN II 92 and passim. "^ AN.4.97 at AN II 96-97: Ekacco puggalo khippanisanti ca hoti kiisalesu dhammesu, siitananca dhammanam dharakajatiko hoti, dhatananca dhammanam atthupaparikkhi hoti atthamannaya dhammamannaya, dhammanudhamma-ppatipcmno hoti; kalycmcivaco ca hoti kalycinavakkarano poriya vacaya samcmnagato vissatthaya anelagalaya atthassa virtnapuniyu, sandassako ca hoti samadapako samiittejako sampaharnsako .sahrahinacarJnam. Evam kho, hhikkhave, puggalo attahitaya ceva palipanno hoti parahitciya ca. line kho, hhikkhave, cattaro puggala santo samvijjamcma lokasmi 'nti. 148 In addition, the importance of attention, interest and motivation was discussed scatteredly in the Sutta-pitaka and this also contributes to make the concept of education significant in Buddhist thought.
In fact, the Buddhist concept of education is inter-weaved with the threefold training and the Noble Eightfold Path. While cognitive development is a criterion for justifying the worthwhileness in Buddhist education, the moral and emotional values set another criterion for that worthwhileness.
It should be noted here that in Buddhist thought, knowledge cannot develop and reach the highest level unless it stands on a sound foundation of moral and emotional bases. Besides, the well-structured programme for practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, and the threefold training is also a salient feature in the procedural sense of the Buddhist concept of education. It is the combination of cognitive development and moral-emotional foundation that makes Buddhist education a holistic scheme. Of course, this scheme is to be carried out (learnt and practised) throughout one's life. It is, therefore, a holistic and lifelong education.
5.3 Buddhist Principles of Education
This section is devoted to the analysis of principles of education based on an account in the Culavedalla-sutta and expositions scattered in the Sutta-pitaka related to education and the Noble Eightfold Path.
As it has been reviewed in the chapter II, Buddhist education played an important role in the development of education in ancient India (Altekar, 1948, p. 233). Various aspects of Buddhist education have been studied to a great extent by Radha Mookherji (1947), except the basic principles of Buddhist education. This unexpected "exception" leads to a "disappointing status" (Altekar, 1934, p. 325) regarding the basic principles of Buddhist education. This disappointing status remains the same until now although for the last decades, some attempts (Mayer, 1960; Guruge, 1990) have been made to investigate the Buddhist principles of education.
149 Frederick Mayer (1960, p. 40) and Ananda Guruge (1990, p. 27) acknowledge, with very little and unsatisfactory textual evidences, that the Buddha was a philosopher and educator of great depth and penetration. It is the fact that there must have been a number of significant principles operating behind the tremendous development of Buddhist education through the ages. It seems that the failure in inquiring and constructing a system of Buddhist thought of education lies in the paucity of authentic evidences and documents in the field.
In this respect, the Buddhist thought reflected in the Noble Eightfold Path which has been explored with rich reference to the authentic sources may help to fill up this gap. A hint is found in the Culavedalla-sutta (MN.44.11 at MN 1 301) where the eight factors of the middle path are grouped into three practices: moral character-building (sTla), cultivation of balanced mind (samddhi) and development of wisdom {pahha). It is probably based on this evidence that Dipak Barua said that slla, samadhi and panPid are the main contents of the Buddha's mass education (1966, pp. 120ff). Ian Johnson (2002) also agreed with Dipak Barua in saying that sTla, samadhi and pahha make up the principles of lifelong learning in Buddhist tradition. In Damien Keown's words, these are the principles for intellectual, emotional, and moral self-restructuring and self-reorienting towards aspiring individual and social fulfilments (1996, p. 54).
Using educational terminology with reference to the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, associated with each principle as it is revealed in the Culavedalla- sutta (MN.44), adhi-slla-sikkhd, adhi-citta-sikkhd and adhi-pahhd-sikkhd can be rendered as care-oriented principle of education, peace-oriented principle of education and awakening-oriented principle of education respectively."^
There are two minor linguistic differences regarding the usage of terms for principles of education in this context. The first is the usage of citta instead of
'"' Traditionally, adhisllasikkha means higher training in good practices; adhicittasikkha means higher training in mind; and adhipahhdsikkha means higher training in insight (Premasiri, 2007, p. 121). In Buddhist literature, citta-sikkha and samadhi-slkkha are used interchangeably to refer to the cuhivation of mind, and they are often mentioned in short as slla-sikkha, samadhi-sikkha and pafina-sikkha. 150 samddhi for mental cultivation, and the other is the addition of suffix adhi- which means higher or better (PED) to each principle. These minor differences may indicate a tendency in the Buddha's thought of education: it is the process of awakening of knowledge {pariria) and consciousness (citta), though they make no change in the basic meaning of education (Buddhaghosa, trans. 1959, p. 3).
By 'principle' in this rendering, the researcher of this study means that it connotes both conceptual understanding of the path and experiential insight, which one can achieve through the process of practice and transformation in accordance with the path. This meaning is indicated in the Dasuttam-sutta (DN.34.2.1 at DN 111 286) and is supported by many Buddhist scholars (Bodhi, 1994, p. 10; Fuller, 2004, p. 11; Nhat Hanh, 1998, p. 56; Thanissaro, 1996, p. 331). This conception of 'principle of education' in Buddhist thought shares an interesting similarity with that of the modem educationist Alfred Whitehead. According to Whitehead, a principle refers not only to verbal formulations but also mental habits which are thoroughly soaked into the learner. To him, the "business" of education "is to convert the knowledge of a boy into the power of a man" (1949, p. 38).
What is to be noted here is that the three principles are not included under {sanganhati) the Noble Eightfold Path; conversely, the Noble Eightfiold Path is included under the three principles."^ What this statement suggests is that, though the Noble Eightfold Path is the essence of Buddhist education, the boundaries of threefold education or three principles of education are much wider as compared with the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path. According to Dipak Barua (1966, pp. 120ff), these three principles of education are highly important for learners in their daily life, because they are conducive to their happiness and well-being of all.
^y MN44 U at MN 1 301: Na kho anvena atlhangikena maggena tayo khandha scnmihita: tlhi ca kho khcmdhehi ariyo atthcmgiko moggo sangahito. 151 5.3.1 Awakening-oriented Principle of Education {Pahha-sikkha)
Adhisilasikkhd, adhicittasikkhd and adhipahhdsikkhd is the popular sequential order in both primary and secondary sources. ^T/a-element comes first. The order of the eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path and the grouping of the factors into the three sikkhd, however, suggest another order, e. g., adhipahhdsikkhd- adhisilasikkhd-adhicittasikkhd. In this order, the /?a/7/7a-element comes first. Again, in the Mahdcattdrisaka-sutta (MN.117), the exposition of the path starts not with right-view (pannd) or morality {sild), but with concentration (samddhi). What can be seen here is that in actuality, there is a flexibility in the order of the three principles of education. The researcher strongly supports Bhikkhu Bodhi's idea when he points out that "they can be more aptly described as components rather than as steps, comparable to the intertwining strands of a single cable" (1994, p. 13). They are inter-connected.
However, there are some evidences in the Sutta-pitaka (MN.l 17; SN.45.1 at SN V 1 -2) that highlight the important role of knowledge, whether it is conceptual or experiential, on the path to full awakening. For this reason, the awakening- oriented principle (panndsikkhd) is selected to be discussed first. Hereafter an attempt is made to discuss some hints for knowledge development in accordance with the awakening-oriented principle of education.
5.3.1.1 Concept of Knowledge
What we can learn from the literary sources presented in the previous chapter is that, the Buddha used various terms to refer to human understanding when he explained the goals of his teaching. They are vision {cakkhit), knowledge {ridna), insight (abhififid), and full awakening {sambodhi). When he described the Noble Eightfold Path as a systematic procedure of practice, he used other terms, viz. hdna (knowledge), right-view {sammd-ditthi) and right-resolve {sammd- sahkappo). In addition, while explaining matters related to human knowing, the Buddha also used various terms such as perception/conception (safind), consciousness/cognition {vinndna) and understanding (vijjd). That is to say, in
152 Buddhist thought of education, a variety of terms are used to describe different modes of human knowledge.
From Buddhist point of view, sahfia, vinnana and nana each term represents a mode of knowing and, to some extent, shares the same attributes of knowledge. According to P. D. Premasiri (2006, p. 156), these three modes of knowing take the same objective existence as their object of cognition. Though each of these can be identified as a distinctive perspective and can be asssociated with certain specific psychological consequences, there seems to be no clear distinction among them. Perhaps for this reason, when the Buddha actually embarked upon the task of prescribing a systematic procedure of learning and practising, he specifically used another term for knowledge, that is, panna (wisdom). Though the concept of 'pannd' is derived from the common root Jna (to know) shared by other terms, it has a significant place in Buddhist philosophy.
Panna seems to be a developed mode of nana in which the transforming power has arised. With panna, whatever has been learnt theoretically is put into practice. As it is explained in the first factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, nana can be regarded as a type of oriented knowledge and panna as a type of transforming knoweldge. In connection with right-view, nana is a form of adopting right-view while panna is a form of experiencial content and development of right-view. Both have awakening power (Bodhi, 1994, p. 14).
Panna is rendered into English as insight, understanding, or wisdom by some scholars (Bodhi, 2005, p. 301; Harvey, 1995, p. 45). However, most of the Buddhist scholars are reluctant to translate this special term (Premasiri, 2004; Bodhi, 2005), because no English word can convey the accurate meaning of panna in Buddhist thought. Panna sometimes is also used in the sense of [innate] intelligence (SN.1.23 at SN 1 13; Bodhi, 2000, p. 358; Werasinghe, 1992, pp. 3- 6). In spite of rich meaning of the term, some scholars occasionally resort to the word 'knowledge' for their rendering of paiina with a clarifying explanation (Bodhi, 2000, p. 358; Jayatilleke, 1963, pp. 302-303; Kalupahana, 1987, p. 73; Premasiri, 2004, p. 294) or adding an adjective to distinguish it from other types
153 of knowledge (Swearer, 1972). Therefore, generaWy, panPid can be understood as a kind of understanding that has the power of awakening the mind,"^ and the researcher opts to render panna-sikkha as an awakening-oriented principle of education accordingly. Pama is taken as the central concept of knowledge in this discussion, while the other concepts of knowledge may be considered when explanation and illustration are required. PahM represents an insightfiil understanding of reality.
In the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, the awakening-oriented principle of education {pafina-sikkhd) corresponds to the first two path-factors: right-view and right-resolve. So knowledge according to this principle consists of two aspects: cognitive and affective respectively. In this sense, cognitive knowledge and affective knowledge are the two main attributes ofpanna.
5.3.1.2 Guideline for Knowledge Development
Buddhist thought, as we have seen, recognizes various modes of knowing. At the same time, it also warns the learner about the impact of desire and belief which might cause the knower to lapse into error. For instance, learned persons at present can boast of their advancement in the field of scientific and technological knowledge. However, such knowledge, if it is associated with desire, may become the main cause of human suffering (Matheson & Matheson, 2000, p. 61).
Let us take a look at current situation. It is a fact that there are cases where students nowadays are forced to learn some sources of knowledge, which are less necessary than others. On the contrary, what are really needed by children are not taught properly (Noddings, 2003, pp. 75, 244, 247 , 258). It is obvious that children should learn reading, writing, mathematics, sciences, and other subjects in school, because knowledge of these disciplines can help them to earn a living properly. But what if very few school programmes teach young people how to
Paniia alone signifies a higher mode of cognition connected with liberating knowledge. But in phrase adhi-pamia-sikkha it indicates a wide range of [appropriately guided] knowledge from conceptual knowing (saiina) to full-awakening (samhodhi). 154 live in such a way that they are able to deal with anger, hatred, jealousy, to reconcile conflicts, and to transform internal formations?
From the awakening-oriented view, Buddhist philosophy provides four main guidelines for knowledge development and transmission. As the teaching of right- view suggests, these guidelines point to knowledge with regard to suffering (dukkha), five aggregates {pahca-khandha), dependent-arising ipaticcasamuppdda), and moral efficacy of action {kamma). Following is the discussion of these guidelines based on the textual data presented in the previous chapter.
Suffering and Happiness: The Nature of Human Life
Buddhist thought does not glorify suffering and encourage teaching suffering and creating giving hardship in schooling. Yet, no unenlightened one can avoid suffering in one form or the other. Therefore, children should be taught about the art of confronting suffering and the way to convert suffering into happiness. In a broader sense, dukkha means problematic situation. It refers to the inherent unsatisfactoriness and general insecurity of all conditioned existence.
In Buddhist persepctive, learning about dukkha becomes a radical model of critical thinking. That is, one has to think and realize the reality in terms of dukkha, the cause of dukkha, the hope for ending of dukkha and the way to end dukkha. It is noted that the Noble Eightfold Path was taught in the framework of this model of critical thinking, i. e., the path of solving the problem oi dukkha.
Dukkha can manifest in the form of individual psychological problems (stress, depression, anguish, agony, lamentation, frustration disappointment) or social conflicts (such as unjustice, exloitation, inequality, discrimination, political intervention, social upheavals, and wars) (Kalupahana, 2007, p. 9; Loy, 2003, p. 18). According to Buddhist thought, dukkha is part of natural life. We must seek meaningfulness of life in it and through it. Instead of treating it as impediment, we should look at it as a chance to courageously confront the tough situations occuring in life. Young people should learn about dukkha and how to look at dukkha. This idea accords well with Mansikka (2009) when he discusses the role 155 of learning about and experiencing suffering in education. Belton and Priyadharshini (2007) also hold the similar view regarding boredom in school. According to them, boredom needs to be understood as a complex human emotion that deserves a sophisticated and informed response, especially in the context of schooling. Students should learn how to respond to suffering and overcome boredom in a right way (i.e. in accordance with right-view in Buddhist perspective).
Though Buddhist philosophy acknowledges that we can evolve meaning from dukkha, it insists that suffering is unwholesome thing, which should be avoided, relieved and never to be deliberately created and inflicted on others. One should learn how to get rid of dukkha and actually realize joy, peace and happiness in life. Perhaps most important of all, according to the Buddhist teaching of social s.Q\i {anattd), and as Nel Noddings (2003, p. 43) also urges, they should learn to feel some social responsibility to reduce suffering.
In the words of John Dewey, human suffering is seen as the "predicament of the inextricable mixture of stability and uncertainty" (Dewey, 1958, p. 45). If we agree with Dewey that it is the "predicament of the inextricable mixture of stability and uncertainty" of life that gives rise to philosophy, it becomes easy for us to understand "the philosophy of dukkha and its ending" as the foundation of Buddhist education. Therefore, it is reasonable to say that Buddhist tradition is a pre-modem form of education, which includes the meaning of life-long education, peace education and holistic education.
Equality, Reciprocity and Responsibility
The law of cause and effect nowadays is addressed to by almost all systems of moral education in the West as well as in the East. Some of them are guided by rules and authority. In Buddhist thought, moral guidelines are established not by "the authoritarian way," but by "the democratic way" (Santina, 1997, p. 66). At the centre of this democratic way are the principles of equality and reciprocity. These two important principles are implied in the theory of moral efficacy of action {kamma) in Buddhist philosophy. The principle of equality (Dhp. 131-132) 156 holds that all living beings are equal in their basic orientation and aspiration. In other words, all living beings want to be happy, to enjoy life, and to seek peace, comfort and security (Dalai Lama, 2006, p. 17).
The principle of equality leads to the principle of reciprocity. Reciprocity means that, just as we do not like to be abused, robbed, injured, or killed, so too all other living beings are unwilling to have such things happening to them (Dhp. 129-130). Put it simply, "Do not act toward others in a way you would not want them to act toward you." This is the democratic foundation of moral practice in Buddhist tradition. Based on this democratic foundation, the Dalai Lama (2006, p. 18) calls for the universal responsibility.
Conception of Personhood
In Buddhist philosophy, personhood is understood in terms of the five physio- psychological aggregates: physical body {rupa), feelings (vedand), perception {sahha), mental formation {sankhara) and consciousness {vihndna). They are interdependently arisen transitory phenomena. It is intersting to find that the Buddhist conception of personhood is very much consistent with Vygotsky's conception of unity of being or interfiinctional relafion of all physio- psychological ftinctions of individual (Vygotsky, trans. 1986, p. 1). The Buddhist conception of relafional self suggests that one may have multiple idenfity instead of single identity. This position is supported by many postmodern thinkers (Biesta, 1998; Bonnett, 2009; Chinchore, 1996; Gandhi, 1999; Nhat Hanh, 1989; Sen, 2006; Siderits, 2005). According to Siderits (2005, p. 96), the theory of social relational self might yield a novel way of inculcating grounding values that people share. He emphasised that one of such values is caring which will be discussed in the coming section.
Principle of Dependent-arising
According to the principle of dependent-arising, things and events in the world are inter-connnected and inter-dependent. One depends on the other for its existence. This position of Buddhist view of man and universe nowadays is supported by at least two modem notable theories. The first is the theory of social 157 self developed by the social psychologist George Herbert Mead; and the second is Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy. According to George Mead (1934, p. 204), the possible existence of the "I" belongs to "that which is actually going on and taking place." He calls that "I" as the "social self" In his classic work Mind, Self, and Society, George Mead characterizes the social self as a process of symbolic interaction between the "one" and the "other" as follows:
This process can be characterized in a certain sense in terms of the "I" and the "me," the "me" being that group of organized attitudes to which the individual responds as an "1." (1934, p. 186)
The social self s "I" is a process that acts in the present and responds to the socially determined "me" pole that is given by the past. Thus, the social self is a process that includes both individuality and sociality as abstract aspects. George Mead goes on saying that "[s]ince it is a social self, it is a self that is realized in its relationship to others" (Mead, 1934, p. 204). It is clear that George Mead's social self was anticipated by the Buddhist idea that the self is a combination of impermanent mental factors {nama) and relatively stable form (rupa), both of which are socially and inter-depenedently conditioned (paticcasamupdda). In the spatio-temporal network of relational processes, simply there is no self that has a fixed identity; hence, ultimately there is no-SQ\f(anatta).
According to Steve Odin (1992, p. 485), George Mead's relational and temporal concept of a "social self may be said to have crystallized the inter-subjective model of personhood seen in the classical American pragmatism running through Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey and Josiah Royce.
While George Mead is psychologically attuned to Buddhist thought in his concept of social self, Alfred Whitehead philosophically shares his view with Buddhist thought in his concept of organic process. Many comparative studies (Abe, 1975; Inade, 1979; Kakol, 2000; Odin, 1996) agree that Alfred Whitehead's organic process philosophy represents a Western counterpart to what is expressed in the principle of dependent-arising {paticcasamupada). The perishing and becoming nature of non-substantial, momentary, and interconnected "events" or "occasions" 158 is substantially similar to the concept of anicca, anatta and paticcasamupada in Buddhist philosophy (Odin, 2001, p. 374). Steven Odin connects Whitehead's process thought with Buddhist philosophy of dependent-arising by formulating an interrelational vision of reality. In such attempt of explanation, each event is a microcosmic reflection of a macrocosmic whole (p. 375).
In short, Buddhist philosophy, modem [Whitehead's] philosophy and [social] psychology share two basic points of commonality: (I) There are processes (or events, becomings); and (2) processes occur in relational dependence on (or are conditioned by) other processes.
The educand needs to learn and see the profound interdependence of things and events. They need such a knowledge to live a harmonious life with themselves and others.
According to the causal relation of the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, right- view is the forerunner of the whole process. It is the guide for all other qualities. It is not unusual that one's view reflects their vision and perspective. In actual life, it is not difficult for us to see how one's perspectives on the crucial issues of life govern their attitudes, their values, their perceptions, their actions, and their whole orientation to life. Right-view, therefore, is the skilfully orientated view. It helps us to interpret ourselves and the meaning of our being in the world in a right way and lead our life accordingly.
