REVIEW PAPER Ife Journal of Science vol. 18 no. 4 (2016) 981 USE AND HEALTH IN NIGERIA

Ojo, Joshua Department of Physical Sciences, Redeemer's University, Ede Email address: [email protected] Permanent Address: Nutrition and Health Related Environmental Research Laboratory, Department of Physics and Engineering Physics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife (Received: 3rd August, 2016 ; Accepted: 2nd October, 2016)

ABSTRACT

This review addresses pertinent environment-health issues related to the use of (synthetic) chemical pesticides, in agriculture and general household in Nigeria. It examines factors responsible for the well-cited data that 99% of the deaths associated with pesticides occur in developing countries like Nigeria, where only 25% of the world's production of pesticides is used. Such factors identified include: poor education leading to extensive misuse; issues with correct, effective, and safe applications of pesticides; the use of the cheaper but deadliest types of pesticides (in terms of persistence and toxicity); poor legislation and lack of enforcement of available legislation; lack of adequate information, knowledge, and awareness of the inherent dangers of pesticides; lack of training on correct handling of pesticides at home; absence of monitoring for pesticides residues on locally-consumed products, unlike the situation for products meant for export; and inadequacies in medical recognition and responses to . Other problems and issues associated with the use of pesticides were also examined. These include disruption of Ecological Balance and Collapse of Biodiversity; Unsustainable Chemical reliance; ; and economic issues. Solutions to ameliorate the situation were suggested. These include more public education, more intensive promotion of the Integrated Pest Management Scheme, green technology, and adoption of food irradiation by gamma rays to extend shelf lives of agricultural products.

Key words: Pesticides. Health Impacts.

INTRODUCTION: taking the initiative to ensure safe use of pesticides The recent “tomato ebola” in Nigeria is a vivid in Nigeria. Government agencies such as demonstration of the importance of pesticides in National Environmental Standards and modern day agricultural practice [The Guardian Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA), 2016]. Without pesticides, unimaginable loss of National Agency for Foods and Drugs Control products could occur while we helplessly look on. (NAFDAC), the Cocoa Research Institute of However, also quite troubling are the health Nigeria (CRIN), the Nigeria Stored Products hazards these pesticides could pose to people. Research Institute (NSPRI), etc, are at the fore- They could also have severe adverse impacts on front of translating research findings to the ecosystem and economy, particularly as we are regulations and communicating these to the compelled to use more and more of them as they nation through various workshops. There are also lose potency and effectiveness over time. private organizations such as the Association of Nigeria (PECAN) and the West India is one classic example of catastrophic African Agricultural and Productivity Programme consequences that could attend uncritical use of (WAAPP-Nigeria) working to ensure safe use of pesticides. In addition to well-documented severe pesticides in Nigeria. impacts of the pesticide endosulphan on people, particularly children [TERI, 2004], there is also the However most of these bodies address, largely, incredible number of 300,000 debt-ridden organized groups of stakeholders such as farmers' farmers resorting to suicide, in the space of fifteen groups, pesticide marketers, etc, whereas, in years, in a bid to escape multi-faceted problems Nigeria, virtually every other person is a farmer of associated with the use of pesticides, particularly sort, with backyard vegetable farms, poultry, or in the genetically-modified cotton industry in that fish ponds, etc. Moreover, there is probably no country [CHRGJ. 2011]. home where some pesticides are not used to control soldier ants, mosquitoes, cockroaches, Several responsible bodies and organizations are termites, rats, etc. There is therefore the need for 982 Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria mass education of the general public if we are to pesticides are applied to quickly remove, or effectively address the issues involved in pesticide minimize pest population; or in a Protectant Mode use, misuse, and abuse in the country. This review where pesticides are applied before the predicted addresses pertinent environment-health issues infestation or attack of the pest. Pesticides could related to the use of (synthetic) chemical also be applied continuously as prophylactics, to pesticides, in agriculture and general household in prevent the expansion of pest populations. In Nigeria. Europe, pesticides used outside of agriculture are called . TYPES OF PESTICIDES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Major chemical classes of synthetic pesticides Pesticides are used all around us, in farms, homes, include: Carbamates, Organochlorines, schools, gardens, and public parks. A , and Triazines. Newer classes comprehensive definition of pesticide will include Pyrethroids and Neonicotinoids, describe it as a chemical or biological agent that synthesized to mimic nature's pest protection. deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise Apart from synthetics, there are also the inorganic discourages pests including vectors of human or pesticides, which are natural minerals used as raw animal disease, unwanted species of plants or material inorganic compounds, botanic animals, from causing harm during or otherwise , microbial , insect growth interfering with the production, processing, regulators, and insect behavior regulators. storage, transport or marketing of goods, agricultural commodities, wood and wood Pesticides are also sometimes described in terms products. Pesticides could also be animal feed of their modes of action. For example, fumigants stuffs which may be administered to animals for are pesticides applied as gases to "sterilize" soil, the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in while systemics work their way through a plant's or on their bodies. [FAO 2006, Wikipedia 2016] tissue after being taken up at the root. In general, pesticides can be formulated as solution of water And what are pests? A pest can be defined as any or oil; or emulsifiable concentrations. Often, animal or plant which harms or causes damage to specialized equipment is required for effective and man, his animals, crops, or possession. optimized administration of pesticides. Agricultural pests include insects, mites, plant pathogens, and weeds; while household pests HISTORY OF PESTICIDE USE include cockroach, fleas, mosquitoes, termites, Humans have probably been dealing with pests bedbugs, and rodents etc. Some pests occur for some 10,000 years. The first known pesticide perennially and could cause serious and persistent was elemental sulfur dusting used in ancient economic damage if not controlled, while some Sumer about 4,500 years ago in ancient cause economic damages only on certain Mesopotamia. By the 15th century, toxic occasions, when there is disturbance in the chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, and lead were ecosystem. Others migrate from one geographic being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th zone to another under various environmental century, nicotine sulfate was extracted from influences. tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum, which is derived from Pesticides therefore include insecticides (bug chrysanthemums, and rotenone, which is derived killers), (weed killers), and from the roots of tropical vegetables [Wikipedia (fungus killers), (rat killers) and 2016]. antimicrobials. They are applied either on the farm or after harvest during storage at home, shops, or large food storage facilities. They could be used However, the "pesticide era" as we know it today, for curative purposes where broad-spectrum did not begin until the 1950s when infrastructure Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria 983 and inventions developed for chemical warfare out partly due to inability to properly during the second world war were channelled to distinguish one pest from the other) the production of pesticides and other 7) Counterfeiting, faking, and recycling of agrochemicals. In the six decades that have old stocks, manufacturing of empty followed, influenced largely by the newly-formed plastic containers to market adulterated multinational agrochemical companies, age-long agrochemicals, which are sold at reduced traditional farming practices such as crop rotation prices. were replaced with extensive monocropping; and 8). Careless disposal of expired pesticides natural pesticides were supplanted by synthetic into the environment as regular waste, due ones. to lack of proper disposal facilities or protocols. PESTICIDE MISUSE AND ABUSE There is abundant evidence of poor pesticide education leading to extensive misuse in Nigeria It has been difficult to obtain an estimate of [Ivbijaro 1990; Ivbijaro 1998; Asogwa and Dongo, pesticide use in Nigeria. As at June 2016, the Food 2009]. For instance, cases of over-dosage, for one and Agriculture Organization website which reason or the other, have been reported as provides such information for several countries common. Even among government-trained, or has no data for Nigeria [FAOSTAT, 2015]. agency-trained and assisted small-scale farmers, However it has been estimated that by 1998, about far more quantity of pesticides than prescribed is 125,000-130,000 metric tons of pesticides were applied with the general expectation that it would being applied every year in Nigeria. In 1991, cocoa effect more rapid killing of crop pests. Other pesticides accounted for about 31% of the total unfortunate but common misuse of pesticides agro-chemical market of which fungicides happening all around us include: accounted for 65% and insecticides 35% [Ikemefuna, 1998]. The two most-used pesticides 1) Pouring pesticides (particularly old stock in the world are the herbicides glyphosate of Gammalin – Lindane) into rivers to kill (RoundUp) and atrazine [PANA, 2016]. fish which is