Quintana. Revista de Estudos do Departamento de Historia da Arte ISSN: 1579-7414 [email protected] Universidade de Santiago de Compostela España

Castro, Maria João TOURISM AND EMPIRE: AN INVITATION TO COLONIAL TRAVEL Quintana. Revista de Estudos do Departamento de Historia da Arte, núm. 16, enero- diciembre, 2017, pp. 225-238 Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Santiago de Compostela, España

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How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15304/quintana.16.3647

TOURISM AND EMPIRE: AN INVITATION TO COLONIAL TRAVEL

Maria João Castro Universidade Nova de Lisboa

Data recepción: 2016/10/10 Data aceptación: 2018/04/11 Contacto autora: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1443-7273

RESUMO Um dos temas mais prementes da história da arte contemporânea tem a ver com o binómio império/turismo, encontrando-se ambos profundamente interligados, uma vez que a colonização impulsionou a criação de novas mobilidades. Inicialmente, as viagens das Descobertas limitaram-se à conquista, missionação e comércio, mas a partir do século XIX – a viagem colonial tornou-se num imperativo político, social, cultural e artístico. Na verdade, a partir do final de Oitocentos, a política imperial europeia promoveria a viagem às possessões ultramarinas não só para (re)definição geográfica do território mas principalmente como reflexo dos nacionalismos europeus emergentes, tornando-se num meio privilegiado de legitimação e de propaganda das províncias d´além mar. Esta dinâmica fez com que o turismo colonial se desenvolvesse a vários níveis e em diversas frentes, promovendo uma vilegiatura ultramarina que se tornou num dado civilizacional medidor da cultura contemporânea. Palabras chave: turismo, império, arte d’Além Mar, viagem, herdança colonial

ABSTRACT One of the most compelling topics in the history of contemporary art is the empire/tourism bino- mial. The two are closely interconnected, as colonisation was a driving force behind the creation of a new kind of mobility. In an initial phase, voyages of discovery were concerned solely with conquest, missionisation and trade, but from the 19th century onwards travel to the became a political, social, cultural and artistic imperative. In fact, after the end of the 19th century, European imperial policy encouraged travel to overseas possessions not only as a means of (re)defining in a geographical sense but primarily as a reflection of emerging European nationalism, turning travel into a privileged means for legitimating the overseas and for spreading propaganda about them. As a result, colonial tourism developed on various levels and fronts, promoting an overseas holiday experience that became a civilisational datum and a gauge of contemporary culture. Keywords: tourism, empire, art from overseas, travel, colonial heritage

Introduction African and Asian colonies of the empires of the From the Roman leisure tour along the Medi- Old Continent. terranean coast through the medieval pilgrimage This trajectory of colonial travelling in the 19th to the Grand Tour, there exists a whole travel ge- and 20th centuries was the result of a series of nealogy which impacted on the colonial trajectory well-known conditions: the development of in the 19th century and induced a number of means of transport resulting from the Industrial people from the metropole to head towards the Revolution, an increase in leisure time and a bour-

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 226 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel geoisie with money who began to want to copy sequently of the French Empire, was commemo- the nobility in their taste for travel. In addition to rated. This was the first exhibition to include a this, new ideas about well-being (and health) and true colonial section for the history of France and leisure encouraged the proliferation of tourism, the one that would mark the beginning of a mo- with the colonies becoming a favourite destina- del for colonial representations that would last tion for this European quest. In fact, empire and during the final quarter of the 19th century and industrialisation became allies in the sense that for the whole of the 20th century. In fact, the

Maria João Castro Maria João they created a new cultural reality: the develo- area in Paris reserved for showing the colonies pment of shipping and railway companies, the was located in the Champs de Mars and was a support given to journeys of exploration in the tableau vivant divided into four zones – Arabia, African continent with the purpose of drawing boundaries and the increased colonial support in- Oceania, Africa and Asia. In the 1900 Exhibition, frastructure (hotels, access roads, architecture) all this would grow into a much vaunted “tour du spurred people on to travel to the European co- monde” but without the visitor ever leaving Pa- lonial possessions especially and to remote parts ris1. Integrated within the imperial landscape of of the globe by creating the conditions necessary the French colonies (especially the Asian ones) for a successful journey. was the human landscape that brought the pic- ture depicted to life reproducing ethnographically Corpus the boundaries of the empire. These recreations were of course fed by a prolific supply of litera- ture, the majority of which written by French- Universal and World Exhibitions men on diplomatic missions to the colonies (as After the second half of the 19th century was the case of Pierre Loti), through which the (to be precise, after 1851 - the year of the first imagination of the urban public could “prolong” universal exposition in London), the growing im- their colonial fantasies after the exhibitions had portance of these world-universal (later colonial) closed their doors. events introduced the new overseas geographies into the capitals of the empires (initially London The exhibitions themselves were the pretext and Paris where the first exhibitions were held). for writing travel notes about this colonial worl- This fostered a mythical desire in the societies dview that was recreated in the empires’ capitals, of the metropole to experience these places fo- and among these can be included various Por- llowing the call of the exotic, the echo of which tuguese accounts that are as yet little known2. has survived until today. Without a doubt, the But the relationship between this travel literatu- “discourses” shown in these exhibitions – where re and the imperial conquest/representation also recreating indigenous scenarios was first done so enabled a “discourse of desire” to be constructed that later the natives themselves could be intro- which strengthened and helped to legitimate the duced in built for the purpose – were a act of conquest and imperial dominance (Holland form of colonial cum tourist propaganda with a 2003, 15). The success of the colonial sections strong imperial stamp seeking to legitimate the in the world and universal exhibitions led to the ownership of such overseas possessions as well appearance of their own type of event – colonial as to show the civilizational power of the Old exhibitions – which were events that enjoyed Europe. The popularity these events acquired huge popularity. Authentic “living showcases” created a desire to leave, a desire to follow in the footsteps of the 19th century explorers and of European imperial possessions, not only were missionaries. At the very first exhibition in 1851 representatives of indigenous peoples integrated in London, British India occupied pride of place within them but also native environments were in the event, demonstrating the importance of recreated in real “human zoos” (Thuram 2011). the British ‘jewel in the crown’. At the 1889 Paris This led many of the visitors to accept the invita- Exhibition, and in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower, tion to undertake a colonial journey to discover the centenary of the French Revolution, and con- the empire.