This is explicitly revealed in the Noble Eightfold Path. From right-view, there arises right-resolve. From right-view and right-resolve, there arise right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort, right-mindfulness and right- concentration."^
"' SN.45.1 at SN V 1-2: Sammudilthissa sammcisankappo pahoti; sammasankappassa sammuvaca pahoti; sammavacassa sammakammanto pahoti; sammakammantassa sammaajivo pahoti; sammaajlvassa sammavayamo pahoti; sammavayamassa sammasati pahoti; sammasatissa sammasamadhi pahoti'ti. 159 Aspiring to Care for Oneself, Others and the World
It has been pointed out that cognitive knowledge and affective knowledge are the two main attributes of pannd. From the Buddhist perspective, the cognitive and affective sides of mind do not remain isolated in separate compartments but intertwine and interact in close correlation.'^" While right-view is the guideline for development of cognitive knowledge, right-resolve can be regarded as a regulative factor that controls one's mental contructs in the right way.
In Buddhist structure of affective knowledge, the two main aspects are suggested. One is the aspiration to non-attachment (for the good of oneself) and the other is the aspiration to non-ill-will and non-harm (for the good of others).
While attachment is the main root of individual suffering, ill-will and harmful thinking are the main roots of others' and social problems.'^' The aspiration to non-attachment is the antidote for the former and the aspiration to non-ill-will and non-harm is the antidote for the latter. This is the teaching of right-solve.
In a positive way of expression, right-resolve suggests that we should learn to keep away from any kind of destructive attachments, and care for others in our thinking, interests, intentions, motivations, resolves, decisions, determinations and the like.'^^ The Buddha affirmed that this resolve can be learnt and practised.'"^ To care for one's self, Buddhist philosophy suggests the practice of
'"'^ According to Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994, pp. 28-29), emotional preferences influence views, and views detennine preferences. He holds the view that the balanced development of right-view and right-resolve leads to "a restructuring of values which sets the mind moving towards goals commensurate with the new vision." '"' For more explanation on this point, see Chan (2008, p. 258) and Ghose (2004, pp. 105-112). '"" MN. 13.32 at MN I 89: Neva tasmim samaye attahyahadhayapi ceteti, na parahyahadhayapi ceteti, na uhhayabyabadhayapi ceteti (He does not choose for his own affliction or for others' affliction or for the affliction of both). '""' AN.2.19 at AN 1 58: Akusalam, bhikkhave, pajahatha. Sakka, bhikkhave, akusalam pajahitum.... Kusalam, bhikkhave, hhavetha. Sakka, bhikkhave, kusalam bhavetiim (Do abandon the evil. It can be done... Do cultivate the good. It can be done). Sec also Johansson (1979, p. 122). 160 appreciative joy {mudita) and equanimity (upekkhd). And to care for others, teaching of love (mettd) and compassion (kanind) is given.'^"* In fact, to be able to care for others, one must be able to care for oneself first. That means, to care for oneself and others, one has to learn to regulate one's mind in accordance with all the four immeasurable values: love (me//a)'"^ and compassion (kanmd), appreciative joy (muditd) and equanimity (upekkhd). This is the way to redirect our thoughts in positive and helpful manner.
To sum up, transforming ignorance (a-vijjd) into knowledge (vijjd) is the most significant process in Buddhist education. In this transforming process, both cognitive development and affective cultivafion play important roles. On the one hand, cognitive development supports affective cultivation and behavioural modification, and on the other, cognitive development is also supported by affective cultivation and behavioural modification. These three domains, viz. cognitive development, affective cultivation and behavioural modification are inter-being, inter-dependent, inter-related, inter-connected, inter-linked, inter- wavened and in any inter-manner in different ways. The holistic transformation of these three domains of human being can be understood in terms of the three principles of education.
Though the foregoing role of knowledge is recognized in Buddhist epistemology, at preliminary stage, knowledge is merely conceptual perception or intellectual reasoning, but not practical wisdom. It needs to be strengthened by care and peace to reach higher levels of transforming and liberating insight.
'""* In his interpretation of right-resolve, Bhikkhu Gunaratana points to this practical connection between right-resolve and these four immeasurable minds (Gunaratana, 2001, p. 63). '•""' I prefer to use the English word 'love' to render the Pali term 'metta'. Jeremy Hayward (1997, p. 90) observes that "love is so wrapped up with romanticism, sentimentality, pious religiosity, sex, and superficial Hollywood emotionalism that it is hard to use the word for anything genuine anymore" (cited in Diller, p. 172). Responding to this illness of language usage. Master Thich Nhat Hanh, a Buddhist educator, suggests that we have to heal them and wc have to restore its meaning" (1998, pp. 171-172). This is the time for us to re-consider the concept of love and the need to teach love in school. Sec more Halstead (2005), Salzbcrg (1995, p. 25). 161 To develop this kind of insight, one has to learn and practise simultaneously slla and samadhi, which will be deah with as care-oriented principle of education and peace-oriented principle of education respectively which will be discussed in the next section .
5.3.2 Care-oriented Principle of Education {Sila-sikkha)
1 9^ Caring practice is not uncommon in Buddhist tradition. " It is an ethical theme in Buddhist philosophy. In Buddhist literature, the term slla is used widely to describe the practice of care. According to Premasiri (2007, p. 121), sJla originally refers to a kind of nurture, which everyone wishes to promote. He points out that in early Buddhist literature, the term sila was used in both evaluative and descriptive senses. It is probably based on the evaluative sense, Slla is often translated into English as virtue and morality. From educational perspective, it appears that the term sila also has a prescriptive connotation besides its evaluative and descriptive ones. " Especially, in the contexts where sila is combined or goes with sikkha, 'care' seems to be a more appropriate word which can be used to translate the term sila. There is a good reason, therefore, to render sila-sikkha as the care-oriented principle of education.'^^ 5.3.2.1 Concept of Care
In Buddhist philosophical literature, care is referred to as one of the basic human values (Siderits, 2005, p. 96). From philosophical point of view, Siderits argues that caring practice supplies a novel way to prevent suffering of oneself and
'"^ The Buddha was a great caring teacher. The decision to teach after his Awakening (MN.26) is the first great act of care he made. The Buddha realized that the potential capacity of people can be developed to the fullest, if they arc nurtured appropriately. According to him, the best means to carry out his thought of care is education which is said to be the only "miracle" that the Buddha prcfered to perform and encouraged his students to practise. '-' See Kalupahana (1992, p. 103) and Fuller (2005, p. 10). '^ In Buddhist literature, apart from metta and kanina, there are several terms, that are closely associated with care, such as amikampa (tender concern), miiducittata (tender heartedness) (Witanachi, 2007, p. 89). 162 others. This argument seems to be based on the Buddhist theory of social relational self, which he calls the "Buddhist reductionist personhood convention." According to him, there is always a gap between human aspirations and actions in preventing suffering; and care is a fundamental value that helps to close this gap.
From psychological standpoint, Paul Gilbert presents another view of care based on evolutionary psychology of human nature and Buddhist teaching of kindness (metta) and compassion (karund). Gilbert (2009, p. 101) demonstrates that all human beings are so affected by the caring they receive that care-seeking and care-giving become a type of pervading social mentality which everyone has by birth. According to him, compassionate mind and caring practice are reciprocal. A compassionate mind helps us to understand the care-seeking mentality better. Further, caring practice harnesses compassion and shapes our compassionate feelings, thoughts and behaviour.
From philosophical and psychological point of view, the significance of compassion and caring practice in the light of interconnectedness of all beings is obvious. However, no considerable attempts have been made to provide a practical guideline elicited from the Buddhist teachings.
When the Noble Eightfold Path is studied from an educational perspective, it is revealed that at least three out of eight factors of the path directly and practically deal with human behaviour. These three factors together show a practitioner how to live in order to become a caring person. They are right-speech, right-action, and right-livelihood. Other factors function as their supporters. These three factors postulate the care-oriented principle of education, the slla-sikkhd. Its main function is to control and regulate human behaviour. According to Piyadassi Thera (1979, p. 83), slla set forth by the Buddha is not merely a negative prohibition, but it is a prescription for doing good for the welfare and happiness of all mankind. These caring principles aim at making society stable by promoting unity, harmony and right relations among people.
The discussion on the function of right-speech, right-action, and right-livelihood in the previous chapter shows that, on the one hand, good conduct in accordance 163 with these three factors regulate one's behavioural patterns. By doing so, one takes care of oneself and the welfare of others. On the other, it supports the cultivation of mind.
In short, care (sTla) refers to moral practice of individual as well as ethical concern of Buddhist philosophy. Slla guides the individual how to care for not only one's behaviour but also for that of others' welfare by regulating one's own physical (kdyika), verbal (vacTka) and (cetasika) mental actions.
5.3.2.2 Guideline for Care
According to the way of grouping the eight factors of the Eightfold Path into the three principles of education, right-speech, right-action and right-livelihood are grouped into care-oriented principle. Based on this principle, we can legitimately formulate a model of caring practice.
Piyadassi Thera (1979, p. 137) had pointed out that speech in Buddhist thought is recognized as a wonderftil means to change a man's whole outlook, but few of us really care to use it for the benefit of our own and others. He also pointed out that this boneless and pliable tool is also responsible for much strife and trouble from squabbles between families to wars between nations. The Buddha seemed to be so clear about the negative aspect of speech that he focused on its worthlessness in his first discourse to his youngest student, little Rahula, who was about seven years old at that time.'^^
At the first sight, Buddhist thought seems to be more concerned with the negative aspect of speech than its positive side, especially when speech is incorporated as a factor of the path. In the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, right-speech is explained as the practice of refraining from the four types of wrong speech. They
Rahula (Thera) was the only son of Siddhattha Gotama. He became a novice under the guidance of Sariputta Thera at the age of seven. On an occasion shortly after being a novice, he delibarately told a lie. Because of this act, he received this lesson from the Buddha (MN.61 at MN II 404; Piyadassi, 1979, p. 137; Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995, p. 1263). 164 are lying, slanderous speech, harsh words, and frivolous talks. To be a caring person, this avoidance is essential.
However, it is important to note that in many Suttas, the Buddha also considered positive aspects of speech and pointed out the efficacy of kind and caring words. Kind and gentle speech is essential to establish and sustain a caring relationship. Within the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, the practical guidelines for caring words are given. The first practice is commitment to truth. Following the care-oriented principle of education, students should be guided to speak the truth, be devoted to the truth, be reliable and worthy of trust. Students should never deliberately and intentionally speak lie for the sake of any advantage whatsoever. Students are encouraged to be a messenger of truth {saccasandha) for the well- being of oneself and others (DN.30.2.16 at DN III 170; MN.27.13 at MN 1 179).
The second practice of positive speech promotes friendship and harmony. Students should be guided to use words appropriately in such a way that their verbal behaviour does not cause dissension among friends. Students should speak good words to unite those that are divided; and encourage those who are united. They should be delighted and rejoice in concord and express themselves accordingly. The third practice of positive speech appears to be based on a very sound foundation of psychology. Students speak words which are gentle, soothing to the ear, loving, such words as go to the heart, and further are courteous, friendly, and agreeable to many.
The Buddha especially emphasised that caring words have memorable qualities which create love, respect, and conduces to helpfulness, to agreement, to consensus, to concord and to unity (MN.48.6 at MN 1 322).
The fourth practice of positive speech is useful and effective speech. Students should speak at the right time and in accordance with facts. They should speak what is useful, speak of the Dhamma and the discipline. Words should be uttered as a treasure, at the right moment, accompanied by reason, moderate and full of sense.
165 1^1 \o\ 7# With these guidelines, it is obvious that the Buddha was deeply concerned with psychological and moral effects of speech. Apart from this concern, the Buddha also seemed to have taken into consideration social and linguistic factors while guiding his students how to care for themselves and others by their verbal expression. This point is illustrated in the Aranavibhanga-sutta (MN. 139.3 at M III 231), in which the Buddha advised his students to know when to utter true, correct and beneficial words, when to use persuasive speech - covert or overt. Students are advised to speak in proper speed of utterance, not hurriedly. They should not override normal usage of language and should not insist too much on local language. They should use such a way of expression that the listemers can easily follow, understand and remember. Students should learn how to use terms, labels and descriptions, and should differentiate between designation {adhivacana-pdthd) and description {pamatti-patha) and use them appropriately as the pathway {nirutti-patha) for communication (SN.22.62 at SN III 71; Bodhi, 2000, p. 1067)
Some modem Buddhist teachers go beyond the expressive aspect of right-speech and propose its receptive side. Effective communication cannot take place with speaking alone. Communication presupposes two sides - speaker and listener. Speaking is paired with listening. On the part of the speaker, ideas should be expressed properly. On the part of the listener, there are also qualities to be nurtured and trained to be a good listener. Being silent, listening to the sound of silence (Sumedho, 2007, pp. 161-170), noble silence (Goenka, 2004, p. 5) and mindful listening or deep listening or compassionate listening (Nhat Hanh, 1998, pp. 87-88) are effective techniques for caring derived from right-speech, which are taught by the contemporary Buddhist teachers.
Similar to the guidelines for caring practice with regard to speech, it could be understood with regard to action, which is also presented in a negative way. They are abstaining from taking life, abstaining from stealing, and abstaining from sexual misconducts. According to Bhikkhu Gunaratana (2001, p. 109), basically, the codes of conduct given by the Buddha are to prevent us from intensifying and
166 multiplying our existential suffering. However, he argues that these care-oriented principles go far beyond any list of pre-set rules. They are rather concerns how our actions cause suffering to ourselves and others. The specific point here is that giving guidelines in such a way puts forth the moral choices in the hand of individuals themselves. This is illustrated by a unique guidance found in the Ambalatthikarahulavada-sutta (MN.61.8-11 at MN I 415-417). The Buddha used a metaphor of mirror to remind his young student - Rahula - of the link between action and mind, saying that an action with the body should be done after careful reflection. Now in a more positive way, the Sutta goes on with an important guidance for caring practice. It comprehensively deals with actions in the past, in the present and in the future.
While we are doing a bodily action, we should reflect on it thus: 'This bodily action I am doing — is it leading to affliction for myself and/or others? Is it an unskillful bodily action, with painful results and consequences?' If, on reflection, we know that it is leading to affliction for myself and/or others, we should give it up. But if on reflection we know that it is not leading to affliction for myself and/or others, we may continue with it (MN.61.10 at MN I 416).
When we wish to do a bodily action, we should reflect on it thus: 'This bodily action I wish to do — would it lead to affliction for myself and/or others? Would it be an unskillful bodily action, with painful results and consequences?' If, on reflection, we know that it would lead to affliction for myself and/or others; it would be an unskillful bodily action. If we forsee the painful results and consequences of the action which we intend to perform, then any bodily action of that sort is absolutely unfit to be done. But if on reflection we know that it would not cause affliction for myself and/or others, it would be a skillful bodily action with pleasant results and consequences, then any bodily action of that sort is fit to be done (MN.61.9 at MN I 415-416).
When we having done a bodily action, we should reflect on it: 'This bodily action I have done — did it lead to affliction for myself and/or others? Was it an unskillful bodily action, with painful results and consequences?' If, on reflection,
167 we know that it led to affliction for myself and/or others; it was an unskillful bodily action with painful results and consequences, then we should confess it, reveal it, lay it open to our teacher or to a knowledgeable companion in the holy life. Having confessed it, we should exercise restraint in the future. But if on reflection you know that it did not lead to affliction for myself and/or others, it was a skillful bodily action with pleasant consequences, pleasant results, then you should stay mentally afresh and joyful, training day and night in skillful mental qualities (MN.61.11 at MN 1416-417).
Thus what is legitimately to be done and what ought to be forbidden, what is to be accepted and what is to be rejected, what is to be continued and what is to be discontinued need to be taught and learnt appropriately. Nonetheless, it is also essential to contemplate on what is done unknowingly wrong. For such unskillful action, one should confess. When we reveal our unintended action which has led to bad results and created harm to oneself and/or others, we must regret and feel sorry for whatever has happened.
In sum, we have to reflect on what is fit and unfit regarding what we wish to do, give up or continue regarding what we are doing, and confess or stay afresh regarding what we have done.
The last factor of the care-oriented principle of education is right-livelihood. In the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, this guideline for care is also expressed in negative way and in brief: abandoning dishonest livelihood. So what is dishonest livelihood according to Buddhist thought? The Vanijja-siitta (AN.5.177 at AN 111 208) lists five types of trade (vanijja) which bring harm to oneself and others. They are (I) trades dealing in weapons, (2) in living beings, (3) in meat production and butchery, (4) in poison and (5) in intoxicants.''"' Dealing in living beings includes raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution. The Mahacattdnsaka-siitta (MN.117 at M III 71)
'^'* AN.5.177 at AN III 208: Pancima, hhikkhave, vanijja upasakena akaramya. Katama pahca? Satthavariijja, sattavanijja, mamsavanijja, majjavanijja, visavariijja - imci kho, hhikkhave, pahca vanijja upasakena akaranlya 'ti. 168 enumerates several dishonest means of gaining wealth such as practicing deceit, treachery, soothsaying, trickery and usury.
In the Sutta-pitaka, sila is also explained in terms of five caring practices of nurturing and promoting well-being (AN.5.172-3 at AN III 203-204; AN.8.25 at AN IV 220; SN. 14.25 at SN II 167). They are the practices of (1) care for life, (2) care for others' property, (3) care for safety and integrity of individuals, couples, families and society, (4) care for truth, peace and happiness, and (5) care for physical and mental health.'^' Besides, sila is also explained in terms of duties regarding the twelve social units that cover almost all social relations. These are mutual duties between parents and children, teachers and students, wives and husbands, monastics and laities, employers and employees, friends and friends (DN.31 at DN III 180). The details of these guidelines somehow overlap those of the three caring factors of the Noble Eightfold Path.
In the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, the three path-factors classified under the care-oriented principle of education provide guidelines of caring practice in Buddhist education. They are intended to care for oneself and others physically, verbally and mentally. It is primarily the process of conscious regulation and cultivation of good conduct in body, speech and thought for the betterment of human beings (AN.4.111 at AN II 111).
In addition, connected with caring practice, the Buddha taught six conditions leading to welfare {sdraniyd-dhamma) (MN.48; AN.6.11 at AN III 289-290; DN. 16.1.11; AN.6.12 at AN III 290-291). They are:
1. Attending on each other with loving-kindness in deed {Meltd-kayakamma) - Living peacefully together and practicing kindness.
2. Attending on each other with loving-kindness in speech {Metta-vdcTkamma) - Abstaining from quarrelling and bickering, speaking friendly.
''' See more the interpretation of these five caring practices as a universal application in a practical way by Master Thich Nhat Hanh (2008, pp. 277-279). 169 3. Attending on each other with loving-kindness in thought {Metta-manokamma) - Experiencing the inner peace and joy that results from community practice.
4. Sharing offerings with virtuous members of the community {sddhdrana-bhogi) - Sharing our benefits so as to be a blessing to each other and to the world.
5. Training themselves, in the rules of conduct {sila-sdmahnagato) - Practicing the same ethical precepts.
6. Helping each other to develop the insight that is noble and liberating {ditthi- sdmahhagato) - Sharing similar view-points and aspirations.
Although these six conditions leading to welfare were taught by the Buddha more than twenty-five centuries ago, they appear to be very relevant for establishing healthy learning society of any age. These conditions leading to welfare can be adopted for our better life and better society.