then sold for human consumption. Many have become HEALTH IMPACT OF PESTICIDES poisoned as a result of such practices. Since pesticides are essentially poisons meant to 2) Spraying Gamalin 20 on drying cocoa kill or ward off unwanted living organisms, it is beans to prevent moulds and maggot not surprising that they could produce adverse development. health impacts in people. Most affected are the 3) Mixing of different classes of pesticides people who directly apply the pesticides (such as (eg fungicides and insecticides) together farmers and applicators), followed by members of so as to reduce the workload of spraying their immediate family, and ultimately, the general each differently. Apart from affecting public who consume food products with high effectiveness, such a practice could also residues of pesticides. Children are the most dramatically worsen the potential health vulnerable, partly due to biological factors as well hazards.[ Asogwa and Dongo 2009]. as enhanced exposure factors [Zahm and Ward 4) Wrong use of nozzles for spraying 1998, UNEP 2004]. equipment, making it difficult for desired quantity of pesticides to be administered. It has been reported that, globally an estimated 1 Both over-dispensing and under- million to 5 million cases of pesticide poisoning dispensing could have significant adverse occur every year, resulting in 20,000 fatalities impacts on the environment and on among agricultural workers. It is a sobering fact human health. that although developing countries use only 25% 5) Lack of knowledge on the time needed for of the world's production of pesticides, they degradation of pesticides experience 99% of the deaths [Jeyaratnam, 1990]. 6) Use of wrong formulations and doses, and wrong timing of application (all borne 984 Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria Factors for Aggravated Health Hazards from Nations Environment Programme, nine highly- Pesticide Use in Nigeria persistent pesticides (viz aldrin, chlordane, DDT, Some of the major factors leading to a dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, preponderance of adverse health impacts and hexachlorobenzene) were officially associated with pesticide use in developing proscribed for use in agriculture. Unfortunately, countries such as Nigeria, despite relatively lower several of these are still openly sold in Nigeria. volume used compared with developed countries, Some are smuggled in or even donated by some include the following: “caring” donor countries [PAN, 2012]. Sometimes, the pesticides were donated while their use was still permitted, but a combination of 1. The Deadliest Pesticides are used in excessive donation and poor logistics or timing Nigeria results in delays in receiving the pesticides at the It is the most-deadly chemicals that are used here point of need, and they become “obsolete” while due to their being cheaper than newer safer in stock [WHO, 1990; Baba, 2008]. People still go pesticides [McConnell and Hruska, 1993; ahead and use them anyway. In India, where Erhunmwunse et al, 2012]. The potential of a statistics are available, the Ministry of Agriculture chemical released into the environment to cause has determined that one-third of the pesticide harm is measured largely in terms of its toxicity samples examined do not comply with official and persistence. standards [PAN, 2012]

Pesticides are classified by the World Health 2. Poor legislation and Lack of Enforcement Organization, WHO, as extremely hazardous of Available Legislation. (Class Ia), highly hazardous (Class Ib), moderately In the first instance, all over the world, the hazardous (Class II), slightly hazardous (Class III) scientific regulations pertaining to synthetic and unlikely to be hazardous under short-term use chemicals are suspected to be rather lax, and (Class U) [WHO 1990]. For some class Ia skewed more towards protecting the pesticides, just 5 ml taken into the mouth is manufacturers' profit than the consumers' health. sufficient to kill an adult human being. It has been For instance, the toxicity classification was based well documented that small-scale farmers in on acute effects of single chemicals, a far cry from developing countries use large amounts of what can really happen when several chemicals are pesticides belonging to classes Ia, Ib, and II due to formulated together, and are ingested over long these being cheaper than the less hazardous, newer periods of time. Whereas, the civil and political ones [WHO 1990, McConnell and Hruska, 1993; agencies in developed countries show keen Ecobichon, 2001; Konradsen et al., 2003]. interests and appreciation of these lax scientific Invariably, newer safer formulations tend to be endorsements and therefore make appropriate more expensive because they are protected by legislations concerning use to provide further foreign patents, and local firms are not permitted safeguards, the situation is different in Nigeria. In to formulate them without paying heavy charges many cases, the required advisory on safe use of which eventually drive up market prices the products are in unreadable very fine prints, [McConnell and Hruska, 1993; Nnamonu and which