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Arts and the colonial context guidebooks) was developed along with literary The promotion of the colonial journey was competitions although the main impulse came not, however, limited to the world, universal and from the trend for official trips by Heads of State, which will be dealt with in more detail below. colonial exhibitions. Even though these played an effective role in attracting people to visit the Furthermore, what can be seen is the appea- overseas , there were other practices rance of a mentality that went against modern that reiterated this same purpose. In the arts, society, one which was looking for an experiential numerous artists were driven to discover these authenticity based on ancestral cultures in a re- Castro Maria João faraway scenarios and different pictorial motifs. turn to the “primitive” state which might restore This gave rise to a distinctive plastic and aesthe- a certain notion of belonging; one which sought tic discourse which influenced the arts both at to plunge into our primordial roots and which home and overseas. Take, for instance, the case passed through capitalism and neo-liberalism, of Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863) in North Africa, and still remains in an age of globalisation, beco- Paul Gauguin (1948-1903) in French Polynesia or ming one of the fundamental issues of our time. Henri Matisse (1869-9154) in French Polynesia In this respect, we are witnessing the mythifi- and Morocco, all of whom have been studied in cation of European colonial empires when, for depth. Naturally, the colonial journey had bilate- example, in the 19th century Indochina is termed ral consequences since it not only enabled the the “pearl” of the French Empire, India is the sphere of imperial influence to be increased in “jewel” in the British crown and even the State of the overseas territories but also influenced the becomes the “pearl” of the Por- culture and the arts of the European metropoles. tuguese Empire. If it is true that these territories In fact, as Edward Said argues in his work Cultu- were not unknown, it is also true that they were re and Imperialism, “European cultural produc- not particularly well known but were fictionalised tion reflected the efforts made to construct and in shows (exhibitions, literature) that helped to maintain the overseas empires” (Said 2011: 143). create an aura of exploration and seduction that Colonial travelling therefore played an important drove people to “exploit” them. role in the legitimation and maintenance of the As Eric Hobsbawm so clearly put it, the 19th overseas possessions so that a great deal of atten- century was the “Age of Empire” (Hobsbawm tion was paid to overseas policy in order to create 1990) and this had wide repercussions on the a dynamic that would facilitate the journey from mode in which people, both the colonisers and the mother-nation to the colonised territories. the colonised, travelled. What is more, there are In this context, the belief that the empire was even those who advocate that it was due to em- beneficial to both territories – the metropole hel- pire that tourism came to the fore and develo- ped the to “become civilised” while in ex- ped on a global scale; for example, see what the change the latter enabled the empire to become historian Jim Davidson says in Holiday Business: stronger in the political-cultural field – governed Tourism in Australia since 1870 when he suggests the concerns of western governments, principa- that Thomas Cook3 was really the person respon- lly between the years 1850 and 1950. Said in sible for the emergence of tourism in Australia another way, from the second half of the 19th and New Zealand by capitalising on the journey century on, European empires encouraged me- to the British colonies in the Antipodes (Davidson tropolitan citizens to travel to their colonies after 2000). having realised that this functioned as a type of It is clear that the role of the arts, which helped vector through which imperial nationalism could people to “see” the lands of the distant empire be spread and consolidated, thereby legitima- for the first time, greatly contributed to such tou- ting it. To this end, a whole structure for colonial rism becoming consolidated. This was common propaganda was set up, the objective of which to all the European colonial empires and had con- was to spread information about these overseas sequences within the arts of the Old Continent destinations. What is noticeable here is that a since it allowed new thematic content (landsca- wide range of literature (brochures, magazines, pes, portraits, local customs and the picturesque)

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 228 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel to be introduced as well as novel forms of repro- even promotion of tourism to the colonies but it ducing a new reality, particularly in regard to new was the start of a new way of thinking. pigments and new ways of capturing the African With such a proposition in mind, the 1933 light, so different to the European light. Above Portuguese Constitution itself alluded to the all, this new pictorial world provided by colonial bond existing between the regime and tourism travelling gave new impetus to and revitalised when, in Article 52, the text referred to the western art itself. primacy attributed to national heritage when Maria João Castro Maria João it declared that “artistic, historical and natural The and Tourism monuments are under the protection of the Sta- te as are artistic objects officially recognised as From the Portuguese point of view, the rela- such”. Supported by this legal framework, they tionship between tourism and State was con- then set out to define a policy for tourism which solidated during the dictatorship of the Estado advanced on various fronts: a campaign to re- Novo (1926-1974) despite the fact that the ge- portuguesify the in which a range of nealogy of Portuguese tourism had started du- initiatives of a ruralist nature were undertaken ring the First Republic (1910-1926). However, as that proposed to revive and keep alive national a political proposition, the dynamic of national traditions, and among which the following stand tourism really took off in the 1930s and enjo- out - the competition for the most Portuguese yed the unique characteristic of continuing after in Portugal, the creation of folklore groups the fall of the Old Continent’s colonial empires and the setting up of the Museu de Arte Popular following the end of the Second World War. In [Museum of Popular Art], the rebuilding of the reality, the gradual independence of European country’s architectural heritage and the develop- overseas territories after 1945 contributed to the ment of Regional Pousadas [or hotels] as part of massification of tourism on a world scale which the “Plano de Realizações do Duplo Centenário has led some scholars to classify it as a new form de 1940” [Plan of Actions for the Double Cen- of imperialism, a fact that we shall deal with at tenary of 1940] endorsed by Duarte Pacheco’s the end of this article. Ministry for Public Works and considered true It is important to mention that there was a postcards of the different of the country; practical concern by the Estado Novo at the na- the setting up of a review, Panorama - Revista tional level to take upon itself the job of struc- Portuguesa de Arte e Turismo, an informative pu- turing a policy of colonial tourism propaganda. blication about national tourism edited in four Of course to develop this scenario it was first series between 1941 and 1973, which publicised necessary to set in motion a series of actions to the official tourist image by giving enhanced va- help structure such a design, beginning with the lue to the folklore side of tourism together with drawing up of a policy for domestic tourism. In references to the arts supported by the regime; this context, the Secretariado de Propaganda Na- the publication of brochures, posters, maps and cional [SPN - National Propaganda Secretariat], books which updated the image of Salazar’s new the body responsible for the Repartição do Turis- Portugal and of which the books Images Portu- mo [Office of Tourism] ever since it was created gaises (SPN, 1939) and Paisagem e Monumentos in 19334, immediately considered that “tourism, de Portugal (Santos 1940) are two examples; the besides being an indisputable factor of enrich- start of the Fundação Nacional para a Alegria no ment and civilisation, was a very safe way to carry Trabalho [FNAT – National Foundation for Hap- out intense national propaganda as well as simple piness at Work]5 which drew up a social tourism political propaganda” (Direcção Geral de Turismo policy that included the organisation of holiday 1991: 9). This meant that tourism could be used camps and promoted outings and excursions as a tool to strengthen national identity and rein- to places of historical interest; the creation of a force the role of the state as guardian of cultural weekly programme on the national radio station (particularly monumental) heritage, which attests Emissora Nacional, written by the Tourism Service to the grandeur of the nation. It was not directly called “Conheça a sua Terra” [Know your Cou- an incentive to the massification of tourism or ntry] which publicised Portugal’s natural beauty

