DOI: 10.20507/MAIJournal.2019.8.2.7

THE PACIFIC RESEARCH PARADIGM

Opportunities and challenges

Eseta Tualaulelei* Judy McFall-McCaffery†

Abstract

Around the world, favourable social and political circumstances have encouraged the development of academically non-traditional ways of researching. This article explores the recent proliferation of research approaches from Pacific and Pasifika communities which, in some Australian and New Zealand contexts, are attracting increased interest from policymakers and researchers. We present a socio-­historical account of how the Pacific research paradigm emerged and some key contemporary Pacific research approaches within this paradigm. We then critique aspects of the paradigm’s development by discussing opportunities and challenges. Our main argument is for researcher reflexivity and dialogue, important for the development and sustainability of research inspired by Pacific ways of knowing and being. We believe this will lead to research in which Pacific communities will recognise themselves and their aspirations for the future.

Keywords

Pacific Island, Pasifika, Oceania, research paradigm, research approaches, Indigenous knowledge

* Lecturer, School of Education, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield, Queensland, Australia. Email: [email protected] † Pacific Academic Engagement Advisor, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. THE PACIFIC RESEARCH PARADIGM 189

Introduction found in academic literature. The subsequent discussion examines some of the opportuni- In recent decades, the encouragement of meth- ties that are presented through venturing into odological and philosophical pluralism has inquiry with new and renewed tools of inquiry. promoted research approaches that are respon- The discussion also presents some challenges sive to previously marginalised voices. For that need to be addressed in order to move those working from and with Pacific Island or the Pacific theoretical project forward while Pasifika communities, this has led to a profu- managing potential issues such as paradigm sion of research approaches and methodologies dominance and the like (see Denzin, 2017). We such that researchers can now choose between argue here that Pacific theory-­building can be using Pacific-­Indigenous research approaches, strengthened through reflexivity and balanced non-Indigenous­ research approaches, Pacific-­ critical dialogue. The discussion concludes with inspired approaches or a blend of various some implications for future research, support- approaches. In New Zealand and Australia, ing calls for further dialogue. Pasifika are people or descendants of people originally from islands in the Pacific Ocean (McGavin, 2014; Mila-­Schaaf, 2010; Samu, The emergence of a Pacific research 2010; Suaalii-­Sauni, 2008). This article uses the paradigm term “Pacific” to refer to Pacific Islander peo- ples residing in and outside the Pacific Islands, A paradigm is a way of seeing the world and including Pasifika peoples. While the availabil- organising knowledge, and the term as it is used ity of choice is advantageous for researchers, in this article derives from the work of Kuhn the rapid proliferation of research approaches (1970). Kuhn (1970) was a natural science has prompted concerns about their theoretical history lecturer who, after spending a year underpinnings, critical grounding, and value with social scientists and noticing the intense for research and social transformation (Burnett, disagreements they had “about the nature of 2012; Sanga & Reynolds, 2017; Tunufa’i, legitimate problems and methods” (p. viii), 2016). There is also a concern that emerging began to explore the idea that these were caused and non-­Pacific researchers may find the ever-­ by competing paradigms. He defined a “para- increasing array of methodologies, concepts digm” as “the entire constellation of beliefs, and discourses confusing or inaccessible (Efi, values, techniques and so on shared by members 2005; Sanga & Reynolds, 2017). Addressing of a given community” (Kuhn, 1970, p. 175). these concerns is significant for the sustain- It can be understood as a lens which orders ability and impact of this burgeoning research how researchers see the world while also lim- paradigm. iting what they see. Kuhn argued that when To respond to these concerns, this article a paradigm no longer accounts for the way continues the dialogue advocated by Sanga and information is being perceived, a “paradigm Reynolds (2017) about how the Pacific research shift” occurs, and the community of researchers paradigm is developing. Co-­authored by an must adjust and reorient their perceptive lenses. Australian-­based researcher and an Aotearoa What is considered a legitimate problem or a New Zealand-based­ Pacific researcher, the arti- topic worth researching becomes redefined, and cle begins by outlining how the contemporary along with that, new or revised approaches to Pacific research paradigm emerged, particularly inquiry evolve. within the social sciences. The next section Kuhn’s notion of paradigmatic shift accu- presents an overview of contemporary Pacific rately captures how the Pacific research research approaches, highlighting the rich array paradigm emerged. Indigenous people have