many users simply ignore! Worse is the fact Onekutu, 2015]. that even the basic regulations (largely advocated for by international watchgroups) governing the Persistence defines the ability of a chemical to importation of banned or restricted pesticides remain unchanged for long periods in the into the country are largely unenforced [WHO, environment, during which time it is able to be 1990; Nnamonu and Onekutu, 2015]. transmitted through long distances via air, water and living creatures. Such chemicals could then be In Nigeria, the regulations governing use of found copiously in areas where they were never chemicals are encapsulated in the ECOWAS used or produced. Furthermore, they store easily Regulations on Pesticides which covers all in fatty tissues and build up in food chains.[UNEP, activities involving experiments on, as well as 2004]. In 2001, under the auspices of the United authorization, marketing, use and control of Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria 985 pesticides in the West Africa subregion; and the It has been noted by researchers from CRIN that National Environmental (Hazardous Chemicals the Lancet spraying pumps despite its popularity and Pesticides) Regulations, 2013 which deals with among cocoa farmers in Nigeria, on account of import, export, storage, usage, and marketing of relative low cost and ease of operation and hazardous chemicals and pesticides including maintenance, is not effective and not approved for other agrochemicals. The NAFDAC regularly use. Even then, the spraying equipment are issues permits, valid for five years, for specific generally neither calibrated nor well maintained. brands of pesticide formulations that can be used They are often leaking, thereby causing severe in the country. dermal and respiratory exposure [Asogwa and Dongo, 2009]. Ineffective application of 3. Issues With Correct, Effective, and Safe pesticides leads to wastage of pesticides, and Applications of Pesticides possible development of resistance by the target Too frequently, people get unnecessary serious pests. These translate to economic losses and exposure to pesticides while applying them. significant environmental problems. Mostly due to a combination of economic reasons and plain ignorance, many fail to put on required 4. Lack of Adequate Infor mation, personal protective equipment such as gloves, Knowledge, and Awareness of the overcoats, and masks [Asogwa and Dongo, 2009; Inherent Dangers of Pesticides. PECAN 2013]. However, it has also been pointed The low level of information, knowledge, and out that it would have been extremely difficult for awareness among Nigerians, on the dangers farmers “working in the tropical sun in a humid associated with the use of pesticides is simply climate where ambient temperatures reach 40oC” alarming. For example, in a 2011 survey at the to be wearing protective rubber gloves and Dawanau International grain market, Kano State, respirators, even if they could afford them. responsible for a large percentage of cowpea [McConnell and Hruska, 1993] consumed in Nigeria, over 80% of the traders interviewed averred that government's ban on the In other circumstances, the time-tested safe use of gammalin (lindane) to preserve beans protocols are found inapplicable in Nigeria for against weevils is unjustified. Based on perceived one reason or the other. For instance, in the cocoa effectiveness, lower costs, and non-persuasion business where a significant amount of pesticide about associated adverse effects, many of the use in Nigeria happens, best results are obtained merchants indicated they would continue to use when miricides are applied through fogging the “time-tested” product [Adegbola, et al., 2011]. [Asogwa and Dongo, 2009]. The relatively small sizes of farms, together with presence of farm 5. Lack of Training on Correct Handling of settlements and animals nearby however make this Pesticides at Home method inappropriate in Nigeria. Even for those who understand that there are health hazards associated with the use of pesticides, several dangerous habits and practices Contrasting working conditions typical of the have been innocently imbibed over the years. A developing world with those in the developed major issue is the improper disposal of empty world, McConnell and Hruska [1993] observed pesticide containers. Many people put empty that: “In the developed world, carbofuran containers to a variety of domestic uses including granules are applied by tractor, entailing little storage of water and powdered food following exposure to the applicator. In Nicaragua, casual washing. Few people take time to carbofuran was mixed with urea, which facilitated thoroughly wash their hands with soap after the dermal absorption, and applied by hand. … In the use of pesticides. In a similar vein, some use developed world, acutely toxic liquid pesticides domestic utensils for measuring and dispensing such as methamidophos are applied by planes or pesticides while several others store pesticides in tractor-drawn boom sprayers. Among small family bedrooms and unlocked cabinets that can farmers in the developing world, they are applied easily be