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel 229 spots, monuments, ethnography and folklore, Travel as a vehicle for colonial propaganda and also promoted excursions in the Lisbon re- Initially, nevertheless, tourism to the colonies - gion and surroundings. This campaign was later intercontinental tourism - was little encouraged. extended to the colonial provinces as they were Although it had been the monarchy’s intention considered a part of Portugal as we will see later. to do so6, it was the Estado Novo in 1934 who According to António Ferro (1895-1956), the would actually instigate colonial tourism with the enactment of Decree-Law nº 23 445 of 5th

Secretary of the SPN which coordinated the Esta- Castro Maria João January 1934. This established the first fledgling do Novo’s cultural and artistic policy, enhancing government agencies in the provinces – the the value of Portugal had to be done Casas da Metrópole [Metropole Offices] - who- through focusing on popular resources, there- se function was to promote tourism, a process by constituting an alternative to the doubtless which would continue until the creation in 1959 more erudite and cosmopolitan European tourist of the Centros de Informação e Turismo [Tourism destinations in comparison with which he belie- Information Centres]7 in the overseas provinces, ved the national reality had little to offer. In fact, and which had their beginnings in the Feiras de the legislative movement relating to tourism fell Amostras Coloniais [Colonial Produce Fairs] of the within a wider policy concerning the develop- 1930s in the African provinces8. ment of public works and which encompassed The Casas da Metrópole were the brainchild of improvements to road and transport networks, José Pedro Alvares, President of the Associação basic sanitation and communications, the res- Industrial Portuguesa [Portuguese Industrial As- tructuring of existing hotels and the planning of sociation]. Their purpose was to set up in the new ones according to pre-established precepts. colonies a “permanent showcase for goods and At the same time it included tourist propaganda products originating on the European continent campaigns that not only provided the structure for consumption overseas”, but which in order for tourism in the metropole but also boosted to be “more than just a small museum, should be adjoined to an information and propaganda the development of colonial travelling (and in section”. In addition, it was through these that the future, tourism) creating the key conditions the Concursos de Arquitectura, Escultura, Pintura required for overseas journeys to be undertaken. e Desenho [Architecture, Sculpture, Painting and Even though indirectly, the premises referred to Drawing Competitions] were promoted and the above motivated an elite to get to know the far first Painting Salons established9. corners of the empire, often allying a professio- The idea behind these Casas da Metrópole nal placement (military or business) to leisure as was complemented by the creation of Casas das well as promoting colonial travel and stimulating Colónias [Colonial Offices] in the Portuguese ca- the creation of support infrastructures that could pital. Armindo Monteiro was given the ambitious cater for a broader group such as relatives and task of setting up a “permanent industrial and friends. commercial showcase in the Agência Geral das This multifaceted tourist propaganda action Colonias [AGC - General Agency for the Colo- dealt with by the SPN was carried out within the nies] (Portugal Colonial 1932: 16-17: 40). Later so-called Política do Espírito [Policy of the Spi- on it became part of the plans for a Casa Colo- nial [Colonial House], completing the triangle of rit]. This sought to showcase a rural country po- the Museu Colonial [Colonial Museum] in Belém, pulated by worthy people who had carried out which was never built, the Museu Etnográfico memorable feats in the past but which was also in the Sociedade de Geografia (the Geographi- the mother-country of a great empire, the pos- cal Society´s Museum of Ethnography) and the sessor of a culture that was independent, all its permanent Showcase Exhibition in the Agência own and ready to be shown to the world in its Geral das Colonias. As regards the Centros de various dynamic aspects, especially in its overseas Informação e Turismo, these were coordina- territories. ted by the Agência Geral do Ultramar (General