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always had ways of creating knowledge and of America, and their challenges were becom- understanding their realities, but these ways ing acute. These challenges included increases have struggled to gain recognition in the acad- in Pasifika youth delinquency (Borrero, Yeh, emy. Several decades ago, only a handful of Tito, & Luavasa, 2010; Yeh, Borrero, Tito, pioneering scholars were promoting the value of & Petaia, 2014) and incarceration (Shepherd Indigenous and Pacific knowledges in higher edu- & Ilalio, 2016), disproportionate represen- cation (McFall-McCaffery,­ 2010). For instance, tation of Pasifika with serious health issues G. Smith developed Kaupapa Mäori in 1997, (Hawley & McGarvey, 2015), and concerns challenging the dominant deficit theories that about the academic achievements of Pasifika harmed rather than helped Mäori communities students (Coxon, Anae, Mara, Wendt-Samu,­ in New Zealand (G. Smith, Hoskins, & Jones, & Finau, 2002; Ferguson, Gorinski, Samu, & 2012). Other scholars created Indigenous places Mara, 2008). In New Zealand, more authorities of higher learning, such as Futa Helu’s founding and academic institutions installed guidelines of the ‘Atenisi Institute in Tonga in 1963 (Helu, for Pasifika-­related services, engagement 1999), and Aiono Fanaafi Le Tagaloa’s estab- and research (i.e., Airini et al., 2010; Anae, lishment in 1997 of Le Iunivesite o le Amosa Coxon, Mara, Wendt-­Samu, & Finau, 2001; o Savavau, Samoa’s only Indigenous tertiary Health Research Council of New Zealand, education institute. These and other Pacific 2014; University of Otago, 2011), and the visionary scholars—including Teresia Teaiwa numbers of Pasifika students enrolled in post- (2001), David Gegeo (2001; Gegeo & Watson-­ graduate research gradually increased (Tertiary Gegeo, 2001), Konai Helu Thaman (1992, Education Commission, 2017; Theodore et 1993, 1994, 2003), Manulani Meyer (1998, al., 2018). In these circumstances, Pacific-­ 2001, 2003) and Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese and Pasifika-­specific approaches to academic Efi (2003, 2005, 2007), among others—advo- inquiry emerged, some building on the work cated for Indigenous knowledges against a of the scholars mentioned above, and others backdrop of broader discourses concerning completely new in conceptualisation. postcolonialism and self-­determination. Their efforts garnered mixed reactions from local populations (Coxon, 2010) and an initially The contemporary Pacific research muted reception in wider academia, but these paradigm pioneering figures and their work embodied the collective and colonially rejected desires and Pacific research approaches are currently oral knowledges of Pacific communities. flourishing, as evidenced by the availability of The United Nations Declaration on the published and unpublished studies. Published Rights of Indigenous People, which affirmed work using Pacific research approaches can be the rights of Indigenous people to their own found mainly in the fields of education (e.g., culture, traditions and language (art. 31), Anae, 2010; Matapo & Leaupepe, 2016), men- bolstered the work of Indigenous knowledge tal health and health (e.g., Kupa, 2009; Seiuli, advocates. Because Mäori and Pacific scholars 2010; Tamasese, Peteru, Waldegrave, & Bush, had persisted with their projects, their passions 2005) and social work (e.g., Mila-Schaaf,­ 2006; and struggles spilled over into transnational Ravulo, 2016). There has also been a signifi- and diasporic communities where movements cant increase in unpublished work using Pacific for more culturally relevant and culturally research approaches, such as for master’s and appropriate research had gained momentum. doctoral level theses (e.g., Latu, 2009; Te Ava, Pasifika populations had steadily grown in 2011). Burnett (2012) highlighted the impor- New Zealand, Australia and the United States tance of these postgraduate outputs “because