accessed by children [Asogwa and by backpack sprayers, and leakage is common.” Dongo, 2009; UNEP, 2004]. A WHO report on 986 Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria Iraq mentioned contamination of food with Specific Health Impacts of Pesticides on pesticides when transported together in the same People vehicles [WHO, 1990]. Pesticides are designed to disrupt key biochemical processes associated with the nervous and 6. Absence of Monitoring for Pesticide reproductive systems of the target pests. In many Residues on Locally-consumed Products, cases these processes are similar among different Unlike the Situation for Products for organisms, whether pests or humans. For Export example, the and carbamate Unlike cash crops or foods meant for export insecticides poison insects by inhibiting the which pass through central facilities, such as enzyme acetyl cholinesterase. This mode of action NAFDAC, where the levels of pesticides residues can also be toxic to people. Another pervasive are determined, foods consumed locally do not mode of action of pesticides leading to adverse pass through such monitoring or evaluation. health impacts is via Endocrine disruption. In Unfortunately, there is no way an individual small doses these pesticides are able to mimic or consumer can determine whether or not the block hormones or trigger inappropriate vegetable or fruit or tuber he is consuming is laced hormonal activity, while at high enough doses they with pesticides or not! Even more unfortunate is may interfere with important developmental and the reality that crops such as beans, sesame seed, reproductive functions leading to sterility, lowered pepper, etc that are rejected by foreign buyers on sperm counts, cancer of the reproductive organs account of high level of residual pesticides are and other effects. [UNEP, 2004; WHO, 1990; invariably returned to the country to be sold and PAN, 2012; McKinley R. et al., 2008] consumed by unwary Nigerian public [Auwal- Ahmad and Awoyale, 2008; Abubakar, 2008]. The severity of any effect from exposure to 7. Inadequacies in Medical Recognition and pesticide depend on the dose, the route of Responses to Pesticide Poisoning exposure, how easily the pesticide is absorbed, the type of effect of the pesticides and its The relative importance of adverse health effects metabolites, the accumulation and persistence in attributable to pesticides ingestion should the body and lastly, the gender, age, and health ordinarily have earned it a special place and status of the individual [WHO, 1990; Ojo et al, attention during the training of healthcare 2013]. personnel in Nigeria. As it were, medical personnel are not adequately trained to recognize and deal with pesticides poisoning, the symptoms The three major routes of human exposure to of which can be easily attributed to other causes pesticides are skin, oral ingestion, and inhalation by an unsuspecting medical personnel [Konradsen through the nose. The effect may be acute, F. et al. 2003, PAN 2012, Reigart, and Roberts, showing immediately after the exposure, or Barcelo and Hennion, 1997]. It has been pointed chronic, showing only after prolonged use. out however, that even in the United States of Generally, insecticides are the most acutely toxic, America, it is common for even astute physicians while herbicides are the deadlier when considering to misdiagnose pesticide poisoning, not just in chronic use. mild cases but sometimes in serious poisoning cases. [NDRC 2016] The situation in Nigeria is not helped by the absence of any effective Acute Poisoning database on use of pesticides in the country, or of Acute poisoning can cause a range of symptoms healthcare incidences related to their use. in adults and children, depending on the type of Analytical facilities for definite diagnosis are either pesticide. For example, commonly used too expensive or non-existent. Hence the organophosphorus and carbamate compounds difficulty of sensitizing medical personnel to such have been documented as producing incidences. neurobehavioral effects, gastro-intestinal effects, and respiratory effects. Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria 987 Neurobehavioral effects include fatigue, dizziness, neurological disease amyotrophic lateral tremors, poor concentration, panic attacks, and sclerosis(ALS) where progressively, the brain blurred vision. Nausea and vomiting are common becomes unable to control both conscious and manifestations of gastro-intestinal effects, while unconscious muscle functions including respiratory effects include dry throat and difficulty movement, speech, eating and even breathing. with breathing. Other symptoms of acute Pesticides have similarly been established as pesticide poisoning are effects involving skin and significantly contributing to the risk of mucous membranes, such as stinging eyes, itchy Parkinson's Disease [Firestone et al., 2005, skin, and a burning nose; and muscular symptoms, Hancock et al., 2008]. such as cramps, stiffness, and weakness. [McConnell and Hruska, 1993; Clarke et al., 1997, Thiam, 2009; PAN, 2012; Wikipedia, 2016]. In Developmental and reproductive effects. some