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 230 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel Overseas Agency), which provided the necessary mobilisation of Portuguese emigration and sett- guidance, although dependent on local gover- lement in the African territories. 10 nment . Simultaneously, the decree-law which Two years after the 1º Cruzeiro de Férias às created the Centros de Informação e Turismo in Colónias, there followed the 1º Cruzeiro de Fé- Angola, Mozambique and India (nº 42 194 of rias de Estudantes das Colónias à Metrópole [1st 27th 1959) ordered the closure of the Holiday Cruise for Students from the Colonies to Casas da Metrópole in Luanda and Lourenço the Metropole] in 1937 – the outcome of another Maria João Castro Maria João Marques11 and legislated the transfer of their initiative by the magazine Mundo Português. On holdings, assets and employees. The same law this occasion some of the students, the sons and entrusted the Overseas Minister with the esta- daughters of colonos, or settlers, in Angola and blishment of identical government agencies in Mozambique, were given the opportunity to the provinces of Cape Verde, Guinea, São Tomé visit the Exposição Histórica de Ocupação [His- e Príncipe, Timor and in 196012. In sum torical Exhibition of Occupation] and afterwards the Casas da Metrópole and the Centros de In- take part in an excursion from the north to the formação e Turismo constituted a process at first south of Portugal14. The aim of both cruises was commercial and propagandistic but ultimately to firmly establish the collective conscience with related to tourism, which reflected the growing regard to the colonies in the first case and to the importance of the latter in the colonial context. motherland in the second – an aim which was Though concerns about overseas political and amply fulfilled. tourism development would come later, already Nonetheless it was clear that the example in 1935, commensurate with institutional wishes, should come from above. While the President of the 1º Cruzeiro de Férias às Colónias [1st Holiday the Council, Oliveira Salazar, was not interested Cruise to the Colonies] was organised through in getting to know the overseas reality, in 1938 the initiative of the magazine Mundo Português. the Head of State Óscar Carmona (1869-1951) The Salazar government, realising the nationalist embarked on his first overseas trip visiting the import of such a venture, offered its full support colonies of São Tomé e Príncipe and Angola. The and protection as Portuguese patriots rushed to following year he travelled to Cape Verde and sign up as passengers. Via detailed reports the Mozambique. In a crystallised metropole which whole country was invited to accompany these was at the time impervious to any wind of chan- “ambassadors from the motherland to the dis- ge and as a way to mark the second journey for tant sons of the nation” (Roteiro do 1º Cruzei- posterity, it was decided to carve an inscription ro de Férias às Colónias 1935: 6) In reality the in stone on the pillars of the Cais de Colunas [the cruise allowed a group of students and teachers two pillars on the waterfront at Terreiro do Paço]. to directly experience the Portuguese African Inscribed on the left-hand pillar, near where Por- colonies owing to the pedagogical criteria go- tuguese ships had previously set sail on the voya- verning the trip, although the overall objective ges of Discovery, were the following epic words: was to instil a sense of Portugal’s grandeur in SEGUNDA VIAGEM DO CHEFE DO ESTADO ÀS the world. The voyage included the colonies of TERRAS ULTRAMARINAS DO IMPÉRIO: CABO Cape Verde, Guinea, São Tomé e Príncipe, and VERDE, MOÇAMBIQUE E ANGOLA. XVII DE JUNHO Angola and enjoyed the collaboration of the local - XII DE SETEMBRO DE MCMXXXIX A VIAGEM DO authorities13. In the context of modern travelling CHEFE DO ESTADO ÀS TERRAS DO IMPÉRIO EM practice the 1º Cruzeiro de Férias às Colonias was ÁFRICA ESTÁ NA MESMA DIRECTRIZ DAS NOSSAS a decidedly colonial act, comprising a sovereign PREOCUPAÇÕES E FINALIDADE, É MANIFESTAÇÃO journey of national and international exposure DO MESMO ESPÍRITO QUE PÔS DE PÉ O ACTO with political intentions of cultural subordination COLONIAL. SALAZAR and economic attainment. But equally it was a [The second voyage of the Portuguese Head of weapon which predisposed people towards the State to the overseas territories of the empire: acceptance and defence of colonial policy while Cape Verde, Mozambique and Angola. 17th June– at the same time acting as a driving force in the 12th September MCMXXXIX. The voyage of the

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Head of State to the imperial territories in Africa is commensurate to our concerns and ends. It demonstrates the same spirit of colonial endeavour. Salazar] On the right-hand pillar the President of the Republic said: AQUI EMBARCOU O CHEFE DO ESTADO PARA A Maria João Castro Maria João PRIMEIRA VIAGEM A TERRAS ULTRAMARINAS DO IMPÉRIO S. TOMÉ E PRÍNCIPE E ANGOLA. XI DE JULHO – XXX DE AGOSTO DE MCMXXXVIII COM A CERTEZA DE QUE FALA PELA MINHA VOZ PORTUGAL INTEIRO, PROCLAMO A UNIDADE Fig. 1. President arriving at Cais das Colunas, Lisboa, 1939 INDESTRUTÍVEL E ETERNA DE PORTUGAL D’ AQUÉM the high points of a political propaganda focused E ALÉM MAR! GENERAL CARMONA on the reaffirmation of Portuguese sovereignty [From here embarked the Head of State on the first over its African colonies in the face of both na- voyage to the overseas territories of the empire, S. tional and international public opinion, but also Tomé e Príncipe and Angola. 11th July–30th August the fact that they opened the way for the res- MCMXXXVIII. With the certainty that my voice tructuring and development of an imperial policy speaks for all Portugal, I proclaim the indestructible which began to consider the tourism potential of and eternal unity of Portugal at home and overseas! these overseas territories. This was especially so General Carmona] because they showed visually (through the press However, the return of the President to the and television) a place that had earlier belonged Cais das Colunas on 12th September 1939 sym- to the which, besides enjoying bolised a new era in that Carmona was returning a shared history, even had the same language. to a continent under the shadow of war (fig. 1). Both of these facts contributed in the long run The Second World War had been declared on 1st to many Portuguese people deciding to travel to September forcing Oliveira Salazar’s government become acquainted with this destination whose to declare Portuguese neutrality15. past was so closely linked to Portugal. These journeys were important in that some In the Anuário do Turismo do Ultramar de metropolitan citizens decided to follow in his 1959 [1959 Directory of Overseas Tourism] it footsteps, thereby increasing travel to the colo- is stated that “from the Atlantic to the Indian nies. Ocean, from Oceania to the Far East of Asia, to the very limits of Portuguese territory, the condi- In 1954 Craveiro Lopes (1894-1964) was tions for tourism are truly exceptional. Now that despatched to the provinces of São Tomé e Prín- people everywhere travel and the world has be- cipe and Angola; in 1955 he travelled throug- come smaller (...) the colonies must equip them- hout Guinea and Cape Verde, and in 1956 to selves for the creation of a new industry: tou- Mozambique. In the 1960s it was the turn of rism.” (Anuário do Turismo do Ultramar de 1959 Américo Thomaz (1894-1987) who visited Ango- 1960:1-2) After praising the tourism potential of la and São Tomé e Príncipe in 1963, Mozambique each overseas the report observes that in 1964, Guinea and Cape Verde in 1968, and “something has been achieved in Mozambique finally São Tomé again in 1970. Marcelo Caeta- and Macau” but urges that much more needs to no (1906-1980) travelled to Guinea, Angola and be done, not only to “attract foreigners but to Mozambique in 1969. Voyages to the ex-colony remind us of the ever present lessons of a Past of Brazil were undertaken by António José de Almeida (1866-1929) in 1922, Craveiro Lopes which many are not aware of and others have in 1957, Marcelo Caetano in 1969 and Américo forgotten” (Idem 1960: 4). Thomaz in 197216. What was important was not In the process of arriving at an established po- only the fact that these official visits constituted licy for overseas tourism, the Overseas Minister,