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019 THE PACIFIC RESEARCH PARADIGM 191 they represent the Pacific education theories Pacific or Pasifika research approaches, mixed-­ that will later flow back into Pacific communi- methods research is evident (Mila-­Schaaf, 2010; ties” (p. 482) and because of the potential for Si‘ilata, 2014). Nomenclature draws heavily transformative change in the researcher’s think- from Pacific Island languages and the meta- ing about education and research. Furthermore, phors are also distinctly Pacific. For example, most of the postgraduate scholars producing the Samoan fale features in Fa’afaletui, Fonofale this work are the progeny of more established and Uputaua, and various canoes feature in academics (Burnett, 2012), which enhances Vaka, Kupa and Va’a tele. In addition, sev- the legitimacy, continued utilisation and devel- eral research approaches in Table 1 reference opment of the Pacific research paradigm in common Pacific values, including a holistic or mainstream academia. spiritual worldview that appears to validate non-­ To demonstrate the breadth of current work, sensory, religious and supernatural phenomena key Pacific and Pasifika research approaches (Gegeo & Watson-­Gegeo, 2001; Meyer, 1998; (encompassing metaphors, models, frame- Wood, 2006). These commonalities highlight works, methods and methodologies) are that Pacific and Pasifika communities share summarised in Table 1. The table organises semiotic and representational perspectives key contemporary approaches alphabetically rooted in Pacific realities. with original authors listed first. The table is Table 1 further suggests areas for explora- illustrative rather than exhaustive. Data were tion. Certain research approaches appear to be sourced from a range of key academic data- context-specific, such as Teu le vä, primarily bases (JSTOR, Web of Science, ProQuest, for educational research, and Fonua, for health Scopus, Trove and nzresearch.org.nz) by using research, yet both emphasise the importance of combinations of the search terms “Pacific”, relationships for collaboration. The extent to “Pasifika”, “research”, “approach”, “model”, which these could be used outside their original “method”, “framework” and “methodology”. contexts is not clear from the literature. The use We excluded research approaches that are of metaphors is also significant because research Mäori or Hawaiian, peoples originally Pacific is likened to a variety of cultural activities: in heritage but usually named in the litera- weaving in Fa’afaletui, quilting in Tivaevae, ture as Indigenous. The results turned up more and garland-­making in Kakala and Ula. The Polynesian Pacific research approaches than strength of these metaphors relies on their cul- Melanesian and Micronesian. A full explana- tural contexts (Johansson Fua, Sanga, Walker, tion of each research approach is outside the & Ralph, 2011; Ruru, Sanga, Walker, & Ralph, scope of this article, so the reader is encouraged 2013; Sanga, 2013), which researchers may not to access the primary sources listed in the table. fully appreciate (McFall-­McCaffery, 2017). A Table 1 is intended to provide an entry point further area for exploration is the idea of “rela- for emerging and non-Pacific­ researchers into tional space” expressed in Tongan and Samoan this rapidly expanding area, as well as serve as as “vä”. Is vä a pan-­Pacific concept? How does a reference point for the ensuing discussion. vä apply to the range of relationships between Table 1 samples the broad range of available peoples in different Pacific and non-­Pacific set- Pacific and Pasifika research approaches. The tings? Again, Pacific cultural knowledge and Pacific groups of Fiji, Tonga and Samoa are experience is crucial to exploring these ideas represented by multiple research approaches, (Amituanai-­Toloa, 2009). as are many smaller Pacific communities. The Hence, some recent critiques about the devel- research approaches collated in Table 1 are opment of the Pacific research paradigm point to exclusively qualitative, and although we are theoretical concerns, highlighting the local ver- not aware of examples of purely quantitative sus the general application of research (Naepi,