5.3.2.3 Significance of Care
There are several reasons behind the significant role of care in Buddhist thought of education. One of the main reasons is that caring practice is an indispensable condition for the development of peace and wisdom. Care is the heart of ethical concern in Buddhist philosophy. The Jatd-sntta describes that the intelligent learner who establishes oneself in caring practice develops the mind and insight.'^^ According to Buddhist philosophy, caring practice and knowledge development are interconnected. Knowledge cannot be developed without caring practice and one cannot practise caring in the right way without knowledge.' "
'•'" SN.1.23 at SN I 13: Sile patitthciya nam sapaMo, cittern pannanca hhavayam; AtapT nipako bhlkkhii, so imam vijataye jatam (A intelligent man who is established on virtue develops mind and wisdom; a bhikkhu who is ardent and discreet can disentangle the tangle). This is the verse Acariya Buddhaghosa (c. 6''^ century CE) took to comment upon and to start his monumental commentary work Visuddhimagga. ''"* DN.4.22 at DN I 125,11-14: Silaparidhotahi pamui, pannapahdhotam sllam. Yattha sJlam tattha paPtiia, yattha paiiria tattha sllam. Sllavato panna, pafirtavato sllam. Sllapafinananca pana lokasmim aggamakkhayati (Wisdom is purified by morality, and morality is purified by wisdom. Where there is morality, wisdom is there, and where there is wisdom, morality is there. The moral man has wisdom, and the wise man has 170 Caring practice and knowledge development are reciprocal, and their combination strengthens man's capacity.
Another reason is that, there is a close connection between caring practice and psychological characteristic. All real caring behaviour starts from the heart of the care-giver, and the caring practice of a person reflects his/her knowledge as well as psychological and moral tendency.'^'*
Studying the concept of care in the framework of Noble Eightfold Path also unfolds that, in Buddhist education, care is a means for translating thought into practice. The original order of the eight factors gives a hint for this idea. If we have thought of compassion, but if we do not engage in caring bodily and/or verbally and/or spiritually, such thought never becomes practice. In other words, the caring behaviour in action, speech or even in mind is the manifestation of the caring thought.
In addition, what makes caring practice important in education is that it is the starting point of behavioural transformation. In his exposition of the Noble Eightfold Path, Bhikkhu Bodhi points out (1994, p. 104) that there are three levels of behavioural transformation corresponding to the three layers of psychological defilements. They are the stages of latent tendency, the stage of [expressive/covert] manifestation and the stage of transgression [in overt manifestation]. According to Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994, p. 104), caring practice helps to restrain unwholesome bodily and verbal activity from reaching the stage of overt manifestation. This is the feasible starting point. And this explains why the Buddha always guided those students who wished to transform their behaviour and mind to commit themselves to caring of their own bodily and verbal behaviour first (DN.2.42 at DN 1 63; MN.107).
morality. The combination of wisdom and morality is called the highest thing in the world). '"* This idea is indicated in the Avijju-siitta (SN.45.1 at SN V 1-2), in which it is described that right-speech, right-action and right-livelihood depends on right-view and right-resolve. Sec also P. D. Premasiri (2007, p. 122). 171 5.3.3 Peace-oriented Principle of Education {Samadhi-sikkha)
Several studies that have explored the Noble Eightfold Path have pointed out that this is the path to peace and enlightenment. Piyadassi Thera (1979, p. 19) writes:
All the practical guidance and instructions given by the Buddha to remove mental conflicts due to the unsatisfactoriness of life, and gain final peace and happiness, are to be found on the Eightfold Path.
According to Henry Weerasinghe (1992, p. 55), peace, especially, inner peace, is the ultimate objective of education in Buddhist view. Studying the concept of peace from Buddhist perspective, P. D. Premasiri (2006, p. 293) also proposes that the Noble Eightfold Path "is a practical scheme which could be adopted as a basis for evolving a viable programme of moral education or education for peace." However, how Noble Eightfold Path can be adopted as a practical scheme for education for peace has not been explained.
In studying the Noble Eightfold Path, it is revealed that the relation between this path and peace is obvious. Peace is not only expressed as one of the goals of the path {upasamd), but peace is also suggested as a part of practice (a constituent) of the path {samma-samadhi). In this section, the discussion will focuses on the peace-oriented principle of education with explanation of the last three factors of the Noble Eightfold Path based on textual evidence from the Sutta-pitaka.
5.3.3.1 Concept of Peace
In Buddhist thought, peace basically denotes the absence of stress and conflict in the individual's mind. The term for peace in the Sutta-pitaka is sartti. Santi means a state of mental tranquillity {samatha)}^^ It is a type of inner peace {ajjhatta- santi)}^''^ In the ultimate sense, peace refers to the absolute state of mental
This is the state where desire (chauda) and passion (raga) have been discarded (viratto) - Chcmdaragaviratto so, hhikkhii paPinanava idha; Ajjhaga amatam scmtim, nihhanam padamacciitam (Sn.204). '' Sn.837: Passaiica ditthisii cmiiggahaya, Ajjhattasantim pacinam adassam (Looking among the doctrines, not grasping, while searching I saw inner peace). 172 quietude expressed by the term Nibbana}^'' as the uhimate goal of the path. According to Buddhist thought, social peace or world peace depends on the peace of the individual's psychology. Cultivating individual inner peace is the only way to world peace (Nhat Hanh, 1991, p. vii; Premasiri, 2006, p. 283; Wijisekera, 1960, p. 2). Whether peace is understood in the sense of santi or samatha or Nibbana, it is the highest state of happiness.'^^
In the Noble Eightfold Path, peace is described as meditative concentration or stillness (samadhi or jhana); and sammd-samadhi is the method of practice leading to deep states of samadhi. In the Mahdcattarlsaka-sutta, peace is described as a form of mental unification and balance, namely, singleness of mind or single-mindedness or one-pointedness mind {citta-ekaggatd). It is also called noble right-concentration (ariya-sammd-samadhi). To reach this state of mind, according to this Sutta, the learner first has to go through {parikkhata, equiped with) the seven preceding factors, viz. right-view, right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort and right-mindflilness as its supports (sa-upaniso) and requisite conditions {saparikkhdra).
From educational point of view, right-concentration is grouped with right-effort and right-mindfulness to make up the peace-cultivation {samddhi-sikkhd) of the path. The other factors are grouped under wisdom-cultivation {panhd-sikkhd) and care-cultivation {sTla-sikkhd) as they have just been explained in the preceding pages. According to Alan Wallace (2006, pp. 167-168), this approach provides rigorous means to investigate the origins, nature and potentials of consciousness, which have eluded scientific inquiry.
Therefore, in Buddhist philosophy, peace can be understood as an internal personal quality (samddhi or samatha) as well as an external social- environmental condition (santi). At the same time, peace can also be understood as a practice of concentrated mind {samddhi-sikkhd). It is called peace-oriented principle of education. In terms of samddhi-sikkhd, the meaning of peace includes
' '^ Dhp.202: Nibbanam paramam sukham {Nibbana is the highest happiness). ' ''^ Dhp.202: Natthi santiparam sukham (No happiness is higher than the peace). 173 not only the quality of right-concentration, but also the qualities of right-effort and right-mindfulness.
It is clear that, as a mental quality, peace or right-concentration is associated with all other qualities depicted in terms of factors of the path. Similarly, as a practice, attainment of right-concentration depends on the practice of other seven factors. With the peace-oriented principle of education, the importance is that peace is especially associated with right-effort and right-mindfulness. This association indicates that right-concentration or peace cannot be attained without right-effort and right-mindfulness.'^^
The right effort ensures that the practitoner moves on in the right track to maintain peace of the mind. And what is mindfulness? The literary sources reveal that it is very difficult to find out a clear-cut conceptual defintion of mindfulness in the Sutta-pitaka. The explanation of mindfulness, as it is presented in the Noble Eightfold Path, is a practical method to develop mindfulness rather than a definition. What is implied in mindfulness, as Kuan (2008, p. 15) points out, is the process of identifying, remembering and recognizing.
It seems that most of the Buddhist teachers follow the tradition and define mindfulness "practically." According to practical view, mindfulness is the practice of keeping bare attention or pure observation on what is happening within and around us in the present moment (Nhat Hanh, 1998, p. 64; Kabat-zinn, 1994, p. 3). In the practice of right mindfulness, mind is trained to remain in the present and contemplate on the present event (Nhat Hanh, 1975, p. 34). It is open, quiet and alert. It brings to light experience in its pure immediacy (Bodhi, 1994, p. 75).
Mindfulness is not aimed at learning something from external world. Its goal is to find the truth hiden within us (Gunaratana, 2001, p. 194). Mindfulness practice facilitates the achievement of both peace and awakening (MN.10.2 at MN I 55- 56; Bodhi, 1994, p. 76). The ultimate goal of mindfulness is to open the eye of
'' This association is also mentioned in many Siitlas (Dhp.38; Dhp.372; Dhp.282; AN.4.83atANI 156). 174 wisdom, to realize the true nature of reality and lasting happiness and perfect peace within us (Gunaratana, 2001, p. 221). To cultivate mindfulness is to cultivate peace within oneself and peace in the world (Goldstein, 2006, p. 123; Premasiri, 2006, p. 281; Thich Nhat Hanh, 1998). Master Thich Nhat Hanh (2006, p. 41) points out that to create ever-lasting peace, we need to become peace; the moment to become peace is right now; the place to become peace is right here.
5.3.3.2 Guidelines for Peace
As we have seen, the first principle of Buddhist education (awakening-oriented) provides guidelines for knowledge transmission and intellectual development. The second principle (care-oriented) ethically guides the verbal and physical behaviour and vocational determination. The third principle is essentially concerned with guidance for mental cultivation. It is peace-oriented principle of education {samddhi-sikkhd).
According to the Mahdvedalla-Sutta (MN.43), three factors of the path that comprise the guidelines for peace-practice are right-effort, right-mindfialness and right-concentration.
While right-concentration itself is a state of peace, right-effort appears to be less related to peace in comparison with right-mindfulness. However, the reason why effort is so crucial is that, as Bhikkhu Bodhi (1994, p. 61) points out, each person has to work out for his or her own peace. This point is supported by the two verses in the Dhammapada:
By oneself is evil done; by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil left undone; by oneself is one made pure. Purity and impurity depend on oneself; no one can purify another.''^"
And:
Dhp.165: Attana hi, katam pcipani, attana samkilissati / Attand akatam pdpani, attandva visujjhati / Siiddhl asitddhi paccattam. ndnno aniiam, visodhaye. 175 You yourselves must strive; the Buddhas only point the way. Those meditative ones who tread the path are released from the bonds of Mara.''*'
As the cultivation of mind for peace and awakening is the focus of the entire path, the guidelines for effort are directed to transform defiled mind into purified mind. The guidelines are fourfold:
(1) Not to let an unwholesome thought arise, which has not already arisen;
(2) Not to let an unwholesome thought continue, which has already arisen;
(3) To make a wholesome thought arise, which has not yet arisen;
(4) To make a wholesome thought continue, which has already arisen.
Without effort to purify the mind, no peace and wisdom can be attained (MN.95.22 at MN II 174).
Different from right-effort, right-mindflilness is a direct guideline for peace. The Buddha claimed that mindfulness is benefical in all occasions.'"*^ Mindfulness is described as the master of all practices.'"*^ It seems that the significance of the practice of mindfulness was anticipated by the Buddha.
Because we unknowingly perceive ourselves and the world around us through perceptual patterns which are habitually conditioned and limited, our perceptions and mental conceptualizations of reality are scattered and confused. Mindfiilness teaches us to suspend temporarily all concepts, images, value judgments, mental comments, opinions and interpretations. A mindful mind is precise, penetrating, balanced and uncluttered. It is like a mirror that reflects correctly without distortion whatever stands before it (Gunaratana, 2001, p. 193).
'•^' Dhp.276: Tumhehi kiccamatappam, akkhataro tathagata / Patipanna pamokkhcmti, jhay'mo marahandhana. '•*' SN.46.53 at SN V 115: Satirtca sahhatthikam vadaml. Sec also Vism., p. 130; Analayo, 2007, p. 10. '"^"' AN.8.83 at AN IV 339: Satadhipateyya sahbe dhamma. 176 We have learnt from the textual data that the guideline for peace through right- mindfulness practice is the fourfold method. These are the four areas of mindfulness: body, feelings, mental states and phenomena.
According to Jon Kabat-zinn (1994, pp. 12-13), although mindfulness meditation is most commonly taught and practiced within the context of Buddhism, its essence is universal. It has come out of Buddhism. He regards mindfulness as a concept of the non-Buddhist universality, which mainly concerns with the relief of suffering and the dispelling of illusion.
Training of mindfulness is practicable at the time of the Buddha as well as today. It has a vital message for all; it is applicable everywhere, at any time and for every one who earnestly wishes to master the mind and to develop its latent facukies for greater strength and greater happiness (Nyanaponika, 1962, p. 8). In his book The Power of Mindfulness, Nyanaponika Thera (1986) writes;
[T]o tap the actual and potential power of mindfulness it is necessary to understand and deliberately cultivate it in its basic, unalloyed form, which we shall call bare attention. By bare attention we understand the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us, at the successive moments of perception, (emphasis is original)
According to Nyanaponika Thera (1962, p. 36), the practice of mindfulness or bare attention has three great values: knowing the mind, shaping the mind and liberating the mind. The psychological knowledge of the mind is the basis for the skills of knowing and shaping the mental patterns conducive to the highest value of liberation. •
In general, bare attention can be developed in two ways: as a methodical meditative practice with selected objects and as universal application to the normal activities of day-to-day life with a general attitude of mindfulness and clear comprehension (Nyanaponika, 1986). These two methodical practices open the door for the two prevailing tendencies of mindfulness teaching and learning today. One tendency remains within Buddhist tradition (Analayo, 2003; Nyanaponika, 1962, 1986; Silananda, 2002; Soma, 1941), as it has been 177 explained. The other is apphed to different secular contexts including psychology and education (Dhar, 2007; Germer, 2009; Goenka, 2005; Greenland & Goodman, 2009; Gunaratana, 2001; Kabat-zinn, 1994; Komfield, 2008; Langer, 1989, 1993, 1997, 2000; Nhat Hanh, 1975). The prominent example of the second tendency is the adoptation of mindfulness in social psychology.
The social psychological approach to mindfulness is an attempt to depart from assumed religious traditions, and radically develop a new theory of mindfulness. Being adopted in social psychology, mindfialness is defined as "a state of mind that results from drawing novel distinctions, examining information from new perspectives, and being sensitive to context" (Langer, 1993, p. 44). It is an open, creative, probabilistic state of mind. Later on, she (2000, p . 220) defines:
Mindfulness is a flexible state of mind in which we are actively engaged in the present, noticing new things and sensitive to context, (emphasis is mine)
One of the reasons that induces Ellen Langer to introduce mindfulness to psychology and education (1989, p. 78) is the flaw of "mindless acceptance of information as true without consideration of alternative versions of that information" prevailing in education. According to Ellen Langer (1993, p. 45), this is a form of "premature cognitive commitments." It is originated from mindlessness and results in mindlessness. As a psychologist and mindfulness educator, Ellen Langer holds that "a mindful education" can bring about for the learner great "liking" in learning. Mindfulness is not only more effective, but is also more enjoyable. Mindful approach has three characteristics (1997, p. 4):
(1) continuous creation of new categories
(2) openness to new information
(3) implicit awareness of more than one perspective
With this approach, Ellen Langer (1993, p. 46; 2000, p. 222) suggests that in order not to fail our students and ourselves, mindful learning and conditional
178 instruction tiiat respects variability and multiple frames for information should be adapted and facilitated.
In fact, teaching mindfulness practice into schools is teaching children how to be attentive. In a state of attention, they can perceive thoughts, physical sensations and emotions without judgment and an open state of mind (Suttie, 2007; Greenland & Goodman, 2009). Mindfulness practice promotes greater awareness of one's self and one's environment.
While there are differences between the two approaches - traditional and psychological, similarities exist as well. Both the approaches to mindfulness stress on cognitive flexibility and awareness. Furthermore, both approaches suggest that being purposeful and intentional is part of mindfulness.
In fact, the practice of mindfulness in Buddhist education has been studied by modern researchers and psychologists from the end of the last century (Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000; Miller, 1996). Due to its effectiveness and suggestions of the researchers and psychologists, mindfulness has been incorporated in education for the last decade (Dhar, 2007, p. 40; Kabat-zin, 1994).
The Buddhist practice of mindfulness aspires to direct and complete awareness of the present moment, unmediated by words, thoughts or concepts. It addresses the psychological dilemma of impermanence and no-self It is an attempt to transcend the mind's tendency to extend the notion of identity into the past and future, which is inherently misleading in the light of insights described above. By focusing and concentrating on awareness and paying attention to the sensations and experiences of the present moment, a practitioner of mindfulness can avoid psychological illusion of a permanent discrete self It is extending an identity, unchanged from the past, into the future, and thus it avoids the delusion and suffering that accompanies such an illusory perception of self Moreover, mindfulness provides a platform for consideration of ethical action, based on awareness of likely implications and consequences of the present actions on future conditions. In this way, a practitioner of mindfulness can effectively aspire to act in a way that will reduce the possibility of future suffering - both for self
179 and for others - since their interdependent relationship means that suffering for one will lead to suffering for others and vice versa.
From above discussion, it is clear that there is a great deal of commonality between right-mindfulness and right-concentration. The only difference is that right-mindfulness represents an enhancement of the recollective function of the mind, by way of expanding the breadth of attention, while right-concentration corresponds to an enhancement of the selective function, by way of restricting the breadth of attention (Analayo, 2007, p. 12).
With mindfulness practice, practitioners are able to renew their perceptions and then, to renew their behavour. In order to change the behavioural patterns, students need to be guided in practising mindfulness. Teaching moral values in schools can help students to acquire knowledge of what moral values are and why to live unto these values. Knowing about virtues and actually becoming virtuous are related, but different. Some students may learn how to live in accordance with the virtuous mode of living, but some may not. Even those who have learnt how to live in the light of the values they hold, despite their earnest practice, they fail to obverve them because they lack inner strength (Dhar, 2007, p. 25). In this regard, the practice of mindfulness plays a significant role in bringing practitioners from the surface understanding to profound practices.
5.3.4 Summary
With the analysis of the three principles of education given above, we find that the Noble Eightfold Path is a holistic scheme of education for the all-round development of individuals. In Buddhist philosophy, an educated person is characterised by the all-round development morally, emotionally and intellectually.''*'' Care-oriented principle supports moral development; peace-
'"*•* According to R. S. Peters (1970, p. 12), the notion of all-round developed person only emerged in the 19''^ century in the West. In Buddhist tradition, this notion was discussed from the Buddha's time, as it was recorded in the Sutta-pitaka {Sllavato paMu, paMavato silam, DN.4.22 at DN 1 125,11-14; Natthi jhcinam apaPiPiassa, Dhp.372). 180 oriented principle supports emotional development; and awakening-oriented principle supports intellectual development specifically. Such an all-round developed individual is described as a person endowed with knowledge and good conduct iyijjdcaranasampanno). Thus, an educated person is a wise person who appropriately understands oneself and the world {vijjd) and is capable of behaving accordingly for the sake of peace and happiness for all {carana).
To sum up, from educational perspective, sila-sikkha, samadhi-sikkhd and pahna- sikkha are the three principles of education which guide the development of such a person. Three principles are progressive and mutually dependent components of a conprehensive scheme of education.
Sila-sikkha is care-oriented practice which facilitates care for- oneself and others and the world. It requires conscious and voluntary transformation of one's patterns of bodily and verbal behaviour. Without integrated moral personality, one is unable to care. Samadhi-sikkhd is peace-oriented practice which aims at purifying the mind, balancing the mind, being open-minded and capable of acceptance of anything with awareness. Parind-sikkhd is awakening-oriented practice which facilitates development of knowledge and wisdom. Knowledge is constructed by ways of acquisition and cultivation.