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 232 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel Joaquim da Silva Cunha (1920), warned of the necessity “to complete a documented inventory of tourist facilities in all provinces with a view to establishing a general policy for overseas tourism. Included as a first priority should be the prepa- ration of a hotel infrastructure and a plan for its employment.”17 He called for the coordination

Maria João Castro Maria João of metropolitan and provincial services, and the elaboration of tourist propaganda to optimise efforts on both fronts. In this context colonial architectural projects were developed and railway networks construc- ted, particularly in the African colonies, in order to welcome the metropolitan traveller and possi- bly the future colonist who might wish to settle. The building structures resulting from this pro- ject reflected a type of Luso-African architecture (Milheiro 2012), the casa portuguesa ultramarina (overseas Portuguese home). With the help of local government the necessary measures were taken to speed up the possibility of overseas tra- vel to the colonies. The promotion of colonial settlement and indigenous “assimilation” resul- Fig. 2. Colonial tourism posters between 1940 and1970 ted in a proliferation of and villages named the airways resulting in the gradual growth of Salazar or Carmona18. The coordination for this initiative was the responsibility of the Gabinete airports in Portuguese Africa. de urbanização Colonial do Ultramar [The Over- The possibility of journeying overseas from the seas Colonial Urbanization Office], established capital of the Empire was in large part also due in 194419 to construct a “portugalidade tropical” to the Agência Geral das Colónias which in 1924 [tropical Portuguese-ness] that demonstrated a began distributing colonial propaganda providing “Portuguese way of being in the world”20. information on the territories. This contributed The Agência Geral do Ultramar also compiled profoundly to the growing taste for colonial tra- a line of colonial tourism propaganda literature vel. Whether travelling for leisure, on business or on numerous occasions in the form of brochures emigrating, Portuguese citizens tended to keep publicising colonial travel and highlighting the written records of their journey which helped to attraction of the colonies for the tourist (fig. 2). document the structure and development of this colonial traffic and contributed to the growth of The organisation of travel to the colonies be- colonial tourism22. gan with the Empresa Nacional de Navegação [ENN - National Navigation Enterprise], set up in 1881, whose purpose was to link the capital of Art and Tourism the Empire with its African possessions. In 1918 Seeking to draw the colonies closer to home, this became known as the Companhia Nacio- Oliveira Salazar’s Estado Novo used art as a vehi- nal de Navegação [CNN – National Navigation cle for tourist propaganda – particularly literature Company], which until 1922 had a monopoly and cinema – in a dialogue which would help on maritime travel to Africa. In that year it met to promote Portugal as a legitimate, grandiose competition from the Companhia Colonial de Na- colonial power. To this end the Concurso de Lite- vegação [CCN - Colonial Navigation Company] ratura Colonial [Colonial Literature Competition] that had been founded in Lobito, Angola21. Later was held in 1926. The event was won by Joa- on, in the 1950s, the sea route was replaced by quim Pereira Mota Júnior com Feitiço do Impé-

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel 233 rio (The Spell of Empire), a novel which would serve as inspiration for António Lopes Ribeiro (1908-1995) who in 1940 made a film of the same name. In effect, cinema helped to promote tourism in the Portuguese colonies, above all in Angola and Mozambique. In the film adaptation of Feitiço do Império23 Lopes Ribeiro emphasised