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019 192 E. TUALAULELEI & J. MCFALL-MCCAFFERY Tui kakala (garland- making) ‘Iluvatu (special Cu’u mat) Land Fale with roof, foundation and pou (posts) Fale (Samoan house), tui (weaving) Metaphor/Concepts Philosophy for teaching, learning and research acknowledging social relationships: teu (plan), toli (gather), tui (weave), luva (present), malie (feedback/evaluation) and mafana (impact/sustainability) Research guided by values of inclusiveness, respect, the family, cohesiveness, uniqueness, reflections, reciprocity and spirituality; derivative of Vanua (see further down the table) Holistic wellbeing and health of individuals, communities and environments the relationships between them Holistic understanding of health incorporating culture, family, the physical, spiritual, mental and other dimensions of health, as well time, context and environment Communal knowledge creation through consensus; weaving knowledge together through grouping and regrouping Key ideas Tonga Fiji Tonga Samoa, Cook Islands, Tonga, Fiji, Niue, Tokelau Samoa Origin Education, Project Management Education, community research Health Health Mental health, Health Fields Thaman (1992, 1993); Manu’atu (2000); Johansson Fua, Manu, Takapautolo, and Taufe’ulungaki (2007); Johansson Fua (2009, 2010) Naisilisili (2012) Tu’itahi (2009) Pulotu-Endemann (2009) Tamasese, Peteru, and Waldegrave (1997); Tamasese, Peteru, Waldegrave, and Bush (2005); McCarthy, Shaban, and Stone (2011) Authors Key contemporary Pacific research approaches Kakala ‘Iluvatu Fonua Fonofale Fa’afaletui Name TABLE 1

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( continued )

Paopao (outrigger canoe) Reciprocity, relational spaces Tanoa (kava bowl); serving others Talanoa (conversations) Mana (ancestral/ Ta (time), vä (space) Kapasa (compass); yavu (roots) Mea (thing), alofa (love); gifting Metaphor/Concepts spiritual/ cultural essence or power) Total wellbeing of te tino o tangata (physical body), mafaufau (mind), kaiga (families), tapuakiga/talitonuga (spirituality/ beliefs), fenua (environment), inati (social sharing) Nurturing sociospatial ties through geographical and genealogical connections Service through talanoa (shared stories), collective identity, reciprocity and egalitarianism Researching through conversation; engagement of diverse and contesting stories Indigenous wellbeing approach and intervention based on shared Pacific generative words and concepts Theory of reality and knowledge where time and space are symmetrical in form, interconnected and harmonious; emphasises social relations Strengths-based approaches encouraging inclusive and mutually beneficial relationships and authentic collaborations Healing as an interpersonal and relational practice Key ideas Tokelau Tonga Fiji Tonga Tonga, Polynesian Pacific Tonga Tonga, Fiji Samoa Origin Mental Health General research Social work Education Leadership, Wellbeing and Mental health Art, Anthropology, General research Policy development and community engagement Mental Health, Counselling Fields Kupa (2009) Ka’ili (2005) Ravulo (2018) Vaioleti (2006, 2011); Prescott and Hooper (2009); Prescott (2011) Mila (2017) Mahina (2010) Ministry for Pacific Peoples (2017, 2018) Seiuli (2010) Authors Te Vaka Atafaga Tauhi vä Tanoa ni veiqaravi Talanoa Mana Moana Ta Vä Kapasa and Yavu Mea-alofa Name

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019 194 E. TUALAULELEI & J. MCFALL-MCCAFFERY Faletalimalo (Samoan meeting house); Uputaua (sacred conversations) Lei (garland) Tree Wisdom to identify/ critique the meanings of texts Tivaevae or tivaivai (Cook Islands patchwork quilt) Reciprocal relationships Metaphor/Concepts 12 key features including spirituality, culture/customs, family, vä (relationality), physical wellbeing and others Research approach based on the principles and values of fa’asamoa (Samoan culture) Vision for Pacific education deeply rooted in Pacific cultures, languages, values, worldviews and knowledge Critical discourse analysis from a Samoan perspective Centrality of culture, collaboration, respect, reciprocity, relationships, and shared vision in research Practices to engage stakeholders, collaborate, coordinate, accumulate knowledge, understand different kinds of knowledge, engage with knowledge brokers Key ideas Samoa Samoa Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Niue, Hawai’i, Cook Islands, Tonga Samoa Cook Islands Samoa Origin Health, Psychology Education (Early Childhood) Education Education Education, Health, Indigenous Knowledge and Language/s Education Fields Seiuli (2012) Sauni (2011) Pene, Taufe’ulungaki, and Benson (2002) Galuvao (2016) Inspired by Maua- Hodges (1999) and developed by Te Ava (2011); Te Ava and Page (2018); Te Ava and Rubie-Davies (2011); Futter-Puati and Maua- Hodges (2019) Anae (2010, 2016) Authors Uputaua Ula Tree of Opportunity Tofä’a’anolasi Tivaevae Teu le vä Name