As they are mutually dependent, wisdom cannot be attained without the support of care {sila) and peace (samddhi). Without these two elements, knowledge- cultivation can never be initiated (Dhp.282). Moreover, these three elements are inter-related and complement one another in leading to a caring, peaceful and awakened personality. From various discourses, we learn that the ethical caring practice is the foundation for development of knowledge and wisdom. At the same time, knowledge and wisdom make ethical caring practice possible (MN.l 17.4-33 at MN 111 71-75).
From the interrelation of sila-sikkhd, samadhi-sikkhd and pahhd-sikkhd, it can be inferred that the awakening-oriented principle of education is mainly strengthened by both care-oriented principle and peace-oriented principle. And at the same time, the awakening-oriented principle of education reinforces and 181 perfects both care-oriented principle and peace-oriented principle. The peace- oriented principle of education is mainly based on and reinforced by preliminary care-oriented principle of education, and it closely reinforces the awakening- oriented principle of education. 5.4 Practical Implications of the Noble Eightfold Path for Education
This section focuses on the practical implications of the Noble Eightfold Path for education. The discussion is mainly concerned with kinds of insight that can be elicited from the presentations of the Buddhist thought and the Buddhist thought of education. If we agree that the Noble Eightfold Path is open to all, then the Buddhist thought and its implications should be applied to all contexts freely and universally. Therefore, an attempt in this section is directed to see how the insight drawn from the foregoing interpretations can open the way for viable applications. For convenience, the consideration will focus on the five central themes: aims, contents, knowledge, learner-teacher, and learning-teaching process. 5.4.1 On Aims of Education
In order to see the practical implications of the Noble Eightfold Path on the aims of education, the examination specially concentrates on the goals of Buddhist path described in the three Siittas: the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the Rasiya-sutta and the Simsapd-sutta. One reason for the selection is that the variation within the goal-set of the path indicated in these Siittas reveals the flexibility in formulation of aims of education from Buddhist view. Another reason is that the different contexts in which goals were articulated throw light on how the aims of education should be formulated and reformulated depending on the capacity of the learners and nature of the course.
It seems that recent educational philosophers have concentrated their attention on questions which intrinsically relate to "means" in education rather than questions concerning "ends" (Kazepides, 1989; Sichel, 1969). Some philosophers even
182 argue that it is a logical mistake to talk of the aims and ideals of education because aims-talk in education does not clearly make sense, especially when education is understood as a process of development of person (Hamm, 1989, p. 45). Hence, extended analysis of educational aims, especially ultimate aims, appear to be philosophically unfashionable. One of the possible reasons for this trend is the complicated nature of linguistic conceptualization and metaphysical analysis connected with the ultimate aims of education. If it is true, then referring to Sambodhi and Nibbana, which the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path aims at, for discussion on educational aims and ideals of education will be irrelevant. However, this is not the case.
On the one hand, many current philosophical writings on education (Brown, 1983; Gandhi, 1999; Hamm, 1989; Kazepides, 1989; Marples, 1999; Noddings, 2003; Sichel, 1969; Winch, 1996, 2002; White, 1978, 2002, 2007, 2009) are infused with a very concept which some of them seem to deny.
On the other, although Sambodhi and Nibbana in Buddhist thought appear to bear metaphysical connotation, the path is primarily aimed at transforming human mental and behavioural patterns in such a way that every act or effort of transformation can bring about happiness in this very life. Therefore, as P. D. Premasiri (1991, pp. 46-19) points out that it is wrong to argue that Nibbana has no connection with the affairs of this world. The goals of Buddhist path in fact were set for human beings in this very world and everyone has potential to know and realize these goals. In the Dhammakathika-sutta, the Buddha says that one who is liberated by non-clinging, is fit to be called a bhikkhu who has attained Nibbana in this very life.
Though the early Buddhist did not point out straightly the aims of education, the claim of the goals of the Buddhist path found in the Dhammacakkappavattana- sutta shows that the Buddha was deeply concerned with the aim of life and deliberately talked about the aims of education, which he advocated and which he and his disciples participated in. What is more important to note is that, there is a
^^ SN. 12.16 at SN II 18: Ditthadhammanilihianappatto. slight variation in aim-set depicted in the Rdsiya-sutta and the Simsapd-sutta. It indicates the flexibility in the formulation of aims, which was proposed by the early Buddhists. These two Suttas provide striking illustrations on how the Buddha reformulated the aims which he himself set forth when the learners and their contexts require to do so.
It is clear that, according to the Buddhist thought, the aims of the Noble Eightfold Path are the guidelines for the educational aims. Some elements of the aims of the Noble Eightfold Path can be taken as the aims of education depending on the levels of education and specific programmed courses.
To set a general aim for education for example, we can refer to upasama and nibbdna to formulate the aim of education like this:
- To prepare pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of a happy integrated life.
Or we can refer to cakkhu, nana, abhinnd, and sambodhi to put the aim of education as:
- To promote the intellectual and mental development of pupils at the school and in the society.
- To promote the spiritual development (awakening).
We can also set the aim regarding moral and emotional education with reference to nibbidd, virdga and nirodha.
- To promote self-transformation through moral and emotional development.
As far as the relevant textual sources inform, the set of goals of the Middle Path and the path-factors themselves cover all what we can call goals, ideals, aims and objectives of education from the Buddhist point of view. While the goal-sets are more associated with aims, the path-factors are more associated with objectives.
Considering the path-factors to set the objectives of education, the triad model (e.g. intellectual development, behavioural modification, and mental cultivation) corresponding to the three principles of education (awakening-, care-, and peace-
184 oriented principles) provide a guideline for setting suitable objectives of education. It directly points to the transformation of the educand at behaviour tangible level, traits latent level as well as roots deepest level. Mentioning these three levels, it is to emphasise that the Buddhist discussion of aims of education is not only based on its philosophy but also on a sound psychological foundation.
The set of goals of the Middle Path as we have explored from the ancient texts includes a series of values: vision (cakkhn), knowledge {nana), equanimity (nibbidd), dispassion (viraga) and cessation of craving {nirodha), peace (upasama), insight (abhinna), full-awakening (sambodhi) and emancipation (nibbana). What we call well-being, self-control, self-actualization, self- realization, emotional balance, emotional intelligence, human flourishing, flourishing life, and so on in aims-talk literature are all included in this series.
Except full-awakening and nibbanic happiness which appear to be spiritually high to the reach of a layman, the rest of values are concerned much with knowledge, desire, craving, freedom, calm, well-being and insight. These values are well- known facts in human experience. These are all what human beings want.
It is noted that these aims were formulated by the Buddha in his prevalent context. The variation between the two sets of goal illustrates the flexibility and adaptability in Buddhist approach.
In brief, from the Buddhist view, the principal aim of education is to develop noble person''*^ endowed with knowledge, purification, happiness, liberation and wisdom. Specific sets of aims or objectives for specific courses, programmes or levels are flexible and adaptable according to the contexts.
5.4.2 On Contents of Curriculum
The discussion on the implications of the Noble Eightfold Path for education in this section is mainly based on the varying expositions in the
'^^' Noble person is often refercd to in the Siitta-pitaka in terms of sotapanna, sakadagama, anagama and arahcmt. 185 Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the Mahacattarisaka-sutta and the Culavedalla- sutta.
The content of education in Buddhist tradition or the suggestive content areas of secular curriculum from the Buddhist view is the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path. Its standard description is in the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta. As it is explained throughout in the Siitta-pitaka, the Noble Eightfold Path is both descriptive and prescriptive. On the one hand, it is a description of the Buddha's living philosophy. On the other, it is a practical guideline for action, for training, and for cultivation on the part of the learner. The suggestive contents of secular curriculum can be broken into eight areas according to the standard description of the Noble Eightfold Path:
(1) Transmission of knowledge and development of insight {samma-ditthi).
(2) Guidance and environment for cultivation of positive attitudes and values, like love and compassion {samma-sahkappo).
(3) Practice of truthful, helpful, constructive, kindly and gentle speech {sammd-vacd).
(4) Practice of care, protection, respect, integrity towards not only parents, teachers and friends but also all known and unknown living beings {samma-kammanto).
(5) Training for right professions (samma-djlvo).
(6) Practice of hard work, studiousness, vigilance {samma-vayamo).
(7) Practice of attention, mindfulness, awareness (samma-sati).
(8) Cultivation of calm, peace for individual and society {samma-samadhi).
Besides, the Ciilavedalla-siitta reveals a variation regarding the content areas. The three areas of content of curriculum depicted in this Siitta correspond with three principles of education. They are:
186 (1) Behavioural modification, cultivation and practice of morality (corresponding with care-oriented principle of education, including speech, actions and professions) {sila-sikkha).
(2) Cultivation of mind, self-control, self-reliance, and peace (corresponding with peace-oriented principle of education, including right-effort, concentration, meditation, mindful learning, mindful living and peace) {samadhi-sikkha).
(3) Develepment of intellectuality (corresponding with awakening-oriented principle of education, including cognitive knowledge and affective knowledge) {pannd-sikkhd).
In addition, the Mahacattdrlsaka-siitta suggests one more alternative regarding the content areas of curriculum. According to the suggestions in this Sutta, the content can be divided into two catogories, namely, (1) the path to Awakening and (2) the path o/Awakening.
The path to Awakening is for part-time training mode. The path o/Awakening is for full-time training mode. The former is based on the long-term basis. The latter is based on the short-term basis. Or we can say, the former is the content designed for lay learners and the latter is for professional learners.
One important note to be taken here is that, in both the categories, right-view, right-effort and right-mindfulness are necessary. Another point is that though vocational education does not have an important place in Buddhist education, a guideline for vocational education is given in the Noble Eightfold Path.
As it is pointed out at the very beginning, in Buddhist education the combination of theory and practice is a must (Dhp.20). The former is the process of learning to master the path theoretically. This process is called pariyatti. The latter which is the testing and application of pariyatti is called patipatti. It means to live in accordance with the Dhainma. In brief, it is the application of three principles of education with reference to the Noble Eightfold Path into educational activities as well as m our hfe (AN.8.25 at AN IV 220; AN.4.246 at AN 11 245).
187 In addition, the two current approaches to mindfulness, viz. the traditional and the psychological, explained above have practical implications:
For Buddhist educators, it is necessary to learn the way modem social psychologists adopt Buddhist concept of mindfulness to develop their own theory of mindfulness and introduce it to mainstream education. The Buddhist educators can learn and introduce mindfulness to education in their own ways flexibly.
For social psychologists, the theory of mindfulness should be revisited. Mindfulness is not merely a technique, it is a way of being. Mindftilness is not merely a good idea or a useful concept, but it is a practice toward peace within and without (Kabat-zinn, 2008; Nhat Hanh, 2006; Premasiri, 2006).
5.4.3 On Knowledge
As the Buddhist path is the path leading the learner from ignorance to awakening, the implications of the path for education is a vast theme. In this section, the discussion is limited to some aspects of knowledge which are most significantly connected to education, and which are at the same time substantially indicated in the Siittas on the Noble Eightfold Path.
The first point is about the role of knowledge. In studying the Noble Eightfold Path, we have come across a variety of terms which are employed in the Siitta- pitaka to express different modes of knowing, such as vihndna, sahfia, ditthi, nana, panha, abhinna, dassana, vijja, samhodhi... At the same time, a variety of adjective words and phrases are used to distinguish different modes of knowledge, such as samma-ditthi, asavakkhayanndna, and vimiitti-nana- dassana.Each form of knowledge can be identified as a distinctive perspective. Some kinds of knowledge are common to all human beings as basic cognitive experiences, viz. perception (sanna) and consciousness (vinnana), while some other kinds of knowledge can be seen only in the well-trained minds, such as right-view {sammd-ditthi), transforming knowledge (dsavakkhayanndna), liberating knowledge {vimuttihdnadassana), wisdom (pannd) and awakening (samhodhi). This rich linguistic and conceptual reference to knowledge can be
188 cons,de.d as an .d.a.on of the ,.po.ant status wh.h Pledge plays . education from Buddhist perspective.
The Claim that only Wledge of higher level such as right-view (...... ,,,, -nsfo^^ng ..owledge (....,,.,.....) .. ,,,^^,^^ ^^.^^J
accept d widely in the Buddhist circles. However, the textual evidences in the -..-.M. .eveal that common cognition of human heings also Z^ important role on the path to and o/awakening provided it is guided skilfully - For example, perceptions are generally seen as misconceptions and distortions of reality and consequently as one of the roots of human problems (Johansson, 1979, pp. 95-96). However, the Buddha said that perception can be trained."*^ It can be regulated with systematic guidance. The systematic training of perception prescribed in the Potthapada-sutta (DN.9) is none other than the practice of right- mindfulness and right-concentration. That is to say, knowledge, whether it is conceptual or experiential, plays a very important role in Buddhist education. According to the Avijja-sutta (SN.45.1 at SN V 1-2), knowledge {vijja) is a requirement for the arising of right-view, from which right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort, right-mindfulness and right- concentration arise. In other words, every decent human action, whether it is physical, verbal or mental, is necessarily preceded by knowledge, whether it is conceptual knowledge or right-view or wisdom. In the case of right-view, it is the meaning of the insightful statement: Knowledge comes first.
The second point regarding knowledge to be emphasised here is the necessity to clarify the variety of knowledge, which is to be imparted or developed in education from Buddhist perspective. If the Noble Eightfold Path is regarded as the Buddhist scheme of education, samma-ditthi obviously takes on the place of
'•^^ Bhikkhu. Bodhi (2005, p. 302) holds a view that panna also involves precise conceptual operations. '""* DN.9.11 at DN I 183: Sikkha ekci sama uppajjati, sikkha ekci safiiia niriijjhati. See also P. D. Premasiri (2006, p. 136). 189 knowledge in question. Alternatively, this position is taken by pahna if education is described in terms of the three principles of education.
Though attributes of samma-ditthi and pahha are similar, the second proposition appears to be more comprehensive, because, according to the classification given in the Culavedalla-sutta, in panha, two factors are included viz. right-view and right-resolve. Right-view represents cognitive knowledge, while right-resolve represents affective knowledge.
What this deliberation reveals is that from Buddhist perspective both cognitive knowledge and affective knowledge are to be imparted to and developed in the educand. Cognitive knowledge facilitates intellectual development, while affective knowledge facilitates emotional balance. Both are concerns of morality.
The last point is concerned with how one gets to know something or how knowledge is developed. There is a concept that signifies the process of knowledge development in the Siitta-pitaka. That is cintdmaya-panna (knowledge construction).'''^
According to Acariya Buddhaghosa's interpretation in Visuddhimagga, cintdmayd-pannd is the knowledge "produced" or "formed" or "accomplished" or "constructed" {nipphannattd) by "mental act" or "reasoning" {cintdvasend) based on one's own observations of objective reality (Buddhaghosa, trans. 1956, p. 438).
The concept of cintdmayd-panhd suggests that all knowledge is constructed. Knowledge is mental construction. It is constructed by the individual through a process of coming together of several elements; sense, object, consciousness, contact, feeling, and perception. The process of knowledge construction is described in the Siitta-pitaka as follows:
Depending upon the visual sense and the visible object, arises visual consciousness; the coming together of these three is contact; depending
DN.33.1.8 DN III 219: Aparupi tisso panhu - cintamaya paMa, sutamaya pamu, hhavanamaya pamu. 190 upon contact arises feeling; what one feels one perceives; what one perceives one reasons about.'^°
Similarly, perception also arises through other senses. This is the process by which perception and experience are constructed. As in modem science, Buddhist thought views experience as origin of all knowledge. Three conditions necessary for this process are sense-organ, external object, and sense-consciousness. According to Buddhist thought, any perceptual knowledge of an object has some conceptual and sensory elements (MN. 18.16). Therefore, knowledge in Buddhist epistemology is a form of mental construction of relative reality. Though knowledge is psychogically and individually constructed, according to the Buddhist theory of relational self, it is social and inter-subjective. Bhatt & Mehrotra (2000, p. 23) call it a form of inter-subjective generalization.
The operation of conceptual perception (sannd), sensory experience (vedana), and consciousness {vinhana) together represents the capacity of constructing of novel "mental acts" based upon the past habits and behavior {sankhara). These mental acts give rise to future perception and behaviour. This epistemology was later developed by Vasubandhu (4"" Cent. CE) and Paramartha (499-569) to be a kind of epistemological constructivism (Forman, 1989, p. 399; Paul, 1981, p. 298), which is strikingly similar to the modem constructivism.
Knowledge Acquisition
Knowledge construction can take place in various conditions. According to a statement in the Sangiti-sutta (DN.33), there are two modes of knowledge construction. One is knowledge construction based on leaming from others {sutamayd-pahiia). The term Suta originally means 'hearing' (PED), which is the main approach of learning in ancient India. In modern terminology, sutamaya-
MN.18.16 at MN I 111-112: Cakklmiicavuso, paticca nlpe ca iippajjati cakkhiivinnanaip, tinnaip sahgati phasso, phassapaccaya vedana, yam vedeti tam saiijanctti yaw sanjanciti tarn vitakketi, yam vitakketi tam papaiiceti, yam papapjceti tatonidanam piirisam papancasannasankha samiidacaranti atltanagatapaccuppan-nesu cakkhiiyinneyyesii nipesu. See also Jayatillckc (1963, p. 433); Myint (2007, p. 231); Premasiri (2006, p. 135). 191 pahhd can be rendered as the process of the acquisition of knowledge, which is usually associated with learning. It takes place mainly with the instruction of other(s) as a "scaffolding" in modem terminology. The result of this process is a type of "acquired knowledge."
According to Buddhist thought, acquired knowledge is acknowledged as one of the important elements in learning process. In the Pahhavuddhi-sutta, acquired knowledge {saddhammasavand) is said to be one of the four conditions conducive to the development of wisdom {panfia) (AN.4.246 at AN II 245). This insight of Buddhist thought is strikingly in tune with modem cognitive psychology.
According to Anita Woolfolk, a prominent educational psychologist, acquired knowledge is an important part constituting of what the individual brings to the new learning situations (2004, p. 237). It is a scaffold that supports all future knowledge construction. It determines to a great extent what learners pay attention to, perceive, leara, remember and forget. Acquired knowledge is a pioneer in dealing with ignorance. This is the reason why this stage of knowledge development is considered by many scholars as an initiative stage.
However, though acquired knowledge is categorised under pahhd, acquired knowledge itself is not pahhd. It is not right-view, either. It is merely conceptual understanding. In the Buddhist thought, this knowledge is a form of perception (sahhd).
If we take into consideration the conditions for arising of right-view, we find that the statement in the Mahdvedalla-sutta perfectly accords well with the above interpretation of sutamayd-pahhd. In this Sutta, the Buddha says that there are two conditions for the arising of right-view: the voice of other (parato-ghosa) and wise consideration (yoniso manasikdra)}^^ That is to say, conceptual construction or conceptualization of facts through listening (or reading, or even rational speculation) is a means to knowledge, and not knowledge itself It is not
'•^' MN.43 at MN I 294: Dve kho, avuso, paccaya sammuditthiya uppadaya - parato ca ghoso. yoniso ca manasikaro. 192 awakening knowledge - knowledge in the sense of pama. However, if learners are trained to learn with an appropriately attentive frame of mind (yoniso manasikdra), there is chance for awakening knowledge to arise.
In the discourse on wisdom (PafiPid-sutta), the acquisition of knowledge is said to be one of the eight methods for development of wisdom:
He has learnt much, remembers what he has learnt, and consolidates what he has learnt. Such teachings that are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, in their meaning and expression, and which affirm a spiritual life that is entirely complete and pure - such teachings as these he has learnt much of, memorized, discussed, accumulated, examined with his mind, and well-penetrated in terms of his views.