the emergence of a colonial conscience in the Castro Maria João protagonist that went far beyond that of the cha- racter described in the award-winning novel. But the film’s importance lay in its being the first Por- tuguese fictional film made in Portuguese Africa and including images gathered from the I Missão Fig. 3. Portugal Tourism logo. Courtesy José Guimarães, 1992 Cinematográficaàs Colónias [1st Cinematographic It was really his paintings which informed the Lis- Mission to the Colonies] for which the film maker bon public of the landscapes and customs of their Lopes Ribeiro was artistic director. The Mission’s territories and helped to encapsulate for most objective was to demonstrate the positive results Portuguese people the distant idealism of such of overseas colonisation, a proposal reiterated destinations. at the end of the film where the director mer- But there were others who embarked on this ged documentary and fictional footage in a final overseas pictorial odyssey too but with more scene where the characters attend the standing modest results. Jorge Barradas (1894-1971) ovation given to President Carmona on his arrival produced the first series of paintings depicting in Luanda in 1938, thus showing that the citizens São Tomé, which were exhibited in 1931 at the of the metropole should follow his lead and visit Lisbon Sociedade Nacional de Belas Artes [Natio- the colonies. Most of the documentary footage nal Society of Fine Arts]. Albano Neves e Sousa focuses on the day-to-day existence of the local (1921-1995) had a long career in Angola with African population, their customs and traditions. regular exhibitions in Lisbon and in various other Thus various scenes of dancing, simulated war- territories of the Portuguese empire which he fare, native markets and so on convey an image regularly visited and painted. He was honoured of a primitive, exotic Africa, light years away from by the Portuguese Government, receiving the the daily life of the metropole. One might add Ordem do Infante D. Henrique [Order of Prince that the film creates an imaginary world capa- Henry the Navigator] in 1963. In recent times the- ble not only of forging a colonial and imperial re has been José de Guimarães (1939), an artist identity, but also a national Portuguese identity whose work since the 1960s in Africa and Asia marked by the awareness of belonging to a pluri- has illustrated a pluricontinental, multiracial Por- continental territory. During the 1960s and 1970s tugal “from the Minho to Timor” which is so well the films portrayed paradisiacal beaches, modern encapsulated in the symbol for Turismo de Portu- infrastructure and safari photographs with no re- gal [Portugal Tourism], which he designed some ference to war24. decades ago and is still in use today, particularly Painting was also convened in the promotion the ocean wave, the highway of the Portuguese of colonial tourism. Take Faust Sampaio (1893- Discoveries ever since the 15th century25 (fig. 3). 1956), considered an important “painter of over- seas Portugal”, who toured the African colonies and also Macau, Timor and Portuguese India. Ex- Tourism as the final stage of colonialism or hibitions of his work in the academic institutions tourism as a new form of imperialism and galleries of Lisbon in the 1930s, 1940s and With the independence of the territories of the 1950s as well as the colonial section of the Gran- European empires, each nation went about ela- de Exposição do Mundo Português [Great Exhi- borating a tourist development plan which took bition of the Portuguese World] in 1940 made into account the international market and con- him a unique figure among Portuguese painters. templated catering to tourists from the former

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 234 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel metropole even if it were only for their common of the novel and the familiar. Nonetheless, many language. But this was not the principal factor in theories contend that the tourist’s journey in a the development of post-colonial tourism. The global world is no more than a new form of im- offer of tourist travel to the former provinces perialism, or rather the final phase of colonialism. grew due to the appeal of revisiting a unique For these theorists tourism thrives on inequali- bygone age, with the attraction of specific pro- ty, on differences of power and wealth, and as ducts such as colonial architecture26, the vestiges such constitutes a new imperialism, involving a

Maria João Castro Maria João of a military past such as forts, or simply the lega- supremacy moulded not by the distant colony cy of a Portuguese way-of-life in the tropics. Also but by economic imperatives embedded in the to consider was the appeal of the exotic and local liberal capitalist society of the 21st century. This features: warm water beaches, lush vegetation, is of course a highly reductionist view of the tou- resorts equalling western standards of comfort rist phenomenon and a later issue in the context and sporting activities only possible in a tropical of this article. Consequently, the means of local climate. These were just some of the attractions subsistence are transformed into subservience promoted for an effective and affective trip. where relations between guest and host can be expressed by the economic ascendancy of the If in colonial times the journey to the Portu- former over the latter. guese territories served as a means to witness, dominate and maintain a world overseas, in the The whole scenario is contradictory: does tou- post-colonial era it has served above all to reco- rism destroy the culture it seeks, or does it sustain ver a certain “return to the past”, distant from the culture by reinventing it? western liberal society that has put aside past glories (from the colonist’s viewpoint) which can Not-so-final considerations only be recovered through memory. Thus it is not The high degree of mobility in the contem- surprising that tourism to the former colonies still porary world raises a paradox: while people may caters in particular to the ex-colonist, privileging travel anywhere and at all times, this ease and a common past and a shared language. In fact, accessibility of movement has, on the other hand, the importance of the former colonies as a tourist probably made the world less “exotic” and diver- destination in relation to the destinations chosen se. This does not invalidate the fact that many of by the Portuguese for the purposes of tourism the old European colonies have been “recoloni- is extremely noticeable in some travel operators, sed”, this time by the capitalist free market on a such as Pinto Lopes Viagens27. planetary scale which homogenises destinations Acculturation and hybridism make it clear that and products in a way that makes them attractive tourism remains a transversal activity of balances to mass consumption by world tourism. We are based on a favourable political context. On the speaking then of tourism as a form of colonialism other hand, not being an ideologically neutral based on the idea that “the old formulas of im- topic (if it is possible to find such), tourism can be perial conquest have given way to a new invasion reduced to a single ideological use or particular ... tourists” (Holland 2003: 164). context. Many theories have tried to explain it in Without doubt Tourism and Colonialism main- terms of its association with colonialism (Cohen tain close ties in the post-colonial era, regardless 1972; Nash 1977; Bruner 1989; Crick 1992) in of how one might wish to correlate them. Re- its neo-colonial and post-colonial figurations. In flection on the binomial of tourism/colonialism line with these theories centre-periphery power is far from being exhausted and there is a lack relations create situations of neo-colonial depen- of more in-depth studies consubstantiated by a dency which perpetuate resentment and antago- transnational history that integrates the Portu- nism in a linear fashion. guese universe with that of the European colonial Although somewhat paradoxical, many tou- empires, taking into account their particularities. rists seek destinations whose history is close to That there is a common history to the colonial their own but which at the same time induce a empires of the Old Continent and because this sense of being “away from home”, a mixture history has consequences and a legacy in the con-