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019 THE PACIFIC RESEARCH PARADIGM 195 Land Canoe Va’a tele (double- hulled deep-sea canoe) Vä (relational spaces) Metaphor/Concepts Processes and protocols used when researching Indigenous Fijian histories, knowledges, skills, arts, values and lifeways Significance of Indigenous values, knowledge and approaches Pacific teachers bring to their pedagogy Evidence-based strategies for bilingual/ bicultural Pasifika learners’ success in English-medium schools and classes Emphasises the spiritual and social connections between people, contexts and environments; focuses on intentions and purposeful actions within social spaces; Vä is a key dimension of Ta Vä, Tauhi Vä and Teu le Vä (also in this table) Key ideas Fiji Niue Samoa Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Hawaii Origin Education Education Education Education Fields Nabobo-Baba (2008) Nelisi (2004) Si‘ilata (2014) Indigenous Pacific concept; interpreted by Wendt (1999); Tuagalu (2016); Reynolds (2008); Amituanai-Toloa (2018, April 29) and others Authors Vanua Vaka Va’a Tele Vä Name

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2015). Sanga and Reynolds (2017) argued for and can locate their work within it. Another the importance of locating current develop- assumption is that Pacific research approaches ments within their particular socio-­historic are explicit about the necessary theoretical context, especially through explicit acknowl- and conceptual connections that are central to edgement of genealogical relationships between their use and interpretation. These assumptions research methodologies. Respectful and careful make a case for greater clarity and coherence critique of Pacific research approaches is nec- in the field to increase accessibility to novice essary for their development, and the authors and non-Pacific­ researchers, to facilitate the caution of “model-making­ as a self-justifying­ theorisation of Pacific research approaches and activity” (Sanga & Reynolds, 2017, p. 201). A to help researchers make informed selections to more pointed critique is presented by Tunufa’i suit their research purposes and values. To con- (2016), who claims that Talanoa does not tribute to coherence in the field, the next section have status as a research methodology, in part, discusses some key opportunities and challenges because it lacks a clear philosophical rationale presented by theory-­building in Pacific and (contrasting with Tecun, Hafoka, ‘Ulu‘ave, Pasifika research. & ‘Ulu‘ave-­Hafoka, 2018). Furthermore, in a survey of New Zealand postgraduate research in Pacific education conducted between 1944 Opportunities and challenges and 2008, Burnett (2012) found that very little emancipatory and deconstructivist research had To be clear, we reiterate that Pacific knowledge-­ been completed, leading to questions about seeking and knowledge creation are not limited whether the social transformative potential of to the academy. Indeed, Indigenous Pacific Pacific postgraduate studies had been realised. knowledge is being used and created every These critiques suggest that Pacific research day in villages across the Pacific, in churches, approaches need firm theoretical foundations governing institutions and wherever Pacific peo- to align with their stated purposes and goals. ples interact (Gegeo & Watson-­Gegeo, 2001). Other critiques are directed at Pacific research This article, however, is concerned with the practices. Several of the approaches in Table 1 ways in which these Pacific knowledges are are comprehensive in outlining principles, but being explored, developed and shared further not practices and methods. The most widely through writing or publication. These written used research approach, Talanoa, is a case records are how new researchers across time in point. Farrelly and Nabobo-­Baba (2014) and place are making and will make sense of expressed concern that Talanoa was being the Pacific research paradigm. If a cross-­Pacific replaced by informal interviews or chatting umbrella research paradigm has emerged from outside Indigenous cultural contexts. Similarly, the multitude of approaches and methodologies Fa’avae, Jones and Manu’atu (2016) questioned (Sanga, 2004; Sanga & Reynolds, 2017), how whether Talanoa was a mere data collection are Pasifika scholars shaping this paradigm? tool, noting very different philosophical, local To date, Pacific scholars have forged a path and cultural systems behind various forms of unique opportunities that come with explor- of Talanoa, and they described difficulties in ing new and renewed approaches to inquiry. reporting Talanoa in research. This indicates Pacific researchers have been able to move out the need for clearer practical guidelines as well of the epistemological borderlands (Harding, as theoretical refinement. 1996) and apply novel (to the academy) ways One assumption underlying these critiques of investigating and problem-­solving to con- is that researchers using Pacific research temporary challenges (Reynolds, 2016). The approaches have an overview of the field opportunities to explore and practise culture

MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019 THE PACIFIC RESEARCH PARADIGM 197 and language in new contexts has, in turn, led previous generations of researchers, we also to more conversations about Pacific philosoph- need to problematise newly created constructs ical thought in research. Naming concepts and or old ones that no longer apply in the same ideas has encouraged translanguaging, bringing ways. Burnett (2012) provided the example attention to the richness and depth of Pacific that knowledge and knowledge-­making in languages while at the same time challenging Pacific research approaches are often framed the primacy of English terminology and con- as “Pacific and West, colonized and colonizer, cepts. Working across languages and cultures inside and outside” (p. 488). Yet globalisation, forces clarity of expression in articulating our technology and an increase in social conscien- approaches, so that they make sense to our- tiousness has encouraged shifting, overlapping selves, our communities and others. and hybrid identities, languages and cultures. Perhaps a key opportunity relates to the To research contemporary contexts is to wel- humanisation of research; Pacific research come multiple perspectives of knowledge and approaches promote inquiry that is more to acknowledge that no one approach, even authentic, respectful and meaningful to Pacific within the Pacific research paradigm, has the communities. Some Pacific researchers have monopoly on truth and knowledge. introduced or reintroduced an element to This leads to a related challenge regard- knowledge creation that makes some people ing discourse and critique. Pacific research feel uncomfortable (Watson‐Gegeo, 2004)— approaches should be scrutinised to facilitate that which the modern scientific world long development, and thus, several commentators ago rejected as being “unscientific”: knowl- have pointed to the need for respectful and edge based on a reality beyond what can be constructive critique (e.g., Burnett, 2012; Sanga experienced through our objective bodies and & Reynolds, 2017). However, challenging our conscious subjectivities. Thus, research received knowledge in Pacific cultures can clash may now be conducted in ways that reclaim with notions of respect, relationality, humble- and acknowledge the full spectrum of human ness and deference. The social and political experience as perceived by Pacific peoples but hierarchies of Pacific communities, complicated which has been treated for so long as simply by the ongoing effects of the colonial era and folk knowledge (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990). new hierarchies of the neoliberal era, can make This includes what Paulo Freire (2000) called researchers reticent in their critiques. This may “love”, and acts of love, he wrote, affirm peo- result in the encroachment of a type of intellec- ple’s humanity (p. 50). In some Pacific cultures, tual neocolonialism whereby stronger research these acts of love occur in the relational space, voices drown out less numerous (but no less in the vä, and it is a constant reminder that authentic) voices. This, in turn, might effectively we are all connected to each other and to our silence already marginalised Pacific individuals ecosystems (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 2008). Our and groups, particularly if the power of Pacific future existence depends upon those relation- research approaches is wielded by institutions ships being harmonious. or governments to justify decisions not agreed A challenge to maintaining harmony in to by Pacific peoples. Furthermore, increas- research involves overcoming predefined cate- ingly sophisticated and complex terminology gorisations and binaries. The acts of creating, and rhetoric risks relegating Pacific research naming and categorising research approaches approaches to the domain of the academic elite that push past inherited boundaries represent (Burnett, 2007) and removing them further and a formidable social power (Bourdieu, 1985). further from the communities they should serve, While researchers should boldly “trouble tidy from where the newer generations of Pacific binaries” (Lather, 2006, p. 36) received from researchers will emerge.