Acquired knowledge can reach to high level by ways of proper reflection and penetration through various stages. However, as far as the learner has not scrutinized the knowledge, which is acquired through learning with other higher modes of understanding, so that he can know directly {abhijdndti), he is still regarded as unenlightened one {assutava puthujjana) (MN.1.3 at MN 1 1). At this level, knowledge has not been categorised as right-view. It is merely conceptualization or perception {sahhd) and the person who acquires knowledge by perceiving {sanjdndti) is still attached to his knowledge (Bodhi, 1994, p. 10; Fuller, 2005, p. 68; Kalupahana, 1992, p. 62; Nanananda, 1971, pp. 40ff; Premasiri, 2007; Sarachandra, 1994, p. 3). The Buddha points out that a person who is attached to sahhd (conceptual constructions) is not free from bondage (Sn.847). Therefore, according to Buddhist thought of education, knowledge which is acquired is subject to be scrutinized with the other higher modes of understanding that conduce to liberation (MN. 1.27 at MN 1 4).
AN.8.2 at AN IV 151: Bahiissiito hoti siitadharo sutasannicayo. Ye te dhammci adikalyana majjhekalyana pariyosanakalyana sattham sabyaiijanam keva/aparipiinnam parisiiddham brahmacariyam abhivadanti, tathcirupassa dhammci bahussittd honti dhatci vacasa paricita manasamipekkhita ditthiya suppcUividdha. Ayam, hhikkhave, pahcamo hetii pancamo paccayo adibrahmacariyikciya pannaya oppatiladdhaya palilahhcya. patiladdhaya bhiyyobhavaya vepulldya bhavcmaya pdripiiriya samvattati. 193 Bhikkhu Bodhi argues that following the Noble Eightfold Path is a matter of practice, rather than intellectual knowledge (1994, p. viii). Therefore, this kind of knowledge is not that which the Buddhist thought aims at, though it is necessary at the beginning.
Knowledge Cultivation
The other mode of knowledge construction is based on mental cultivation {bhdvanamaya-pahha). The term ''bhdvana" literally means cultivation or meditation. The practice of meditation to develop insight is the focus of traditional Buddhist education.
In the Ariyapariyesand-sntta of the Majjhima-nikaya, the Buddha is represented as having practiced all the then popular methods of mental development in the search for truth. However, the Buddha was not impressed by them, especially meditative practice and philosophic speculation as the two main tendencies at that time (MN.26; Dasgupta, 1922, p. 13; Wynne, 2003, p. 105). Then he took a different direction in his search for liberating knowledge. It is on this basis that the Buddha discovered and introduced a new mode of knowledge development, that is, bhdvandmayd-pahnd. This method is popularly known as insight meditation {vipassand meditation).
In a discourse on the development of knowledge, the Buddha said that when insight is developed {vipassand hhdvTyati), wisdom is developed (pannd bhdviyati), and when wisdom is developed, ignorance is abandoned (avijjd pahiyati).
Another instance of instruction is found in a discourse on the development of wisdom {PaMd-sutta). First the learner should calm the mind (samatha), then meditatively reflect on the arising and passing away (anicca) with regard to the five aggregates: form, feeling, perception, mental formation and consciousness. When the mind is composed, cleared-off all biases and prejudices, and
AN.2.30 at AN I 61: Vipasscwa, hhikkhave, bhavita kamatthamamtbhoti? Pafimi bhavlyati. Panna bhavita kamatthamanuhhoti:' Yd avijja set pahiyati. 194 established in perfect equanimity, it is then capable of understanding the reality of everything as it is.
It is important to be noted that this kind of understanding {pahhd) does not represent any mystical intuition into some metaphysical reality. It represents insight into the observable characteristics of empirical phenomena, which Buddhism expresses in terms of the three characteristics of existence (//- lakkhana), namely, anicca, dukkha, and anatta.
The object oipahha is not some eternal metaphysical existence which transcends all the data of sense experience. It also takes the world of mind and matter as its object. It is rather the insight into the characteristics of the data of sense experience that give rise to human suffering and bondage due to a deluded response to them. For this reason, learners even at the very young age can be guided to construct and develop pannd (MN.61 at MN 1414; Iti.3.74 at Iti 62- 63).
According to Buddhist thought, therefore, knowledge which can be reckoned as conducive to the reduction of human suffering is that which brings about a radical transformation of the person. It is called the knowledge of destruction of mental defilements (DN.2.97 at DN I 84). Master Thich Nhat Hanh once said (1998, p. 150) that "there needs to be a revolution in education." He (p. 252) emphasised:
Schools are not just places for transmitting technical know-how. They must also be places where children can learn to be happy, loving, and understanding, where teachers nourish their students with their own insights and happiness.
Schools should be the places for awakening our students to the art of living in peace and harmony.
No matter how knowledge is initiated and constructed, whether it is acquired or cultivated, knowledge development has a considerable place in Buddhist educational theory and practice. The operation of the awakening-oriented principle of education is based on the significant role and function of knowledge.
195 The implications of the Buddhist teaching of knowledge with special reference to the first two factors of the Noble Eightfold Path show that in Buddhist epistemology, knowledge is inter-subjectively constructed. The process of knowledge construction takes place in two ways: constructive acquisition (sutamayd) and constructive cultivation {bhavandmaya).
5.4.4 On Teacher and Learner
Teacher
There are several passages in the Sutta-pitaka (MN.65; SN.8.7; SN.12.6; SN. 12.82; SN. 12.83; SN.22.58; Dhp.159) concerning the role of teacher and her essential qualities. In the Mahd-vagga of the Samyntta-nikdya, the Buddha once said that one, who does not know and see aright the interconnected nature of existence, should search for a teacher {sattha) to learn and practise accordingly in order to know and see aright (SN. 12.82 at SN II 130; SN. 12.83 at SN II 131). It seems that the Buddhist concept of the teacher has a very wide connotation: anyone from whom one learns a right thing is one's teacher. In the Sabrahmaka- sutta, parents are designated as the first teachers.'^"*
In the Sutta-pitaka, sattha and dcariya are the two terms which are often used in the sense of teacher. According to Henry Weerasinghe (1979, p. 13), sattha is applied only to those teachers who could claim to possess unlimited cognitive abilities and affective qualities. As far as the Noble Eightfold Path is concerned, the Pavarana-sutta (SN.8.7 at SN I 191) and the Sammasambiiddha-sutta (SN.22.58 at SN III 66) describe the teacher as one who knew the path {maggahhu), who skilled in the path {maggavidu) and who trod the path (maggakovidii). It is true that sattha in both the Siittas refers to the Buddha himself However, as Ananda Guruge points out, the Bhaddali-sutta generally describes a bhikkhu in the role of a teacher as one endowed with the ten qualities: right-view, right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort,
'"""* AN.3.31 at AN I 70; AN.4.63 at AN II 132: Piihhucariya matapitmain etam adhivacanam. 196 right-mindfulness, right-concentration, right-knowledge {sammd-hana) and right- deHverance (samma-vimutti) (MN.65.34 at MN I 446).
We find in this Sutta a close relation between the qualities of a teacher with [the personal qualities described in] the Noble Eightfold Path. According to this description, it is clear that a competent teacher is one who is well-versed and well-trained in accordance with eight qualities, e.g., being knowledgeable (right- view), compassionate (right-resolve), kindly communicative (right-speech), caring (right-action), respectful (right-livelihood), committed and considerate (right-effort), mindfiil (right-mindfulness), and peaceful and free-and-open- minded (right-concentration). In other words, according to the three principles of education, a good teacher is a knowledgeable, caring and peaceful one.
The Dhammakathika-sutta (SN.12.16 at SN II 18) describes three types of a teacher: a teacher who teaches the Dhamma for the purpose of liberation {Dhammakathika); a teacher who is practising in accordance with the Dhamma {dhammdnudhammappatipanno); and teacher who is liberated by non-clinging {ditthadhammanibbdnappatto). What is revealed here is that so long as one lives in accordance with the Dhamma, whether one teaches verbally or by practical example, or just being with the Dhamma, one is regarded as a teacher. In other words, living the Dhamma is an indispensable quality of a good teacher.
Besides, the Sigdlaka-sutta (DN.31.29 at DN III 189) also enumerates five duties of teachers to their students. The five duties are (1) giving thorough instruction to his students, (2) making sure that they have grasped what they should have duly grasped, (3) giving them a thorough basics in all skills, (4) recommending them to their friends and colleagues, and (5) providing them with security in all directions.'^^
•^""' Ananda Guruge (1990) says that these are obligations between teachers and pupils in secular setting only. 197 Learner
Similar to the concept of teacher, the concept of learner also has a considerable place in Buddhist literature. The previous studies on Buddhist education have shown some ideas regarding the places and categories of the learners in Buddhist tradition. Yet there is a difficulty regarding what the concept of learner in Buddhist education really is. Some scholars (Mookerji, 1947/1998; Reagan, 2005) hold the view that Buddhist education is confined to the monasfics only. That is, only those who enter the monastic community (Sangha) can be regarded as a Buddhist learner. On the contrary, many more other scholars and masters (Bodhi, 2000, p. 1497; Burns, 1968, p. 90; Chakravarti, 1996, pp. 131-135; Goenka, 2006, p. 82; Mayer, 1960, p. 43; Nyanaponika, 2006, pp. 16, 32; Oldenberg, 1992, p. 162, 383; Singh, 1997, p. 168; ) hold the broader view that the teaching of the Buddha is open to everybody without any kind of discrimination and whoever receive the Buddha's teachings at all levels are called the "learners."
Turning to the Sutta-pitaka, we find that the term for 'learner' is sekha (also sekkhd). A sekha is an individual who trains himself/herself (sikkhati) according to the three principles of education.'^^ When s/he completed the course of training and realised the desired goal (e.g. attainment of liberating knowledge, vimutti- Mna), s/he is called asekha. This person now is qualified as an adept or an expert or a professional learner, who has gone beyond training (MN.65.34 at MN I 446). That is to say, an asekha can be regarded as a qualified teacher.
'^^ AN.3.84 at AN I 231: Sekho, sekho'ti, hhante, viiccati. Kittavata mt kho, hhcmte, sekho hotV'ti? "Sikkhatiti kho, hhikkhu, tasmci sekhoti viiccati. Kinca sikkhati? Adhisllampi sikkhati, adhicittampi sikkhati, adhipahhampi sikkhati. Sikkhatiti kho, hhikkhu, tasma sekhoti viiccati "ti. According to Vistiddhimagga (trans., 1956/1991, p. 274), Sikkhati here means 'strive' {ghalati, vayamati). 198 In Buddhist education, learning is basically self-learning and self-training, albeit other's instruction is helpful at the beginning.'^^ Therefore, sekha is also understood as a trainee (Bodhi, 2000), and asekha is a teacher or a trainer.
In the Sekkha-sutta of the Afiguttara-nikaya, the learning process is described in terms of threefold principles: care-oriented principle of education (adhisllasikkha), peace-oriented principle of education {adhicittasikkha), and awakening-oriented principle of education {adhipannasikkhd) (AN.3.84 at AN I 231). In the Sekkha-sutta of the Samyutta-nikdya, the training is explained in terms of eight factors: Sammd-ditthi,..., sammd-samddhi (SN.45.13 at SN V 14).
In other places in the Sutta-pitaka, a learner is referred to as a sdvaka. At the time of the Buddha, knowlegde was transmitted and received mainly through listening. It was an oral mode of communication where speaking and listening are as important as writing and reading are in today education. Therefore, the word, sdvaka, in Pali, which literally means "a listener" is used for "a studenf (PED). It is mostly used in compound ariya-sdvaka, noble disciple, being contrasted with ordinary learner (puthujjana)}^^
In general, both sekha and sdvaka are used in the sense that transcends monastic- lay divisions and refer to anyone from the four categories of learners in the Buddhist community: bhikkhu, bhikkhum, updsaka, iipdsikd. Ariya-sdvaka is often used for a good monastic learner (DN.31.27 at DN III 188; MN.53.6 at MN
'^'' Learning needs to be conceived of as something a learner does, not something that is done to a learner. '^** In a narrow sense, savaka is at least on the path to enlightenment (sotapatti, sakadagamitd, anugumita, arahatta). In this sense, 'ordinary people' {piithiijjana) can be contrasted with this narrow definition of noble disciple' (ariya-sdvaka). It should be noted that piithujjana is also used to denote a dhammic learner who may be devoted to the practice of the Dhamma, but despite their earnestness, they have not reached the position where liberation is irrevocably assured. An ordinary is supposed to lacks the balance of the eight factors of the Path. If he learns and practises the path, he will become a noble one. Therefore, this path is called noble. When all eight factors developed, they lead the learner to the noble attainments. Therefore, in a broader sense, sdvaka denotes any earnest disciple learner, both lay and monastic (Nyanaponika, Hecker & Bodhi, 2003, p. 379). 199 II 354), while sdvaka-sadhu is used for a good lay learner (Sn.393 at Sn 69). In another context (DN.31 at DN III), layperson and monastic are called gihi (or gahapati) and pabbajita respectively. From all these illustrations, it is concluded that, with regard to the Noble Eightfold Path in particular, and the whole teaching of the Buddha in general, there is no strict discrimination between the lay learners and the expert (monastic) learners, and neither is there any reservation only for the monastic.
In general, the identity of a learner is determined by the understanding s/he achieves in the learning process. According to the learning process described in the Sekha-sutta (SN.48.53 at SN V 229), an individual can be designated as a sekha as far as s/he understands the Four Ennobling Truths, of which the Noble Eightfold Path is the fourth. An individual who has understood and practised this path successfiilly is called asekha, one who has gone beyond the training.
Based on the meaning oi sdvaka, it is surmised that Buddhism has provisions for the two categories of learning or training. In the modem terminology, one category can be called full-time training mode for monks and nuns which is based on intensive training of the short-term basis.'^^ Those who wish to reach the goal without much delay, become full-time students by gaining admission to the Order.'^" The other category is part-time mode of training for laymen and laywomen and it is based on the long-term basis. This can be considered as extension and continuing education. The fundamental principles of training for the laypersons are described in the Sigdlovada-sutta (DN.31 at DN III 180-193).
Considering all the terms which are used in the Siitta-pitaka to refer to a learner, we notice that there is no social, racial and religous restriction on the concept of 'learner' in Buddhist education. Whosoever is ready to learn can be a learner, no matter s/he is a bhikkhu, bhikkhiim, upasaka or iipdsikd. The Noble Eightfold Path is open to all.
'"''' This way of categorisation was first given by Wcerasinghe (1992, pp. 58-59). "' The course of training for this category is expounded in details in the Samaiifiaphala- sutta (DN.2 at DN I 47-102). A summary is given by Thomas (1933, pp. 44-50). 200 It is note-worthy that bhikkhu {bhikkhave) is the word the Buddha used to address his Hsteners in general. This term is normally translated as "monks" (Analayo, 2003; Homer, 1954/1995; Nyanatiloka, 1907/2001; Walshe, 1987; Woodward & Hare, 1946/1995). Today, Bhikkhu is widely used to refer respectfully to a fully- ordained monk in Buddhist tradition, like Venerable. However, the term bhikkhu in ancient context applies to any serious learner of the path - male or female, monk or layperson, because the teachings of the Buddha were actually meant for everyone. What is interesting to be noted is that the Buddha addressed his five former friends as "bhikkhu"^^^ even before they formally became his disciples and members of the Sangha. The Buddha also assured that he taught the path and praised those who walked the path (SN.45.24 at SN V 18) no matter they were monastics or lay-persons.
However, the Buddha was well aware of individual diferences and the influence of the environment on the individual.'^^ Therefore, for the sake of effective teaching, the Buddha generally categorised his students into two main groups, based on the two modes of training respectively: the monastics {bhikkhu and bhikkhunf) with full-time learning mode, and the lay-persons (iipasaka and upasika) with part-time learning mode. In the modem terminology, these two categories can be called professional/expert learner and lay learner respectively (Woolfolk, 2004, p. 15). It seems that with this way of classification, a general guideline is given to teachers so that they can work out their own ways to create a conducive learning environment and provide appropriate guidance for leamers. In such conditions, what leamers have to do is, according to the suggestion given in the Mahacattarlsaka-sutta, to make effort to learn mindfully and to constmct and cultivate their knowledge in right orientation.
"'' MN.26.26 at MN 1171: Pancavaggiya bhikkhu temipasankam fteno upasankamati] (I approached the bhikkhus of the group of five). '^'' Each person is the owner of his/her actions in the past as well as at the present (MN. 135.4 at MN III 203). The environment in which a person lives is also the result of his/her actions (SN.14.1-10 at SN II 140-148). 201 In applying interdependence and non-duality to the context of teaching and learning, it becomes clear that teachers and learners are not independent entities; they are participants in a process that involves the flow of information (Siegel, 2008, p. 6) through dialogues and shared interactions with various texts. In this process, learners are not reduced to mere information receivers passively and teachers are not merely the givers.'^^ It is not one-way transmission of knowledge. With the implications of the inter-dependence in the teaching- learning process, it becomes obvious that the relationship between teachers and students is deeply dialogical."''* Both the parties are engaged in the real relationships as actual human beings, and they should relate to one another ethically in ways that are consistent with the Noble Eightfold Path. That is, they are obliged to treat each other with respect, recognize their interrelation, and participate authentically in "communicative action" designed to generate "communal connection rooted in the perspective of relation." (i.e., learner as young people-in-context, not young people as individuals, see Biesta & Lawy, 2006).
In short, in learning, both teachers and learners involve in construction of meaning from personal and shared experiences. This is well attuned with the theory of knowledge construction which has been discussed above.
5.4.5 On Teaching - Learning Process
Teaching
Teaching and learning process is not the main theme in any of the major Siittas which focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. The content of the Noble Eightfold Path
With this view, education is not a commodity which is provided to "customers," but it is rather a transaction which takes place in the context of a real and humane relationship, entered into for the good of learner, teacher, and society at large (McLeod, 2007, p. 168). '^•^ According to McLeod (2007, p. 168), this dialogical relationship between teacher and learner sets a powerful example of how learners can participate in the world. By participating in a genuinely dialogical relationship with teachers and each other, learners cultivate and practice mindful, communicative kindness in school as well as in life. 202 does not directly deal with it either. However, Buddhist view on teaching- learning process is somehow implied in these Suttas.
Studying the Buddha's methodological approaches for teaching and learning from the perspective of early Buddhism, Butr-Indr (1973, pp. 199-205) points out that the Buddha adopted gradual, illustrative, analytical and experimental approaches for his teaching. Ananda Guruge (1990, pp. 22-35) and Henry Weerasinghe (1992, pp. 106-131) analyse the ways by which the Buddha taught and reach a similar agreement. Both come to the consensus that the Buddha was very skillful teacher in using different teaching methods and pedagogical techniques, such as lecture-method, dialogue-method, discovery-method, conceptual analysis- method, enumeration, illustration and analogy, catching the learners' attention and story-telling.
Focusing on the Noble Eightfold Path, we find that there are some Suttas in which how the Noble Eightfold Path should be taught and learnt is mentioned.
The Saccavibhanga-sutta (MN.141 at MN III 248) gives a list of terms indicating how a process of teaching takes place. They are announcing, teaching, describing, establishing, revealing, expounding and exhibiting. The internal evidence reveals that these are the steps of delivering a lesson following the lecture-method, which is employed in all major Suttas on the Noble Eightfold Path. It is obvious that in this method, concept analysis is emphasised. Apart from conceptual analysis, stimulating questions, similies, dialogues, discussions, etc., are also used flexibly. In general, most of the pedagogical approaches, methods and techniques pointed out in the previous studies are reflected in ways by which the Noble Eightfold Path is taught.
It is described in the Pacinaninna-sutta (SN.45.91 at SN V 38) that a learner of the Noble Eightfold Path slants, slopes and inclines towards Nihbdna just as the river Ganges slants, slopes and inclines towards the eastern sea.'^^ What this
^^ SN.45.91 at SN V 38: Seyyathapi, hhikkhave, gciiiga nadi pacmaninna pacinapona pacmapahhhara; evameva kho, hhikkhave, hhikkhu arivam attharigikam maggani hhcivento ariyam atthangikam maggani hahiillkaronto nihbananinno hoti nihhcmapono 203 description reveals is that learning the Noble Eightfold Path is a gradual course. In other words, from Buddhist view, teaching-learning is a process of gradual development.