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel 235 temporary world is indicative of a worldview that tions and the governments of newly independent has repercussions all over the globe28. nations who are today bilateral partners. In the One searches ever more diligently for the co- case of Portugal, the proliferation of agreements lonial tourist experience where a common past is with like Angola, São Tomé e Príncipe, a guarantee of a close identity. In this regard the Mozambique, Cape Verde or Timor reflects the countries of the old Portuguese empire occupy building of solid relations, beyond memories of a privileged position as consecrated destinations the colonial war, albeit not exempt from criticism with a shared memory. Between neo-colonialism and difficulties. Castro Maria João and post-colonialism, travel-tourism and empi- Certainly in the contemporary post-colonial re come together as an enticement to overseas era the invitation to travel has enabled the cons- travel, constituting a privileged indicator of an truction of a worldview of tourism similar to the interdependent existence which has survived be- geography of the planet, sustaining places of yond the end of European colonialism. One only colonial reference at home and overseas which has to witness the commitment in cultural policy constitute mythical windows on a reality which that results, or will result, in agreements and pro- will undoubtedly continue to resonate. tocols being signed between the old colonial na-

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NOTES 9 See “Informações das Casas da 19 Decreto-Lei n.º 34173, de 6 de Metrópole de Luanda e Lourenço Mar- Dezembro de 1944. 1 The journey around the world ques”, Separata N.º 293, Boletim Geral 20 An expression coined by Adriano was made by using the technique of das Colónias, Lisboa, AGU, 1949, p. 7. Moreira (1922), professor and Overseas the ‘moving panorama’ in which the 10 Decreto-Lei n.º 41 407, de 28 de Minister of the Estado Novo (1961-63) circular exhibition was replaced by a Novembro de 1959. which was widely reproduced by the moving canvas. A person left from 11 Created by Decreto-Lei nº 23445, propaganda of Oliveira Salazar’s regime. Marseille, visited a variety of countries de 5 de Janeiro de 1934. 21 See http://restosdecoleccao.

Maria João Castro Maria João and afterwards returned to the point of 12 Portaria n.º 18 111, de 7 de Dez- blogspot.pt/2011/12/companhia-nacio- departure. This panorama in which mo- embro de 1960. nal-de-navegacao-cnn.html (accessed vement was added to the static picture 13 See Norberto Cardigos, À mar- on 29.8.2017). was amazingly successful in realising gem do I Cruzeiro de Férias às Colónias, 22 For a non-exhaustive bibliogra- the ideal of a journey around the world Aveiro, Gráfica Aveirense, 1936. phy see: Francisco José de Lacerda e Al- without leaving the metropole. 14 See Roteiro do 1º Cruzeiro de meida, Documentos para a história das 2 See, by way of example, the publi- Férias dos Estudantes das Colónias à colonias portuguezas: diario da viagem cations of Eduardo Coelho, Passeios no Metrópole no ano de 1937: Iniciativa e Moçambique para os rios de Senna, estrangeiro: visita à exposição de Paris, do Ministério das Colónias, Lisboa, So- Lisboa, Imp. Nacional, 1889; Armando passeio a Londres, passeio na Bélgica ciedade Industrial de Tipografia, 1937. Augusto Gonçalves de Moraes e Castro e no Rheno, Lisboa, Typografia Univer- 15 e António Pereira Cardoso, Uma via- sal, 1879; Ramalho Ortigão, Notas de The newspapers of 2.9.1939 pu- gem através das colónias portuguesas, Viagem: Paris e a Exposição Universal blished an official note from the Gover- Porto, Companhia Portuguesa Editora, (1878-1879), Lisboa, Clássica, 1945; A. nment in which the Government decla- 1926; Julião Quintinha, África Misterio- Cavaleiro Sousa, Uma visita à Exposição red Portugal’s neutrality in the conflict. sa. Viagem às Colónias, Lisboa, Nunes Universal de Paris em 1889, Lisboa, Lu- 16 It is worth opening a parenthesis de Carvalho, 1931; Arnon de Mello, cas & Filho, 1893; António Melo, Um here to mention that, within the context África: viagem ao Império Portuguez e à barquense na Exposição Universal de of presidential journeys, it was not only União Sul-Africana, Rio de Janeiro, José Paris de 1900: apontamentos de via- presidents who were called on to travel Olympio, 1941; F. Pimenta de Carvalho, gem, Ponte da Barca, AL-Publicações, around the Portuguese overseas territo- Impressões de uma viagem ao Ultramar, 2013. ries but that these propaganda events also included the ministers for the co- Arganil, [s.n.], 1965. 3 Thomas Cook (1808-1892) was lonies. Bacelar Bebiano (1894-1967), 23 The film tells of the spell cast by one of the first travel agents in the Armindo Monteiro (1896-1955), Vieira the Portuguese overseas territories over world, who, by hiring a train, created Machado, Marcello Caetano (1906- Luís Morais (Luís de Campos), a young the first group touristic journey. After 1980), Sarmento Rodrigues (1899- Luso-descendant whose family lives in that, he began to contract the services 1979), Raul Ventura (1919-1999) and Boston. Luís is getting ready to marry of different agents with the aim of se- Adriano Moreira (1922) all scheduled an American girl, Fay Gordon (Mada- lling a tourist “package” (which inclu- their trips to the overseas colonies to lena Sotto), and to become a natura- ded travel, accommodation, visits and intercalate with presidential journeys, meals), thus contributing to the emer- lized citizen of the United States but thus assisting the colonial propaganda gence of mass tourism. he is persuaded by his father Francisco policy and contributing to the views of Morais (Alves da Cunha), a wealthy Por- 4 Rebaptised in 1944 as the Secre- the people being heard. This ministerial tuguese emigrant, to visit Portugal and tariado Nacional de Informação, Cul- dynamic was underlined by Marcello her African colonies before finalising tura Popular e Turismo [SNI –National Caetano himself in his Discursos edi- these decisions. Primarily attracted by Secretariat for Information, Popular ted by the Agência Geral das Colónias the chance to hunt in Africa, Luís is not Culture and Tourism]. in 1946, in which he stressed that the particularly impressed by Lisbon where 5 Decreto n.º 30251, de 30 Dezem- visit of the Minister for the Colonies to he disembarks first. However, the pro- bro 1939 and Decreto n.º 30289, de 3 the overseas territories would cease to tagonist cannot resist the fascination of de Fevereiro de 1940. be a sporadic and extraordinary event Overseas Portugal, where his “conver- 6 In 1907 Prince D. Luís Filipe visited but would become a normal act of the sion” to Portuguese values takes place the African colonies and in 1908 a trip administration. and which he ends up embracing at the by D. Carlos I to Brazil had been pro- 17 See Política do Turismo no Ul- end of the film. It is the colonial jour- grammed but the regicide nullified this. tramar, J. M. da Silva Cunha, separata ney that awakens the protagonist to an 7 Decreto-Lei n.º 42 194, de 27 de do Boletim Geral do Ultramar, Lisboa, awareness of “portugalidade” [Portu- Março de 1959. Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1966, p. 14. guese-ness], assisting at his transforma- 8 These Fairs did not have any di- 18 By way of example, see how in tion in the paradigm of the “new man” rective to make tourist propaganda but Angola Dalatando became Vila Salazar who emerges through the synthesis of rather concentrated on promoting trade (1936) and Uíge became Vila Marechal the Portuguese world “from Minho to and developing the economy. Carmona (1955). Timor”.