cases, acute pesticide poisoning can result in Certain pesticides are believed to cause coma and death, either rapidly or over the course reproductive problems, such as spontaneous of weeks, depending on the characteristics of the abortions, stillbirths, lower birth weights, birth product and type of exposure [UNEP, 2004]. defects and early neonatal deaths. For example, numerous studies have linked one of the most widely used weed-killers in Nigeria, Atrazine, with Chronic Poisoning hormonal imbalances and sexual irregularities in While acute effects are quickly observed and could frogs and fish, which result in, among other be swiftly contained and remedied, chronic effects effects, males who produce eggs. In many cases, a are difficult to recognize. Hundreds of thousands relationship between PCBs and reduced sperm of people could therefore have suffered count and male sterility has been documented irreparable damages before these insidious effects [Grandjean and Landrigan, 2006; Goldman, are noticed! Chronic effects of pesticide 1997]. poisoning are mainly neurological, reproductive, developmental, carcinogenic, and immunological. Carcinogenic effects. Studies have revealed a correlation between pesticide use and sarcomas, Neurobehavioral effects. Impaired multiple myelomas, cancer of the prostate, development of the nervous system can cause pancreas, lungs, ovaries, the breasts, testicles, liver, lowered intelligence and behavioural kidneys, and intestines as well as brain tumors. abnormalities. [Grandjean and Landrigan, 2006] [Zahm and Ward, 1998; Alavanja et al., 2004, Pesticide exposure in the womb increases chances ChemTrust, 2010]. of developing autism or in delayed development. Recent results from a study in California, the state Immunological effects. A weakened immune with the largest use of pesticides in the US, linked system, particularly in growing children, Organophosphates with the most severe cases of exacerbates the risk of infectious disease and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Pyrethroids cancer, thus increasing mortality rates. This would were linked to ASD immediately before be especially menacing in developing countries, conception and during the third trimester, and where children face greater exposures to Carbamates were associated with developmental infectious agents [Repetto and Baliga, 1996]. delay (DD) [Roehr 2014]. Studies from China have suggested that depression caused by pesticide use might be contributing to the In addition to the above main effects, pesticides incidents of suicides-by-pesticides in that country can also promote autoimmune disease (e.g. in addition to underlying socio-economic diabetes, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma), as problems and the easy availability of highly toxic well as allergy sensitization reactions. A recent pesticides [Zhang. et al., 2009, Beard, 2011]. study suggests that pesticide exposure can cause It has been shown that exposure to certain disease across three generations [Devon, 2016]. pesticides increases by 600% the risk for the fatal 988 Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria OTHER PROBLEMS AND ISSUES WITH chemical reliance) has been shown to be PESTICIDES unsustainable. As aptly described by the Pesticide Apart from the adverse health impacts on people Action Network (PAN): “This model of farming (caused by exposure to pesticides during is inefficient and does not represent the cutting applications or as residues in food) there are edge of modern farming…Following this path we several other serious issues with uncritical use of have become dependent on cheap, abundant oil, pesticides. As established by several investigators, and on quick chemical "fixes" for agro-ecosystem typically only about 15% of applied pesticides challenges that are complicated and require deep, directly hits the target pests and pathogens. The local and hands-on knowledge. In relying on remaining 85% is thereafter distributed in soils chemical inputs, we have un-learned how to and air [Victor et al., 2015]. According to farm.”[PANA, 2016a; PANA, 2016b; Victor et al., Erhunmwunse et al. [2012], over 98% of sprayed 2015]. insecticides and 95% herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, Pesticide Resistance including non-target species, air, water and soil. In Just as in the highly celebrated case for antibiotics soils, pesticides residue can move from the surface resistance, pests also develop resistance to when they dissolved in runoff water, or percolate pesticides with time. It is now estimated that there down through the soil, and eventually reach the are more than 500 insect pest and mite species that groundwater. have shown resistance to the regular pesticides designed for them. This invariably leads to what is Some of the major problems arising from these referred to as the "pesticide trap," where farmers pesticides in the environment include the are forced to use more and more and increasingly following: toxic chemicals to control insects and weeds that develop resistance to pesticides. As pointed out Disruption of Ecological Balance and by the PAN, “As "superbugs" and "superweeds" Collapse