We have seen that teaching-learning process in Buddhist tradition has always been guided by Buddhist philosophy. It is equally important that from Buddhist view, educational practice should also be based on sound foundations of psychology and sociology. Teaching should be planned in ways that it facilitates the process of gradual progress.
The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta describes how the Buddha launched the plan of teaching his first lesson on both psychological and sociological considerations. Initially, the Buddha thought that what he discovered was so deep and difficult to understand that he appeared to hesitate to teach. But he then considered the psychological dispositions of the learners to whom he intended to teach; and this psychological consideration is one of the roots of his conviction in teaching and its effect. Throughout forty-five years of teaching, the Buddha always taught, referring to his own experiences as an Awakened One.'^^ Through his experience, understanding, perserverance and effort, he proved that all human beings have latent possibilities to solve their living problems,'^^ which can be unfolded and developed by one's own endeavour only (Dhp.276).
nibbanapabhharo. See also MN.70.22 at MN I 479; MN. 107.3; AN.6.14 at AN IV 200- 201). "''' AN.4.36 at AN 11 36-37: the Buddha himself asserted that he was an Awakened One, not a God. He never claims to be a saviour who try to save souls by means of supernatural power. To his disciples, he is a teacher who declared the path which had not been declared before, and who found the path, set up the path, walked on the path, mastered the path and guided along the path (MN. 108.5 at MN III 8). See also Kalupahana(1992, p. 122). '^^ According to Buddhist thought, all human problems can be reduced to one thing which the Buddha called diikkha. Its main cause is tanha and avijja (SN.56.11; SN.12.15). Diikkha is within us. Tanha and aviJJa are within us. Therefore, the path is also within us. They all lies in our daily experience. Tcmha are selfish motives. A-vijja is lack of right knowledge (Bodhi, 1994, p. 104). The Buddha said that a-vijja as misunderstanding is indeed a powerful element (mahati-dhutii, SN.14.13 at SN II 153). 204 Of course, according to Buddhist thought, the mental conditions of learner are always affected by their social contexts. And they in turn affect their capacity and orientation in learning.'^^
The Buddha's view regarding the use of languages also reveals his sociological concern. He permitted his disciples to use their own language in disseminating the Dhamma. Buddhist teachers are encouraged to use the students' dialect {sakaya niruttiya) to teach (MN.139.12 at MN 111 234-235). Therefore, teachers' language proficiency is an important factor and should be considered carefully in teaching profession.
Learning
As the process of teaching and learning takes place through oral instruction, listening attentively was indispensable condition for a learner as the main channel of learning. Effective learning is expected to take place when the students have got themselve prepared. In most of the cases, the Buddha starts his discourses saying "Listen and pay close attention, 1 shall say."'^' On one occasion, the Buddha rebuked the learner Ambattha because the latter did not get himself prepared and did not listen attentively to what the teacher said (DN.3.1.11 at DN I 90). The implication of the Buddha's admonition shows that attentive listening is a necessary condition in teaching-learning process. Without attentive listening, the learner is likely to grasp the teachings wrongly (MN.22 at MN 1 130-133). This is a significant indicator of the pedagogical principles which the Buddha upheld.
Althought students are expected to listen to the teacher with respectful attention, the Buddha did not expect the learner to be neither passive nor too ready to accept
While a-vijja is the root and the forerunner of all unwholesome qualities, vijja is the root and the forerunner of all wholesome qualities (SN.45.1 at SN V 1). This is not always revealed explicitly in the Sitttas, but it can be inferred basing on the Buddha's way of teaching (sec MN.61 at MN I 414; SN.42.12; SN.56.11; Ud.2.3 at Ud 11-12; Ud.5.4 at Ud 51; Iti.3.5 at Iti 63). MN.1.2 at MN I 1: Simatha, sddhukam manasikarotha. 205 what was taught. The Buddha never encouraged unquestioned acceptance of anything on authority of the teacher. The unquestioned acceptance of the teacher's words would have gone against one of the Buddha basic principles of guaranteeing to each person the full and undisputed right to think for himself The basic ten principles were stated in the Kesamutti-sutta (AN.3.65 at AN I 189) as follows:
(1) Do not believe in what you have heard {amissavena)
(2) Do not believe in traditions, because they have been handed down for many generations (paramparaya).
(3) Do not believe in anything because it is rumoured and spoken of by many (itikirdya).
(4) Do not believe merely because it accords with your scriptures ipitakasampaddnena).
(5) Do not believe in conjectures {takkahetu)
(6) Do not accept anything by mere inference (nayahetu).
(7) Do not accept anything by merely considering the reasons {dkdraparivitakkena).
(8) Do not believe in anything because it agrees with your preconceived notions {ditthinijjhdnakkhantiyd).
(9) Do not accept anything because it seems acceptable {bhabharupatdya).
(10) Do not believe anything on the authority of the teachers or elders thinking that they are respected {samano no ganiti).
The Kesamutti-sutta advises that when we know for ourself, after observation and analysis, that these things are moral, blameless, praised by the wise and, when performed and undertaken, conducive to well-being and happiness of all, then accept it and live up to it.
Therefore, in Buddhist thought of education, as P. D. Premasiri (2006, p. 3!) and Aung Myint (2007) point out, a student is expected to be a critical experientialist. 206 It was so eloquently expressed in this Sutta that the Buddha considers learning as a free and unfettered exercise of one's own intellectual capacity to think for oneself From the perspective of educational psychology,'^" this capacity should be cultivated in youngsters from childhood.
It is important to note that from Buddhist perspective, learning involves not only thinking, but it is always connected to being mindful, experiencing and transforming.'^' Therefore, teaching-learning in true Buddhist sense is the process of mindful teaching and mindful learning. It is a cooperative activity taking place on the ground of interdependence.
5.5 Relevance of Buddhist Educational Thought
There is no single way of determining relevance, since there is no single way of determining that something makes a difference towards some end (Haydon, 1973). There may be cases in which one has to find out what is relevant, and to do so, may not be easy. In this section, relevance is understood in the sense that one thing is valuable to the other or that one thing is aligns with the other; therefore the relevance of Buddhist thought to contemporary education is discussed in the sense that how it "informs abouf or "throws light on" the current situation of education and how it contributes to improve the educational practices.
5.5.1 Contemporary Crises in Education and Buddhist Response
The Buddha and his disciples seemed to prefer for the most of the time to do something directly to help learners to train and educate themselves. They aimed at actual understanding of reality and improvement of quality of life rather than preaching about them from a theoretical standpoint (Dhp.51,52,100,101,10).
'^" Sternberg (2000). The great thinker and educator of India J. Krishnamurti (1987/2000, p. 178) also supports this view, saying that: There must be freedom right from childhood up, otherwise you are never free. '^' When the Buddha was asked to what extent one has attained truth, the Buddha replied: "There is an attainment of the truth only by gradually following, developing, practising and experiencing the doctrines themselves" (MN.95.33 at MN II 174). Practising, trying and experimenting with it, they may come to realize through their experience here and now the truth (MN.77.36 at MN II 22). 207 However, their practical achievements would have been impossible without a theory of education of some sort. It appears that Buddhist teachers and thinkers did not have to formulate and systematically articulate such a theory, which may be called Buddhist theory of education. In fact, it is fully embedded in Buddhist philosophy a rich source of educational thought. Especially, Buddhist philosophy seems to have educational relevance when it comes to such central topics of education as the aims of education and the connections of education with man's nature and destiny; the contents of education and problems of curriculum; the pedagogical methods; the role of school and other institutions and their connections with society; and the enlargement of educational opportunities throughout the population. In contemporary education, there are, to some extent, some sort of crisis in almost all of these fields (Berstein, 1996; Delors et al., 1996; Faure at al., 1972; Gandhi, 1999; Kumar, 2005; NCERT, 2005; Unesco, 1980). Kishore Gandhi (1999, p. 54) says that educational systems across the world are passing through an evolutionary crisis, a crisis from within and outside.
According to Delors et al. (1996, p. 103), education systems seem to suffer from an inherent lack of flexibility and they are at the mercy of error. They assert that the crisis of society at present also reflects the crisis of education. 'The problems of the social environment can no longer be left behind at the school gates: poverty, hunger, violence and drugs enter classrooms with the children" (p. 143).
According to Kishore Gandhi, being materialist market-oriented is one of the main reasons of educational crisis. Sharing this view, Basil Bernstein (Bernstein, 1996, cited in Kumar, 2005), one of the most influential sociologists of education in the 20"^ century, have said:
The principles of the market and its managers are more and more the managers of the policy and practices of education. Market relevance is becoming the key orientating criterion for the selection of discourses, their relation to each other, their forms and their research. This movement has profound implications from the primary school to the university. This can be seen in the stress on basic measurable skills at the primary level,
208 M vocational courses and specialisations at the secondary level, spurious decentralization, and the new instruments of state control over higher education and research.
Looking into the paradox in the contents of education, Nel Noddings (2004, p. 498) holds that educators today are besieged by a movement that demands higher and higher scores on standardized tests.
Anyone who has looked carefiiUy at these tests knows that they are loaded with trivial questions that most successful adults cannot answer and would indeed scorn to answer. Our children are being fed intellectual junk food, and we would do well to insist on a healthier educational diet (Noddings, 2004, p. 498).
As far as morality is concerned, there has been a persistent erosion of values in the society. There are situations when the values imparted and inculcated in schools are not generally practised in society (NCERT, 2005).
Nel Noddings (1995b) points out that today violence among school-children is at an unprecedented level. But children are bearing with little knowledge of how to care for themselves, their friends and the society. And even the schools often concentrate too much on materialistic messages. According to her, in this context, it may be unnecessary to argue that we should care more genuinely for our children and teach them to care.
In Asia in general and in India in particular, social and economic development is also in crisis. Casteism, sectarianism, communalism and regionalism are some of the problems in the society which misguide the youth. Increasing delinquency, violence, terrorism and fissiparous tendencies, and use of inappropriate means to get one's ends etc., are threats to the national integration and social cohesion (NCERT, 2005). In response to this, education has to develop a peace loving personality in students and programme for sustainable development.
In order to keep education from being bereft of its abiding character, a number of paradigms of value-education (Chakrabarti, 2003; Sankar, 2004), and especially,
209 moral and spiritual education (Carr, 2003; Wright, 2001) have been proposed. In this connection, Buddhist thought of education with its deep philosophy of suffering {dukkha), relational self theory {khandha), the principle of dependent- origination ipaticca-samuppada), the law of moral efficacy of action (kamma), the practice of love {metta) and compassion {karuna), etc. offers an alternative theory of education.
According to Delors et al. (1996, p. 149), one of the main functions of education is to equip teachers with the ethical, intellectual and emotional qualities, and in turn, to develop the same range of qualities in the pupils, as society demands. To meet these demands of society, Buddhist education as a form of lifelong education perfectly aligns to this function.
5.5.2 Philosophy of Dukkha: Towards a Model of Buddhist Critical Thinking
According to the philosophy of dukkha, there is inherent troubling status everywhere and in every situation except for the case of the awakened mentality. Therefore, in any given situation, one has to think and re-think about the reality in terms of dukkha, the cause of dukkha, the hope for ending of dukkha and the way to end dukkha. This is the model of Buddhist critical thinking: looking into the crisis itself to find out the solution. This model of critical thinking, on one hand, is different from other forms of critical thinking (Anderson, 2001; Biesta, 2001; Ennis, 1992; Hager, 1991; Halpem, 2003; Haynes, 1991; Hytten, 2006; Siegel, 1988, 1991; Splitter, 1991) in the sense that it is capable of ennobling those who use it (Eynde, 2004). On the other hand, it shares some similarities with thoughts of prominent philosophers of education such as John Dewey, Paulo Freire and Nel Noddings (Hytten, 2006).
According to Ennis, critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do (cited in Hager, 1991, p. 1). Critical thinking is an individual form of expression. It requires the adherents to assess claims/facts by reference to evidence and argument/valid data (Anderson, 2001). According to McPeck, critical thinking is subject-specific, i.e. the conceptual 210 differences between subjects mean that each has its own unique kind of thinking (cited in Hager, 1991, p. 2).
According to the philosophy of dukkha, critical thinking is not only an individual form of cognition and expression, but it is also a relational way of seeing (and being) in the world. Buddhist thought suggests that we can employ the philosophy of dukkha to address the present reality of education as follows:
(1) The nature of facts: There are a number of fundamental predicaments in education at present regarding what should be taught (problems of curriculum), why we should teach it (problems of educational aims) and how we should teach it (problems of methods).
(2) The cause of facts: The causes of these predicaments in education have their roots in the ill-cultivated personality factors (defiled and kammic forces) of the educators. These causes exist in the hearts and minds of the educators. Any system of education is determined by the teacher and the taught. If the teacher who is a role-model before the student has morally bad character, naturally how can student leam the good from such a teacher? Because what is being taught by the teacher is not only formal but it is informal part that also plays an important role.
(3) The solutions (to give hope): The predicaments in education can be successfully solved only if the educators transform their own defiled factors in dealing with education, so that they are able to transform and improve the conditions of education.
(4) The path to solutions: If education is to make a success to any appreciable degree through the transformation of personality factors in both educators and educands, it must avoid all kinds of extremes, and follow the middle path - both in theory and pracrices imultaneously.
This model of thinking (including attitudes and skills) in accordance with the four ennobling truths are essential for democratic citizenship; recognizing problems in our social world, studying their causes, identifying potential ways to solve
211 problems, and using intelligence and wisdom to better solve the problems we face. According to Hytten (2006), this model can be regarded as a model of critical thinking which prominent philosophers of education, such as John Dewey, Paulo Freire and Nel Noddings, seem to be adopting.
5.5.3 Problems and Application of the Middle Approach
The most important feature in Buddhist approach is the middle-ground perspective, which should be applied to many aspects in educational practice. A number of extremes which may interfere with educational activities such as: traditional vs. modem, conservative vs. progressive, materialistic view vs. metaphysicalist view, relativism vs. absolutism, construction vs. transmission, unstructured discussions vs. teacher-directed discussions, discovery vs. invention, conversation vs. instruction, abandonment vs. imposition styles of teaching, dialogic vs. authoritative teaching, freedom vs. discipline, divergent discussion vs. convergent discussion, child-centered pedagogy vs. content-centered pedagogy, and so on. All these extremes can be considered in the light of middle- ground-cum-becoming perspective. To be specific, we can list some problems which have been pointed out by contemporary educators as follows:
(1) There is at present a tension between the global and the local, the universal and the individual, tradition and modernity, long-term and short-term considerations, the need for competition and the concern for equality of opportunity, the extraordinary proliferation of information and capacity of human beings to cope with it and to assimilate it, the spiritual and the material (Delors et al., 1996, pp. 17-18). The middle approach suggests that educators look into each case and find out ways to harmoniously combine the two.
(2) According to Delors et al. (1996, p. 143), the separation between the classroom conditions and the outside world is also a problem in education today. The middle approach suggests that educationists have to identify the ideas and attitudes of students, which they bring to school, and the content of curriculum, in order to see whether the designed curriculum meets the needs of students. Educationists have to identify the expressed needs (not solely relying on inferred 212 needs), so that the learning becomes less rigid and capable to link subject-matter to daily life.
(3) Regarding the blame ascribed to society and education (Delors et al, 1996, p. 143) for certain failures, the middle approach suggests that instead of ascribing all the ills of our societies to education, we should revisit the inter-relationship in the roles of both parents and teachers, families and schools.
(4) Regarding schools and media, the advocates of media often criticize school for providing outmoded methods of trasmission of knowledge. Present methods in education are blamed as being conservative, making students boring and lose interest in learning. On the contrary, the educators often blame the media for being low cultural denominator, attracting children emotionally, playing on emotions, cutting down the time of reading and thought, forcing scenes of violence on students (Delors et al., 1996, p. 108). Instead of making students wise, present education system is making them clever to find out short-cuts to success to gain power, possesion and prosperity. The theory of relational self holds that the idea that the self and emotion constitute separate compartments is an untenable. Yet it is the root of this tension. For a possible solution, the middle approach suggests the cooperation between the media-advocates/managers and educational policy-makers/teachers.
Generally, the middle approach to education provides us with a conciliatory proposal, which can be applied almost in every aspect of education.
5.5.4 Needs and Aims of Education
The relevance of Buddhist thought for revisiting the aims of education is elicited from the discussions on the goals of Noble Eightfold Path and their practical implications.
In setting the aims of education, we need to clearly distinguish between students' needs and their wants. Equally important, we need to distinguish students' expressed needs from their [being] inferred needs. Furthermore, these questions
213 ought to be taken into account not only by educational thinkers, but also by classroom teachers.
What do we as human beings really need? And what do we want our children to be? What do the children need? The popular response to these questions is that students need more academic training (Noddings, 1995a, p. 365).
The aims of education suggested by Buddhist thought challenge us to re-think of human needs, aims of life and aims of education. Instead of emphasising on academic training, the aims of education as they are suggested in the Noble Eightfold Path include a series of values, viz. vision (cakkhii), knowledge {nana), equanimity (nibbidd), dispassion (viraga), cessation of craving {nirodha), peace (upasama), insight {abhihha), full-awakening {sambodhi) and emancipation (nibbdna). This alternative challenges us to think whether we need to make our children first in the world in academic training or help them to develop their well- being, self-control, self-actualization, self-realization, emotional balance, emotional intelligence, awakening mind and full flourishing life. This alternative challenges us to think whether we care for their academic achievements or for excellence at every level, for ensuring a place for every child and emerging adult in the economic and social world, for training people who can care competently for their own families and contribute effectively to their communities. In general, Buddhist thought of education suggests that the main educational aim should focus on the growth of competent, caring, loving, and lovable people.
All children must learn to care for other human beings, and all must find concern in some centers of care, viz. care for oneself, for intimate others, for associates and acquaintances, for distant others, for animals, for plants and the physical environment, for objects and instruments, and for ideas. Within each of these centers, we can find many themes on which to build and plan courses of teaching and learning.
214 5.5.5 Toward an Inter-subjective Understanding of Personhood and Education
The interest in the self and the nature of subjectivity have been at the center of modem Western philosophy (Carr, 1999, p. 3), psychology and education (Martin, 2004). The individual (as a centre of conscious experience) has been conceived as one of the poles around which the idea of education is to be articulated.
Educational philosophy and psychology are replete with self studies (Bonnett, 2009; Dewey, 1922, 1938; Foucault, 1988; Martin, 2004; Peters, 1970; Wolfolk, 1995). Self-concept, self-esteem, self-realization, self-actualization, self-efficacy, self-regulation, self-management, etc., are some among dozens of self- conceptions in educational philosophy and psychology. However, innovations in education regarding learning and academic achievements based on findings and suggestions of educational psychologists and philosophers on self are still not satisfactorily relevant to the education of cultured and civilized persons and the improvement of human life in general. They do not warrant claims to the effect that philosophy and psychology in education has improved our conceptions of personhood and civic life (Bonnett, 2009; Gandhi, 1999; Martin, 2004).
From philosophical perspective, Bonnett says that the chief concern of education nowadays is to shape the selves of its learners in accordance with "what are perceived to be current economic imperatives" rather than with "what arises from their sense of their own existence." And he opines that education is heavily conditioned by sets of standards and objectives determined quite independently of individual learners and even their teachers.