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A further challenge relates to the appro- refrain from criticising their ideas and actions priation of aspects of culture and language. (Coxon, 2010; Twyford, 1988). Thus, as Pacific Table 1 includes metaphors of Samoan houses, researchers, we need to recognise the underlying canoe voyages, making garlands and quilting, power structures of our own communities and which as already mentioned, may or may not institutions and the impact they have on the be useful frames of reference for researchers pursuit of knowledge. who have no or limited lived experience of them (McFall-McCaffery,­ 2017). Relatedly, there is the question of the limitations of linguistic Future implications representation and the extent to which English, which has emerged as the default cross-Pacific­ Sanga and Reynolds (2017) argued for “inten- language, can be used to represent all Pacific tional naming, describing, defining, relating knowledge. As L. T. Smith (2012) asserted, and separating theoretical constructs as acts “There are realities which can only be found, of development. . . . Rather than being named as self-evident­ concepts, in the indigenous lan- in the shadows of other traditions, a Pacific guage; they can never be captured by another research paradigm is equal to all others or noth- language” (p. 159), but there is no single Pacific ing at all” (p. 202). This is a bold and significant language that can express all the nuances of agenda. The development of a Pacific research our various cultures. What are the implications paradigm encourages researchers to deepen then of linguistic and cultural competence for their knowledge about the field (Table 1 may Pacific research approaches? What are the impli- help with key references). Through reading cations of relying on English, and not Pacific and interactions with fellow researchers and languages, as the lingua franca for disseminat- community members, researchers will gain ing research? Critical reflection on these points a greater understanding of how our work is may enhance researcher reflexivity and reduce located socio-­historically and in relation to “clutter” (Efi, 2005). other research approaches, what distinguishes a A final challenge is that in articulating Pacific research approach and what we have in contemporary Pacific research approaches, common with other Indigenous, interpretivist, researchers might reach back into an idealised critical or emancipatory research approaches. past that some argue never really existed (e.g., As researchers, we should also stay mindful Fitzsimons & Smith, 2000; Keesing, 1989; about the purpose of research and its utility to Kristeva, 1993). Pacific cultures, like all cul- society. Research impact is best gauged by our tures, are fluid, ambiguous and ever evolving. communities, yet there are potentially negative Knowledge politics are part of our heritage. In implications of serial one-­off approaches where many Pacific societies, a select number of people a new approach is created for each new context in a family group were entrusted with genealog- or research problem. For longevity, research ical histories or knowledge that was intimately approaches should be generally replicable in dif- related to power. Hau’ofa (1994) exemplified ferent contexts by other researchers. We should this in his description of an era when the aris- also remember that the pursuit of knowledge tocratic class controlled knowledge. He wrote, is not a Pacific endeavour alone—it is a human “Keeping the ordinary folk in the dark and endeavour. Therefore, we should seriously pon- calling them ignorant made it easier to con- der the utility of Pacific and Pasifika research trol and subordinate them” (Hau’ofa, 1994, approaches for communities beyond our own. p. 149). This manifests in contemporary Pacific and Pasifika communities where “ordinary folk” may respect the voices of authority and

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Conclusion privilege that we as researchers have in naming, voicing, languaging, critiquing and idealising This article has sought to contribute to ongo- Pacific cultures in our research approaches ing discussions on the evolution of Pacific comes with responsibilities. Emerging and non-­ research approaches. We acknowledged the his- Pacific researchers deserve clarity in the field. tory and pioneers of the contemporary Pacific Moreover, researchers must stay grounded so research paradigm, and we socio-­historically that the language of Pacific research empow- positioned the current Pacific research par- ers and engages all in our communities. In our adigm as one strand in the long and often view, this will lead to research in which Pacific undocumented history of Pacific knowledge-­ communities will recognise themselves and their making. The expansion of Pacific and Pasifika aspirations for the future. research approaches is a positive development. Ia manuia. However, researchers are encouraged to think of the Pacific research paradigm as a cumulative effort and collective movement. We have posed Glossary more questions than answers in the hope of raising clarity through dialogue and to promote fale house the development and sustainability of research Kaupapa Mäori Mäori-based topic/event/ inspired by Pacific ways of knowing and being. enterprise run by Mäori This entails stronger critical perspectives and for Mäori reflexivity on our own work. ia manuia be well and prosper There is value in approaching social chal- tivaevae or Cook Islands patchwork lenges in uniquely Pacific ways, so we firmly tivaivai quilt believe that the Pacific research paradigm has uputaua sacred conversations much to offer both the Pacific and interna- vä relational space tional knowledge communities. However, the

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