of Biodiversity: develop in response to widespread and In the 1960s, it was discovered that DDT was continuous use of chemicals, a farmer will spend preventing many fish-eating birds from more on pesticides each year just to keep crop reproducing, thus constituting a serious threat to losses at a standard rate”[PANA, 2016b] It is biodiversity. As a result of indiscriminate use of ironic that manufacturers of pesticides are using pesticides (particularly the synthetic ones), bees, the problem so generated to promote genetically- bats, amphibians and other beneficial species are modified crops. Currently, Monsanto is trying to dying off in droves. Such disruption of the introduce to Nigeria, so-called glyphosate-ready ecological balance of agricultural areas via killing crops which could tolerate the use of the off of natural biological controls, invariably leads glyphosate, also produced by Monsato. to outbreaks of pests that were previously of Meanwhile, glyphosate has now been declared by minor importance (secondary pests), leading to the WHO as most likely capable of causing cancer. new problems and an unending dependence on more and more pesticides. And the cycle repeats Economic issues itself unsustainably. The combination of secondary pest outbreaks, insect resistance, government regulations, and Biologists have generally advocated that mankind legal battles over safety and the environment, ought to pay at least equal attention to biodiversity invariably have implications for the economics of loss as it does to climate change.[PANA, 2016] conventional pesticide use. Often there are other hidden costs such as a high demand for fresh water Unsustainable Chemical reliance use (apart from polluting the rest water resources) Often, the massive disruption of the complex associated with high demands for pesticides. In biological ecosystem of the soil requires other several parts of the world, notably India and chemical inputs, notably fertilizers, to obtain pre- China, debt-ridden farmers are committing pesticide levels. This supplanting of biological suicides – mostly by ingesting the very pesticides controls with synthetic chemicals (so-called that have brought them so much misery. Ojo: Pesticides Use and Health In Nigeria 989 SUGGESTED ACTION POINTS Bioresearch 2(2):47 -51 Government should institute measures to AFP 2016. Ebola' hits Nigeria as moths destroy consciously liberate our food industry from the country's staple food. Agence France unprofitable and unsustainable high dependence Press in The Guardian. May 24, 2016. on chemicals, as we now face. This has to be https://www.theguardian.com/world/20 implemented in phases, via the popularization and 16/may/24/tomato-ebola-nigeria- enlargement of the commendable Integrated Pest moths-staple-food-crops Management (IPM) scheme. Alavanja M.C, Hoppin J.A, Kamel F. 2004. Health Effects of Chronic Pesticide Exposure – Furthermore, government should ensure that Cancer and Neurotoxicity, Annual Review mechanisms are put in place to effectively ensure of Public Health 25: 155-97 that all banned chemicals are not brought into the Asogwa E. U. and Dongo L. N. 2009. Problems country. Those already in the country, and on associated with pesticide usage and display with complete impunity in our markets, application in Nigerian cocoa production: should be removed and disposed of correctly. A review. African Journal of Agricultural Related to this, tested protocols for safe disposal Research 4 (8):675-683 Available online at of expired, obsolete or otherwise unwanted h t t p : / / w w w. a c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s. pesticides should be put in place and well org/AJAR publicized. Government through its various Auwal-Ahmad G, F Awoyale. 2008. NAFDAC relevant agencies should ensure constant warns against use of banned chemicals in availability in the markets of those active food storage. I, Wed. May 14, 2008. pp. 3 ingredients that are within the new class of Baba, Abdullahi Alafara 2008. Dangers Of allowed pesticides at reasonable costs. Unsound Management Of Obsolete Pesticides In Nigeria. A Paper Presented Relevant research and healthcare institutions At Nigeria – Africa Stockpiles Programme should be encouraged and empowered to keep a Steering Committee (Nigeria – Asp), In database on pesticide use and incidents of Collaboration With Federal Ministry Of pesticide poisonings in Nigeria. This will help in Environment Held At Kwara Hotel, developing appropriate responses in a timely Ilorin, Nigeria On 9th October, 2008. manner to reduce the adverse impacts associated Barcelo, D. and Hennion, M.C. 1997. Trace with pesticide use in the country. determination of pesticides and their degradation products in water. Techniques Finally, Government should consider promoting and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry, gamma irradiation of foodstuffs for increasing the vol. 19. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 542. shelf life of foods and thereby reducing the need Beard, J. D. 2011. Suicide and Pesticide Use among for chemical preservation [IAEA, 2003]. 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