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24 Viagem no Deserto, by António the waters of the oceans, thus linking 26 On this subject, see McLaren, de Sousa Portugal, 1967 / 19 min; Bei- it to the history of navigation and the Brian (2006) Architecture and Tourism ra: Porta Turística de Moçambique, by Discoveries. Inspired by the national in Italian Colonial Libya: An Ambivalent Miguel Spiguel Portugal, 1973 / 11 min; flag, he painted two open hands in red Modernism, USA, University of Wash- and Horizonte Angolano, by Elso Roque and green, spreading them out into a ington Press. and João Mendes Portugal, 1973 / 15 body whose head, in the shape of the 27 See https://www.pintolopesvia- min, are but a few examples of the films sun, represented the warmth of both gens.com/viagens-com-autores/raquel- made. the country and its people. Finally the ochoa/ (accessed in 15.4..2018). 25 28 José de Guimarães thought that font takes up the spirit of the original See https://www.theguardian. Castro Maria João it was important that the symbol repre- symbol through a spiral shared by the com/commentisfree/2014/apr/08/ sented Portugal as an Atlantic country letter “g” and the wave it rests on. To people-beautiful-colonial-tourism-travel and, retaining the idea of a mythical follow the development of the idea, see (accessed in 29.8.2017). figure found in fables, he transformed Viagem do artista. Journey by an artist, this into a being capable of walking on Lisboa, ICEP, 1993.

QUINTANA Nº16 2017. ISSN 1579-7414. pp. 225-238 238 Tourism and empire: an invitation to colonial travel REFERENCIAS Hobsbawm, Eric. 1990. A Era do Império. 1875- Andrade, Ferreira. 1960, Anuário do Turismo do 1914, Lisboa: Presença. Ultramar de 1959. Lisboa: Ferreira de Andra- Holland, Patrick. 2003. Tourists with Typewriters. de. Critical Reflections on Contemporary Travel Baranowski, Shelley. 2015. “Tourism and Empi- Writing, United States of America: The Uni- re.” Journal of Tourism History, United King- versity of Michigan Press. dom, Tailor & Francis Online. Jamal, Tazim. 2012. The SAGE Handbook of Tou- Maria João Castro Maria João Brito, Sérgio Palma. 2003. Notas sobre a evolução rism Studies, California: Sage. do viajar e a formação do turismo, Lisboa: Me- Milheiro, Ana Vaz. 2012. Nos trópicos sem Le dialivros. Corbusier. Arquitectura luso-africana no Esta- Cadavez, Cândida. 2017. A bem da nação. As do Novo, Lisboa: Relógio d’Água. representações turísticas no Estado Novo entre Nash, Dennison. 1977. “Tourism as a Form of 1933 e 1940, Lisboa: Edições 70. Imperialism.” In The Anthropology of Tourism, Cardigos, Norberto. 1936. À margem do I Cru- 33-47. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania zeiro de Férias às Colónias, Aveiro: Gráfica Press. Aveirense. Portugal Colonial, revista de propaganda e ex- Crick, Malcolm. 1992. “Representaciones del pansão colonial, Accessed August 18, 2017. turismo internacional en las ciencias sociales: http://hemerotecadigital.cmlisboa.pt/Periodi- sol, sexo, paisajes, ahorros e servilismos.” In cos/PortugalColonial/PortugalColonial.htm Los mitos del turismo, 320-403. Madrid: En- “Roteiro do 1º Cruzeiro de Férias às Colónias nos dymion. meses de Agosto e de Setembro de 1935.” O Cunha, J. M. da Silva. 1966. “Política do Turismo Mundo Português, Lisboa: Gráfica da Socieda- no Ultramar.” Boletim Geral do Ultramar, Lis- de Industrial de Tipografia. boa: Agência Geral do Ultramar. Roteiro do 1º Cruzeiro de Férias dos Estudantes Davidson, Jim, and Spearritt, Peter. 2000. Holi- das Colónias à Metrópole no ano de 1937 Ini- day Business: Tourism in Australia since 1870, ciativa do Ministério das Colónias, Porto: S.I. Carlton: The Miegunya Press at Melbourne Said, Edward. 2011. Cultura e Imperialismo, São University Press. Paulo: Companhia de Bolso. Direcção Geral de Turismo. 1991. Portugal. Livro Thuram, Lilian. 2011. Exhibitions, L’invention Branco do Turismo, Lisboa: Ministério do Co- du sauvage, Paris: Coédition musée du quai mércio e Turismo. Branly / Actes Sud. Garcia, José. 2011. Ideologia e propaganda no Urbain, Jean-Didier. 2002. L’Idiot du Voyage. His- Estado Novo: da Agência Geral das Colónias toires de Touristes. Paris: Éditions Payot. à Agência Geral do Ultramar 1924-1964, Coimbra: Faculdade de Letras, Universidade de Coimbra.

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