From psychological perspective, there are two underlying conceptions of selfhood in the literature of educational psychology for the last five decades (Martin, 2004). One is the scientific conception of self, which reveals itself through the quantitative measures of educational psychologists. And the other is the humanistic conception of self, which appears "to reflect some sort of unique, internal core of phenomenal, experiential life centered within each learner and 215 teacher that seeks personally meaningful expression" (Martin, 2004, p. 192). Well-known representatives of this trend in educational psychology are Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Eric Fromm.
According to Martin, the humanistic self of educational psychology is a highly sensitive, reactive and intrinsic one with fragile tendency for self-preservation and desire for expression. Contrastively, the scientific self of educational psychology is "highly rationalized, even technicized, compilation of strategic processes with instrumental aims" (p. 196). He goes on to conclude that there is a "general lack of theoretical work in educational psychology concerning what the selfmightbe"(p. 197).
It is interesting to note that, John Dewey, from his philosophical perspective, appeared to have forseen these tendencies in educational psychology as the "false psychology of an isolated self (Dewey, 1922, p. 57) or "the false psychology of original individual consciousness" which clings to "the idea of the separate psychic realm" (p. 87).
In this connection, the khanda theory (or theory of anatta) together with the theory of paticcasamuppdda of Buddhist philosophy offer an alternative explanation of selfhood. According to the khanda theory, the "personality" is seen as dynamic aggregate constituted by the five interactive factors: physical body, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness. These constitutes physical, affective, perceptual, and motivational factors of the individual. They all continuouslly change and are interrelated, both within and without. Master Thich Nhat Hanh, a well-known Buddhist adult educator explains the conception of self in terms of "interbeing "(Nhat Hanh, 1998, p. 6). In the light of interbeing, nothing can be by itself alone. Everything has to inter-be with everything else. When you touch one, you touch all (p. 45). In the light of interbeing, the conception of selfhood entails the sense of responsibility and "otherness." The self is portrayed to have its own life and identity which is enduring, and at the same time, be shaped by its environment.
216 The combination of the theory of social relational self and the interbeing theory suggests that any supposed core or essence of the individual subjectivity needs to be removed. The central epistemic position of the individual subjectivity needs to be removed. The self becomes decentred. The interiority of the individual subjectivity is evacuated and nuUilized. It gets extended and expanded beyond itself'^^ This interbeing conception of self is shared by a number of radical contemporary philosophical views on selfhood and education (Biesta, 2006; Bonnett, 2009; Foucault, 1988; Sen, 2002). Man is essentially contextual, open, decentered, multiple, fluid, shifting, relational and social.
This can be called the intersubjective understanding of selfhood, and of course, this understanding has its educational implications. The paradigm shift from individual self to the intersubjectivity'^^ have crucial implications both for the way in which we understand human beings and their mutual interactions, and for the way in which we conceive of knowledge, rationality and morality (Biesta, 1998). This then also has crucial implications for the theory and practice of education. In sum, from Buddhist perspective, some important dimensions of the traditional understanding of personhood and education (regarding learner, content, pedagogical methodology, experience, consciousness, knowledge, ...) need to be reconsidered.
5.5.6 Awakening-oriented Education: From Knowledge to Wisdom
Knowledge and epistemological issues play important role in Buddhist thought and practice (Bhatt & Mehrotra, 2000; Jayatilleke, 1963; Kalupahana, 1992; Premasiri, 2006). In the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path, right knowledge comes first. In the scheme of threefold education, knowledge is both the beginning and the end of education.
'^" For further explanation on Buddhist conception of man, see Mangala Chinchorc (2007). '^' Intersubjectivity emphasises that shared cognition and consensus arc essential in shaping of our ideas and relations. Intersubjectivity also helps in the constitution of objectivity: in experience of the world as available not only to oneself, but also to others, there is a bridge between the personal and the shared, the self and the others. 217 There are a variety of terms in Buddhist literature referring to different forms and levels of knowledge, viz.: vijja, samma-ditthi, vihhana, sanha, pahhd, nana, abhihnd and sambodhi. This variety suggests that human knowing does not conform to a single pattern. Knowing is relative to the various dispositions and motivations of human beings (Premasiri, 2006, p. 119). According to Buddhist thought, vinndna and sahfid can be said to be equivalent to the paradigm of knowledge adopted in modem science (Premasiri, 2001; Sheppard, 2004). It is closely linked to a materialistic world view. On the other hand, the knowledge, which sammd-ditthi, nana, abhinnd and sambodhi signify, is a kind of insight that leads to liberation and peace. It can be called wisdom (pannd). Buddhist thought clearly distinguishes between knowledge and wisdom, and lays due emphasis on the significance of the latter (Bodhi, 1994; Nhat Hanh, 1998).
Wisdom (pahhd) is not merely information of facts. Wisdom involves knowing how to live. Knowledge is necessary for wisdom, but it is not sufficient. Therefore, schools should seriously and explicitly consider including instruction in wisdom-related skills in the curriculum. According to Buddhist thought, practicing mindfulness {sad) is the best one to develop wisdom-related skills. It is the practice of self-observation, self-regulated learning, self-management, and self-transformation. To some extent, the kind of suggestion like this has been made by both Buddhist and educational practitioners (Dhar, 2007, pp. 33-37; Nhat Hanh, 1998, pp. 64-83; Sternberg, 2001, p. 237). In practice. Master S. N. Goenka and other Buddhist teachers have introduced mindfulness practice to school since the last decade (Chansomsak & Vale, 2008; Vo, 2006).
5.5.7 Love and Compassion: Towards a Care-oriented Education
Compassion have become important idea and practice in education (Singh, 1996; White, 2008). How can education wake the student up to true compassion with all living creatures? The second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, sammd- sankappo, gives us guiding principles to practise love (mettd) and compassion (karund). First, sammd-sahkappo guides the learner how to keep an appropriate direction of thought. Second, it guides the learner how to behave with practical
218 compassionate conduct. Love and compassion opens the path to gradual discovery of others and experience of shared purposes, which is badly needed in education at present (Delors et al.,1996; Makransky, 2005; Masters & Holifield, 1996; Noddings, 1995a; Nussbaum, 1997; White, 2008).'^^
Teachers are often blamed for being ill-prepared for catering for pupils who have serious social or family difficulties (Delors et al.,1996; Goleman, 1995). The practice of kindness and compassion is highly relevant for this new task.
The practice of love and compassion can be applied at two levels: individual psychology and institutional design. At the individual psychology, learners can be taught to practise love and compassion by ways of compassionate mental cultivation and ways of behavioral expression. Love and compassion can help to overcome the separation among human beings. At the institutional design, we can create more compassionate environment, sympathetic community and peace- loving workplaces (Field, 2007).
A question can be raised here is that, whether teaching love and compassion is a relevant educational concern or not? The response from Buddhist point of view is affirmative. If the virtues of love and compassion are cultivated, horrendous cruelties, which are the roots of violence in school, the roots of war and terror, can be avoided. Again, is it a kind of abuse (like in Kantian thought) and hypocrisy (Bloom, 1979, p. 18)? No. Because it is a heartfelt mental quality. Buddhist teaching on love {mettd) and compassion (karuna) is much deeper and direct, since it is based on an awareness of the interdependence of all beings. It helps to develop compassion as a form of wisdom, and a way of being in the world, which is more than just the immediate response to others' pain.
'^^ Rousseau is unusual in the history of philosophy in so far as he regards compassion as the basic social virtue that brings us into good relations with other human beings (White, 2007). However, Rousseau's account of compassion is based on the interplay between self-love and pity: "1 am interested in him for love of myself, and the reason for the precept is in nature itself, which inspires in me the desire for my well-being in whatever place I feel my existence" (Rousseau, 1979, p. 235). Looking at compassion from another perspective, Kant considered compassion an "insulting kind of beneficence" (Kant, 1999 [Grcgor, trans.], p. 205; White, 2008). 219 Love and compassion can be cultivated and practiced. There are clear and specific ways to cultivate them. These ways were originally taught by the Buddha, and now interpreted by Buddhist teachers to whomsoever wishes to take them up, not only for Buddhists (Salzberg, 1995).
Love and compassion are based on the enlightened experience of the interdependence of all beings. The experience of love and compassion in Buddhist thought is understood against the illusory nature of the fixed self It is developed based on the understanding of the interconnectedness of everything that exists.
In Buddhist thought, love and compassion are taught in connection with the other two qualities: sympathetic joy {miiditd) and equanimity (upekkhd). These qualities contribute to make compassion and love a sublime nobility of heart and intellect (Nyanaponika, 1994, p. 255). Where these motivational attitudes are lacking, no scheme, strategy, or technology will have the power to hold together the human family (Makransky, 2005).
5.5.8 Value-Inculcation
A significant dimension of value-inculcation is morality. Morals are situation- specific and demand immediate decision and action. However, there are morals which are considered to be eternal and universal (NCERT, 2005). The basic teachings of universal moral values are almost identical in different systems of thought in that they teach the pupils to do the good and avoid the evil. However, attitudes toward the codes of conduct and the ways they are presented and interpreted may differ considerably from one another. They may be authoritarian or democratic in nature. In Buddhist thought, moral education is established in a democratic way, which is based on the principles of equality and reciprocity (MN.135; MN.136; lfi.3.74 at Iti 62-63; Ud.5.4. at Ud 51). The principles of equality and reciprocity is at the heart of the universality of the Buddhist moral education.
220 Love of truth and wisdom (aesthetic values) implies the tireless and enthusiastic search for knowledge in all forms. This search leads to creativity, appreciation of beauty, and the like. This consists in the the right-view.
Love is a human energy that emanates from within, nurturing one's human dignity and extending to nurture that of others. Love is committed to the good of the whole human person. It includes love for one's self as well as for others. True love is enhancing the good of others for their own sake without expecting anything in return. Love for a person must be affirmed, because of the particular dignity s/he possesses and not for any other motive. There must be purity of intentions to love other persons without taking away their dignity, without taking away their own self This is the value of mettd, which the right-resolve alludes to.
Love is closely identified with compassion (karund), that pure selflessness flowing from the depth of being directed toward uplifting the condition of the other person or persons. Compassion is being actively aware and sensitive to the adverse conditions affecting others. It deeply empathizes with people's sufferings. As a natural energy that moves from within, it seeks out to show pity, mercy and kindness to people who are the last, the least, and the lost.
Love and compassion begin with the appreciation of one's self-worth and self- confidence. Recognizing one's relative uniqueness and self-identity is important in appreciating one's worth as a person. Each one has his/her strengths as well as weaknesses different from those of others. Celebrating one's strengths, accepting one's limitations and facing the truth that one cannot have everything in life, and doing better to improve oneself basically are skills that bring about an appreciation of one's self-worth. Trust in one's talents, in one's achievements no matter how small, in one's potentials or in what one can offer, in what one can do better for himself/herself, and even in one's dreams, is a strong foundation for self-confidence. Getting strength from these abilities is having self-confidence and making good use of them is affirming one's self-worth.
In the process of nurturing oneself, it is important to direct efforts to building one's own power of self-actualization. This is a strong sense of transcending 221 oneself and becoming selflessly a person for others, and for the entire humanity. The self stays enhancing his/her love and compassion for others regardless of rejection, pain, aggression, and sorrow. Its domain is non-physical, almost spiritual.
Love of truth and honesty (in speech) is one of the prime determinants of enriching loving relationships. Dishonesty, on the contrary, has caused couples to separate, best of friends to physically harm or even kill one another, business to be dissolved, governments to crumble, and nations to fight their bloodiest wars. Honesty with oneself, facing truth about something, taking courage to speak the truth can bring us the necessary trust needed for a stable and long lasting relationship. Closely identified with honesty is integrity. This refers to the goodness or probity of the person. It is the strict adherence to uprightness. A loving and compassionate person does not deceive other people by being pretentiously generous or merciful. He does not show acts of mercy for publicity or self-glorification but for genuine concern for humanity. This value is all what right-speech aims at.
Respect for life is a fundamental value related to health and harmony with nature. People must take care of their bodies and guard against the destruction of human life. Likewise, people should protect other forms of life on earth as stewards of all creation. There is a symbiotic relationship between humans and the natural environment. Whatever happens to the environment definitely affects human life and vice versa.
Environmental concern and care call for a sense of caring and responsibility for the natural environment. Every human being should understand the general environmental principles and practise ways that contribute to making the earth a healthy place to live in. People's concern for environmental quality safeguards the interests of the future generations. Every human being must commit himself/herself to integrate environmental concern into the practice of one's chosen lifework and contribute actively towards sustainable development.
222 Physical and mental health used to mean the absence of disease but today it has taken on a more comprehensive meaning, because the interrelationship between physical health and other dimensions of a person are being considered. Hence, one now speaks of holistic health, a state of physical, mental, social, cultural and spiritual well-being. A person must learn how to show concern and to care for the general well being of oneself and others. These values can be observed by all in the teaching of right-action and right-livelihood.
According to the Delors Commission, there are four central values that are necessary for restructuring the educational process so that it can cope with the challenges in the 21^* century. They are (1) learning to know, (2) learning to do, (3) learning to live together, and (4) learning to be. The relevance of Buddhist thought for value-inculcation can be articulated adopting this model.
According to Buddhist thought, learning to know basically concerns with knowing oneself as an everchanging relational being (anicca); knowing the interconnected nature of living beings and the universe {paticcasamuppada); knowing that academic and social problems are interconnected. As right-view indicates, knowledge per se should be shifted to knowledge and ability to apply. Knowledge should be shifted from "know that" to "know why" and "know how."
Learning to do in Buddhist thought is learning to transform, to cultivate, and to love. Right-action is a guideline for this value-inculcation. It can be practised by the one who deeply sees the human conditions of suffering and focuses on its elimination through the letting go of selfish desires. This process of seeing is not a sensory-perceptual, nor a cognitive one, but the result of an inner understanding (Tophoff, 2007). Therefore, action which proceeds from this deep seeing into one's nature may be called the action of loving, cultivation and transformation.
Learning to live together is also a theme that the Buddhist thought emphasises. The Buddha says that good friendship makes the entire holy life (SN.45.2 at SN V 2). The holy life is the life of Noble Eightfold Path (SN.45.40 at SN V 27) and a good friend is one who cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path (SN.45.49 at SN V 29). Friends are important, especially to teenagers, and they need guidance in 223 making and maintaining good friendships (Noddings, 1995a). The six conditions leading to welfare (sdrdniya-dhamma) and compassion {karuna) taught by the Buddha are very much relevant for inculcation of values related to communal life (White, 2009, pp. 423-430; Woolfolk, 2004, p. 491).
Learning to be according to Buddhist thought is to be free, to be universally responsible and to be happy. Buddhist thought identifies real freedom with liberation from greed, hatred and delusion (Bodhi, 2000, p. 18). It is not the freedom to act on impulse, but the freedom to determine for themselves what they should do in the different circumstances responsibly (Delors et al., p. 94). Without freedom and spirit of responsibility, one cannot be happy.
Nel Noddings (2003, p. 93) says that "it just seems so sad that, when everyone seeks happiness, the schools do so little to promote it." Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, John Dewey, George Orwell, Winston Churchill and Rabindranath Tagore all once found school boring and unsupportive of their creativity (Noddings, 2003, p. 216). In the Mangala-sutta (Khp.5 at Khp 2-3), the Buddha says that being well-learned (bahusacca), well-cultivated {siisikkhito), well- prepared for life (sippa), among others, are sources of a happiest life.
5.6 Conclusion
On the basis of textual analysis, it is revealed that Buddhist philosophy offers a valuable source of educational thought. The middle approach with which Buddhist thought introduces the scheme of education, viz. the Noble Eightfold Path, is the first rudimentary directive. In addition to this, the Buddhist approach to education is illustrated by its view on the power of instruction. The Buddhists consider instruction as a miraculous means to bring out the manifestation of human potentials. Similarly, within the teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path itself, the Buddhist concept of education (sikkha) is indicated, and the textual analysis presented in this chapter has explored all of its essential aspects. According to Buddhist thought, sikkha is the process of holistic and lifelong education.
224 When the Noble Eightfold Path is explored and interpreted from the educational perspective, the Buddhist thought of education becomes clear, practical and systematic. It is expressed in terms of three principles of education. They are care-oriented principle of education, peace-oriented principle of education and awakening-oriented principle of education. The textual analysis consistently proves that the three principles of education are the educational intepretations of the Noble Eightfold Path. In other words, the Noble Eightfold Path legitimately postulates a viable scheme of education for moral, emotional and intellectual developments.
The practical implications of this educational scheme are multi-dimensional. The discussions in this chapter focused on the five central themes: aims of education, contents of curriculum, knowledge, learner-teacher and learning-teaching process and the details of each theme were discussed in the foregoing pages. Regarding the aims of education, Buddhist thought suggests a series of values such as peace, insight, full-awakening and nibbanic happiness as aims of education as well as of life. The three principles of education also suggest a triad-model of objectives in education: intellectual development, behavioural modification, and mental cultivation, as the foundations to set and reset the goals and objectives of education.
It is revealed that, from Buddhist view, the content of the Noble Eightfold Path is the basic content of curriculum. It includes (1) knowledge to be transmitted and developed, (2) attitudes and values to be guided and cultivated, (3) practice of truthful, helpful, constructive, kindly and gentle speech, (4) practice of care, protection, respect and integrity, (5) training for righteousness in profession, (5) practice of hard work, studiousness and vigilance, (7) practice of attention, mindfulness and awareness, and (8) cultivation of calmness and peace for both individual and society.
The conception of knowledge in Buddhist thought has special implications for education. Knowledge is mental construction, and all knowledge is constructed. It is inter-subjectively constructed either by way of intellectual acquisition or
225 mental cultivation. If knoweldge is constructed and developed in accordance with the guideline of right-view, it has awakening power.
As for the Buddhist view regarding the role of teacher, some depictions were found in relation to the Noble Eightfold Path. According to Buddhist thought, a teacher is one who is well-versed and well-trained in accordance with the eight qualities, which are the results of training in the Noble Eightfold Path. Similarly, a learner is one who learns and practises the Noble Eightfold Path.
Teaching and learning process is not discussed directly in the framework of the Noble Eightfold Path. However, in some contexts, it is revealed that teaching and learning process in Buddhist thought is a gradual course. It involves active participation of both the teacher and the taught. In this process, both psychological and sociological considerations are crucially important. These considerations help the teacher to choose appropriate teaching methods and pedagogical techniques.
In Buddhist tradition, learning involves not only thinking, but it is always connected to being, experiencing and transforming in a mindful way. In other words, teaching-learning in true Buddhist sense is the process of mindful teaching and mindful learning.
Though Buddhist educational thought has its roots in the spiritual tradition of ancient time, it is still relevant in contemporary education system in different ways. In responding to contemporary crises in education in a general way, Buddhist thought of education offers an alternative theory of education with its deep philosophy of suffering, theory of relational self, principle of dependent- origination, law of moral efficacy of action, and practice of love and compassion. Buddhist philosophy provides a highly contextualized and holistic nature of educational philosophies, in contrast with the mechanical and individualized nature of Western thinking, on which formal education is based. Many people outside the discipline of education have pointed out that humanity needs wisdom to face the twenty-first century, but little attention of this has been taken in education discourses. 226 The textual analysis in this chapter shows that Buddhist theory of education opens up an "inner revolution" that helps to transform the outlook and behavior of the individual and thereby slowly transforms the society.
To conclude, althought a paradigm shift in education in accordance with the Buddhist philosophy is promising, the incorporation of this source of wisdom into the content of all courses offered at our school and university is free for our choice. It is free for choice not only for educational policy-makers but also for educators, teachers and students. To encourage the valuing of knowledge and ways of understanding associated with peace and happiness or to attempt to silence, misrepresent, ridicule, and even condemn it in academic is also free for our choice.
227 References
Abe, M. (1975). Mahdyana Buddhism and Whitehead: A view by a lay student of Whitehead's philosophy. Philosophy East and West, 25, 415-428.
Altekar, A. S. (1934). Education in ancient India. (1st ed.) Benares: The Indian Book Shop.
Altekar, A. S. (1948). Education in ancient India. (3rd ed., Revised and Enlarged) Benares: Nand Kishore and Bros., Educational Publishers.
Analayo, B. (2003). Satipatthana - The direct path to realization. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Anderson, H. (2001). What do pragmatists have to say about critical thinking? Educational Theory, 57(2), 209-219.
Barua, D. K. (1966/2003). An analytical study of the four Nikayas (Ph.D. Thesis. University of Calcutta). (Its revised version was published by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, 2003).
Belton, T., & Priyadharshini, E. (2007). Boredom and schooling: A cross- disciplinary exploration. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(4), 579 - 595.
Bernstein, B. (1996). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity. London: Taylor and Francis.
Bhatt, S. R., & Mehrotra, A. (2000). Buddhist epistemology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Bielefeldt, C. (2000). Prescriptive and descriptive approaches to the Threefold Discipline: A response to Professor Ishigami. In Proceedings of the Conference on Zen and Nenbutsu, Los Angeles: Bukkyo Daigaku.
Biesta, G. J. J. (1998). Mead, intersubjectivity, and education: The early writings. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 17(2), 73-99.
228 Biesta, G. J. J., & Lawy, R. S. (2006). From teaching citizenship to learning democracy: Overcoming individuaHsm in research, policy and practice. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36{\), 63-79.
Biesta, G. J. J., & Stams, G. J. M. (2001). Critical thinking and the question of critique: Some lessons from deconstruction. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 20{\), 51-1 A.
Bodhi, B. (1994). Noble Eightfold Path: The way to the end of suffering. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Bodhi, B. (2000). The connected discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Bodhi, B. (2005). In the Buddha's words. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Bonnett, M. (2009). Education and selfhood: A phenomenological investigation. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43{3), 357-370.
Brown, L. M. (1983). White: The aims of education restated. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 75(2), 53-63.
Buddhaghosa, A. (1959/1991). Visuddhimagga: The path of purification (B. Nanamoli, Trans.). Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Buddharakkhita, A. (1985). The Dhammapada: The Buddha's path of wisdom. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Butr-lndr, S. (1973/1995). 77?^ social philosophy of Buddhism. Bangkok: Mahamakut Buddhist University.
Carr, D. (1999). Spiritual language and the ethics of redemption. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 3i(3), 451 -461.
Carr, D. (2003). Making sense of education: An introduction to the philosophy and theory of education and teaching. London: Routledge Palmer.
Chakrabarti, M. (2003). Value education: Changing perspectives. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.
229 Chan, Wing-Shing. (2008). Psychological attachment, no-self and Chan Buddhist mind therapy. Contemporary Buddhism, 9(2), 253-264.
Chinchore, M. R. (1996). Santana and Santdndntara: An analysis of the Buddhist perspective concerning continuity, transformation and transcendence and the basis of an Alternative philosophical psychology. New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
Chinchore, M. R. (2006). Astdhgika-Marga: Some points for consideration. In K. Sankamarayan, R. Panth, & I. Ogawa (Eds.), Contribution of Buddhism to the world culture (pp. 108-122). Mumbai: Somaiya Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
Chinchore, M. R. (2007). Buddhist conceptions of man and human emancipation: A critical investigation. New Delhi: New Bharatiya Book Corporation.
Chinchore, M. R. (2007). Studies in Buddhism. New Delhi: New Bharatiya Book Corporation.
Chinchore, M. R. (2009). Lalita-vistara: A model of dissemination of knowledge. In Bhattacharya, B. and Mukherji, R. (2009). Dimensions of Buddhism and Jainism. (vol I). Kolkata: Sanskrit Book Depot, pp. 89-104.
Craig, R. P. (1996). Student-teacher relationship: A Buddhist perspective. Clearing House, 69(5), 285-286.
Dalai Lama, H. H. (2006). A new approach to global problems. In M. Mcleod (Ed.), Mindful politics: A Buddhist guide to making the world a better place (pp. 17-27). Boston: Wisdom Publications.
De Ruyter, D. J. & Conroy, J. C. (2002). The formation of identity: The importance of ideals. Oxford Review of Education, 28{A), pp. 509-522.
De Ruyter, D. J. (2003). The importance of ideals in education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 37(3), 467-482.
Delors, J., et al. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. Paris: UNESCO.
Dewey, J. (1922/1957). Human nature and conduct. New York: Random House.
Dewey, J. (1929/1958). Experience and nature. New York: Collier Books. 230 Dhar, P. L. (2000). In A. Mishra (Ed.), Spirituality, science and technology (pp. 62-68). New Delhi: Indian Philosophical Congress Press.
Dhar, P. L. (2007). Value inculcation through self-observation. Igatpuri: VRI.
Diller, A. (2000). The search for wise love in education: What can we learn from the Brahma-viharas. In D. Liston, & J. Garrison (Ed.), Teaching, learning, and loving: Reclaiming passion in educational practice (pp. 169-184). London: Routledge Palmer.
Dimidjian, S., & Linehan, M. M. (2003). Defining an agenda for future research on the clinical application of mindfulness practice. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 166-171.
Ennis, R. H. (1992). Critical thinking: What is it? (From Philosophy of Education Society Year Book). Available at http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/PES- Yearbook/92 docs/ENNIS.HTM
Evans, W. (2009). Iris Murdoch, liberal education and human flourishing. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43{\), 75-84.
Eynde, M. V. (2004). Reflection on Martha Nussbaum's work on compassion from a Buddhist perspective. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 11, 46-67.
Faure, E., et al. (1972). Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow. Paris: UNESCO.
Field, L. (2007). Business and the Buddha: Doing well by doing good. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Foucault, M. (1988). Technologies of self In L. Martin, H. Gutman, P. Hutton, & M. Foucault (Eds,), Technologies of self A seminar with Michel Foucault. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.
Fuller, P. (2005). The notion ofDitthi in Theravada Buddhism: The point of view. London: Routledge Curzon.
231 Furst, E. J. (1981). Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain: Philosophical and educational issues. Review of Educational Research, 51 {A), pp. 441-453.
Gandhi, K. (Ed.). (1999). Education: Challenges of the twenty-first century: The global context. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
Germer, C. K. (2009). The mindful path to self-compassion. New York: The Guilford Press.
Ghose, L. (2004). A study in Buddhist psychology: Is Buddhism truly pro- detachment and anti-attachment? Contemporary Buddhism, 5(2), 105 - 120.
Gilbert, P. (2009). The compassionate mind: A new approach to life's challenges. Oakland: Constable-Robinson Ltd.
Gilroy, P. (1999). The aims of education and the philosophy of education. In R. Marples (Ed.), The aims of education (pp. 23-34). London: Routledge Palmer.
Goenka, S. N. (2005). For the benefit of many. Igatpuri: VRI.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: What it is and why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books.
Greenland, S. K., & Goodman, A. T. (2009). Mindfulness with children: Working with difficult emotions. In F. Didonna (Ed.), Clinical handbook of mindfulness (pp. 417-429). New York: Springer Science & Business Media, LLC.
Gunaratana, H. (2001). Eight mindful steps to happiness. London: Wisdom Publications.
Guruge, W. P. A. (1990). Buddhist education. In G. P. Malalasekera et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Vol. V) (pp. 22-35). Sri Lanka: The Government of Sri Lanka.
232 Hager, P. J. (1991). Critical thinking debate: Editorial introduction. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 23{\), 1-6.
Halpem, D. F. (2003). Thought & knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Halstead, J. M. (2005). Teaching about love. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(3), 290-305.
Hamm, C. M. (1989). Philosophical issues in education: An introduction. New York: Palmer Press.
Hart, W. (1988/2008). The art of living: Vipassand meditation as taught by S. N. Goenka. Igatpuri: VRI.
Haydon, G. (1973). Educational relevance: A slogan examined. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 7(2), 223-238.
Haynes, F. (1991). Towards an archaeology of critical thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 2J( 1), 121 -140.
Heyting, F. (2004). Beware of ideals in education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 38(2), 241-247.
Homer, 1. B. (1954/1995). The collection of the middle length sayings (Majjhima- nikdya). Oxford: Pali Text Society.
Hyland, T. (2009). Mindfiilness and the therapeutic function of education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43{\), 119-131.
Hytten, K. (2006). Rethinking aims in education. Journal of Thought, 4I{3), 29- 32.
Inada, K. K. (1979). Problematics of the Buddhist nature of self Philosophy East and West, 29(2), 141-158.
Jacobson, N. P. (1983). Buddhism & the contemporary world: Change and self- correction. New York: Southern Illinois University.
233 Jacobson, N. P. (1988). The heart of Buddhist philosophy. New York: Southern Illinois University Press.
Jagaro, A. (2005). The Noble Eightfold Path. Retrieved November 24, 2008 from http://www.bswa.org/modules/icontent/index.php?page=87
James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experience: A study in human nature. Electronic version available at http://www.psvchwww.com/ psvrelig/iames/toc.htm
Jayasaro, A. (2004). Violence, non-violence and education: A Buddhist perspective (In Forum for Intercultural Philosophy 5). Retrieved June 12, 2008 from http://them.polvlog.org/5/fia-en.htm#s5.
Jayatilleke, K. N. (1963). Early Buddhist theoty of knowledge. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Johnson, I. (2002). The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning. International Journal of lifelong education, 21 (2), 99-\\4.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2008). Opening speech at the conference on practical applications of Buddhism in Western psychology. Retrieved November 24, 2008 from http://www.buddhisminpsvchologv.com/index.php?option=com content&t ask=view&id^50&Itemid= 1
Kakol, P. (2000). A socially engaged process Buddhism. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 7.
Kalupahana, D. J. (1992). A histoiy of Buddhist philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Kalupahana, D. J. (2007). A sourcebook on Early Buddhism. Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Center.
Kant, 1. (1996). The metaphysics of morals (M. Gregor, ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
234 Kazepides, T. (1989). On educational aims, curriculum objectives and the preparation of teachers. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 23(1), 51- 59.
Komfield, J. (2008). The wise heart: Buddhist psychology for the West. London: Rider Books.
Krishnamurti, J. (1978/2000). Life ahead. Chennai: Krishnamurti Foundation India.
Kuan, T. (2008). Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New approaches through psychology and textual analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit sources. London: Routledge.
Kumar, K. (2004). Quality of education at the beginning of the 2P' century: Lessons from India. Paris: UNESCO.
Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Langer, E. J. (1993). A mindful education. Educational Psychologist, 28{\), 43 - 50.
Langer, E. J. (2000). Mindful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 220-223.
Langer, E. J., & Moldoveanu, M. (2000). Mindfulness research and the future. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 129-139.
Lohithakshan, P. M. (2002). Dictionary of education: A practical approach. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.
Loy, D. (2003). The great Awakening: A Buddhist social theory. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Makransky, J. (2005). No real protection without authentic love and compassion. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 12.
Mansikka, J. (2009). Can boredom educate us? Tracing a mood in Heidegger's fundamental ontology from an educational point of view. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 25(3), 255-268. 235 Martin, J. (2004). The educational inadequacy of conceptions of self in educational psychology. Interchange, 35(2), 185-208.
Masters, M., & Holifield, M. (1996). Rousseau revisited: Compassion as an essential element in democratic education. Education, 116(4), 559-564.
Matheson, C, & Matheson, D. (Eds.). (2000). Educational issues in the learning age. London: Continuum.
Mayer, F. (1960). A history of educational thought. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Books.
McLeod, C. (2007). The noble path of socially-engaged pedagogy: Connecting teaching and learning with personal and societal well-being (Ph.D. Thesis. The University Of British Columbia, Okanagan).
Mead, G. H. (1934/1962). Mind self and society (Ed. by C. W. Morris). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meynell, H. A. (1976). On the aims of education. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, I0{\), 79-97.
Myint, A. (2007). Theravada treatment and psychotherapy: An ecological integration of Buddhist tripartite practice and Western rational analysis. (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Sustainability & Technology Policy, Murdoch University, Australia).
Nanamoli, B., & Bodhi, B. (1995). The middle length discourses of the Buddha: A translation of the Majjhima Nikdya (2"'^ ed.). Boston: Wisdom Publications.
NCERT, (2005). Curriculum framework for quality teacher education. New Delhi: NCERT.
Nhat Hanh, T. (1975). The miracle of mindfiilness: A manual on meditation. Boston: Beacon Press.
Nhat Hanh, T. (1991). Peace is every step. New York: Bantam Books.
236 Nhat Hanh, T. (1998). The heart of the Buddha's teaching: Transforming suffering into peace, joy, and liberation. New York: Broadway Books.
Noddings, N. (1995a). A morally defensible mission for schools in the 2P' century. Phi Delta Kappan, 7(5(5), 365-368.
Noddings, N. (1995b). Teaching themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 675- 679.
Noddings, N. (2003). Happiness and education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Noddings, N. (2004). War, critical thinking, and self-understanding. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(1), 488-498.
Norman, K. R. (1995). The group of discourses (Sutta-nipdta). Oxford: Pali Text Society.
Norman, K. R. (2003). Collected papers (Vol. II). Oxford: Pali Text Society.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical defense of reform in liberal education. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Nyanaponika, T, (1962). The heart of Buddhist meditation. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Nyanaponika, T, (1986). The power of mindfulness. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Nyanaponika, T, (1994/2006). The vision of Dhamma. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Nyanaponika, T., Hecker, H., & Bodhi, B., (Eds.). (2003). Great disciples of the Buddha: Their lives, their works, their legacy. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications.
Odin, S. (1992). The social self in Japanese philosophy and American pragmatism: A comparative study of Watsuji Tetsurco and George Herbert Mead. Philosophy East and West, 42{3), 475-501.
237 Peters, R. S. (1966). Ethics and education. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Peters, R. S. (1970). Education and the educated man. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 4{\), 5-20.
Phuntsho, K. (2000). On the two ways of learning in Bhutan. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 2(2). 96-126.
Pio, E. (1988). Buddhist psychology: A modern perspective. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications.
Piyadassi, T. (1979). The Buddha's ancient path. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Premasiri, D. P. (2006). Studies in Buddhist philosophy and religion. Singapore: Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society.
Premasiri, P. D. (1991). Significance of the ritual concerning offerings to ancestors in Theravdda Buddhism. In D. J. Kalupahana (Ed.), Buddhist thought and ritual (pp. 151-158). New York: Paragon House.
Premasiri, P. D. (1991). The social relevance of the Buddhist Nibbana ideal. In D. J. Kalupahana (Ed.), Buddhist thought and ritual (pp. 45-56). New York: Paragon House.
Premasiri, P. D. (2001). Right knowledge. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Premasiri, P. D. (2007). Sila. In G. P. Malalasekera et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism (vol. Vll) (pp. 121-125). Sri Lanka: The Government of Sri Lanka.
Rhys Davids, T. W. (1992). (1899/1992). Dialogues of the Buddha. London: Pali Text Society.
Rousseau, J. (1979). Emile or on education (Introduction, trans, and notes by Allan Bloom). New York: Basic Books.
Russell, B. (1926/2000). Education and the good life. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.
238 Saito, N. (2009). Ourselves in translation: Stanley Cavell and philosophy as autobiography. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 43(2), 253-267.
Salzberg, S. (1995/2002) Loving-kindness: The revolutionary art of happiness. Boston: Shambhala Classics.
Sankar, Y. (2004). Education in crisis: A value-based model of education provides some guidance. Interchange, 35(1), 127-151.
Santina, P. D. (1997). Tree of enlightenment. Taiwan: Yin-Shun Foundation.
Seel, M. (1997). Well-being: On a fundamental concept of practical philosophy, European Journal of Philosophy, 5(2), 39-49.
Sen, A. K. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sen, A. K. (2002). Identity and violence: The illusion of destiny. London: Penguin Books.
Sen, A. K. (2002). Rationality and Freedom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Sheppard, S. L. (2004). Does mind matter? Education and conceptions of mind. Educational Theory, 51(2), 243-258.
Sichel, M. (1969). Are aims of education suffering from a case of rigor mortis. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 7(2), 17-27.
Siderits, M. (2005). Freedom, caring and Buddhist philosophy. Contemporaiy Buddhism, 6(2), 87 - 116.
Siegel, D. 1. (2004). Attachment and self-understanding: Parenting with the brain in mind. Journal of Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Health, 18(A), 273-286.
Siegel, D. 1. (2008). Brain science podcast #44: Meditation and the brain with Dan Siegel. Retrieved November 24, 2009 from http://www.brainsciencepodcast.com/storage/transcripts/bsp-vear-4/71- bsp-transcript.pdf
239 Siegel, H. (1991). The generalizability of critical thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 25(1), 18-30.
Sllananda, U. (2002). The four foundations of mindfulness. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Singh, K. (1996). Education for the global society. In Delors et al. (Ed.), Learning: The treasure within. Paris: UNESCO.
Small, R. (2003). A fallacy in constructivist epistemology. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 37(3), 483-502.
Soma, Thera, (1941/1998). The way of mindfulness: The Satipatthana Sutta and its commentary. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Splitter, L. J. (1991). Critical thinking: What, why, when and how. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 25(1), 89-109.
Swearer, D. K. (1972). Two types of saving knowledge in the Pali Suttas. Philosophy East and West, 22(3), 55-71.
Swearer, D. K. (2000). The State of Buddhist studies in the world. Bangkok: Center for Buddhist Studies, Chulalongkom University.
Tandon, A. (2000). Spirituality and ethics: A secular view. In A. Mishra (Ed.), Spirituality, science and technology (pp. 79-87). New Delhi: Indian Philosophical Congress Press.
Thanissaro, B. (2009). Sikkha Sutta: Trainings (AN 4.99) (trans.). Access to Insight, May 24, 2009, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/ an04.099.than.html
Tophoff, M. M. (2007). The ethics of knowledge and action in postmodern organizations. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 14.
Vo, Van Ba, (2006). A study of the impact of Anapdna meditation on children's moral behaviour and academic achievement (Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, University of Pune).
240 Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language (rev. ed.) (A. Kozulin, trans.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Walshe, M. (1985). Samyutta Nikdya: An Anthology. The Wheel Publication No. 318-321. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Walshe, M. (1987). The long discourses of the Buddha: A translation of the DIgha Nikaya. Boston : Wisdom Publications.
White, J. (1978). The aims of education: Three legacies of the British idealists. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, J 2, 5-12.
White, J. (2002). New light on personal well-being. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 36(4), 661-669.
White, J. (2007). Well-being and education: Issues of culture and authority. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 4I{\), 17-28.
White, J. (2009). Education and a meaningful life. Oxford Review of Education, i5(4),423-435.
White, R. (2008). Rousseau and the education of compassion. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42(\), 35-48.
Whitehead, A. N. (1949). The aims of education and other essays. New York: Mentor Books.
Wijisekera, O. H. A. (1960). The concept of peace as the central notion of Buddhist social philosophy. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society.
Wilson, J. (2003). The concept of education revisited. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 37(1), 102-108.
Winch, C. (1996). The aims of education revisited. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, i^(l), 33-44.
Winch, C. (2002). The economic aims of education. Journal of the Philosophy of Education, 36(1), 101-117.
241 Witanachchi, C. (2007). Sigalovada Sutta. In G. P. Malalasekera et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism (vol.VII) (pp. 86-90). Sri Lanka: The Government of Sri Lanka.
Woodward, F. L., & Hare, E. M. (1946/1995). The book of gradual sayings (Anguttara Nikdya). London: PTS.
Woodward, F. L., (1935/1987). The minor anthologies of the Pali Canon (Part II). London: PTS.
Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology (9''^ ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education, Inc.
Wright, A. (2001). Spirituality and education. New York: Routledge Falmer.
Wu, J. (2006). Knowledge for what? The Buddhist concept of learning in the Suragama Sutra. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 33(4), 491-503.
242