Tennessee Naturalist Program

The World of Invertebrates Pollinators, Predators, Pests, and Parasitoids

Enhanced Study Guide

2/2019 Tennessee Naturalist Program www.tnnaturalist.org

Inspiring the desire to learn and share Tennessee’s nature

These study guides are designed to reflect and reinforce the Tennessee Naturalist Program’s course curriculum outline, developed and approved by the TNP Board of Directors, for use by TNP instructors to plan and organize classroom discussion and fieldwork components and by students as a meaningful resource to review and enhance class instrucon.

This guide was compiled by Steve Murphree, entomologist and professor of biology at Belmont University, specifically for the Tennessee Naturalist Program. It may contain copyrighted work from other authors and publishers, used here by permission.

No part of this document may be reproduced or shared without consent of the Tennessee Naturalist Program and appropriate copyright holders.

!2 The World of Invertebrates Pollinators, Predators, Pests, and Parasitoids

Objecves Introduce the Phylum Arthropoda, parcularly the hexapods, arachnids, and myriapods to help students learn the basic morphological differences among these taxonomic groups, how to collect/observe arthropods, and how to use dichotomous and others keys to idenfy them. Explore the ecological roles of arthropods including interacons with plants, community interacons vertebrate animals, and other invertebrates.

Time 4 hours – 2 in class, 2 in field

Suggested Materials ( * recommended but not required, ** TNP flash drive) • Insects, America North of Mexico (Peterson Field Guides) Borror and White* • Arthropoda (Tree of Life Project) ** • Dichotomous Key for Adult Insects (SC LIFE) ** • Key to Orders of Hexapods (Borror et al., Introducon to the Study of Insects, 1989 ** • Key to the Orders of Insects and Noninsectan Hexapods (Adults), Kritsky 2011 ** • Checklist of Odonata of Tennessee by Common and Scienfic Name ** • Buerflies of Tennessee by Type and Common Name ** • The World of Invertebrates Enhanced Study Guide, TNP ** • Collecng nets, containers, hand lenses, forceps

Expected Outcomes Students will gain a basic understanding of: 1. the diversity of macroscopic terrestrial arthropods and other invertebrates in Tennessee 2. primary differences among the subphyla, classes and orders common in the state 3. arthropod morphology and idenficaon 4. basic life histories (e.g., type of metamorphosis, etc.) 5. ecological roles and community interacons (e.g., pollinaon, herbivory, carnivory, commensalism, detrivory, parasism) 6. chemical communicaon/defense, mimicry, camouflage, and warning coloraon 7. methods of collecon and display 8. methods of observing insect behavior 9. state insects of Tennessee and the state’s threatened and endangered insects

!3 I. Tremendous Diversity of Arthropods A. 80% of all animals known to science are arthropods B. Arthropoda classificaon (5 subphyla) 1. Subphylum Trilobitomorpha - exnct 345 million years ago; great marine diversity 2. Subphylum Chelicerata – (e.g., spiders, scorpions, mites, daddy longlegs) 3. Subphylum Crustacea – (e.g., crayfish, crabs, pillbugs, barnacles) 4. Subphylum Hexapoda – (e.g., insects, springtails, proturans, diplurans) 5. Subphylum Myriapoda – (e.g., millipedes, cenpedes) C. Characteriscs of arthropods 1. segmented body divided into funconal units called tagmata (e.g., thorax) 2. body covered in a non-living cucle hardened in areas to form an exoskeleton composed of chin, a complex carbohydrate 3. paired, jointed appendages for movement, mouthparts, antennae 4. have a complete digesve tract (gut tube has mouth at one end & anus at the other) 5. all are poikilotherms (animals whose body temperature varies according to the temperature of their surroundings) 6. not all arthropods are insects a. An insect (Lan for notched or divided body) is an arthropod whose adults have three body tagmata: the head, the thorax and the abdomen. Aached to the head is a single pair of antennae and one pair of compound eyes. Aached to the thorax are three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. b. A spider is an arachnid arthropod whose body is composed of two tagmata: the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax bears four pairs of legs, usually 8 simple eyes, a pair of chelicerae, and a pair of pedipalps. c. Millipedes and cenpedes are myriapod arthropods whose bodies are composed of a head and a trunk of repeang segments. The head of myriapods has one pair of antennae, and the trunk segments bear one pair of legs (cenpedes) or two pairs of legs (millipedes). d. Most arthropods are called “bugs” by the general public, but this term is not preferred by entomologists. “True bugs” are insects in the order Hemiptera which bear piercing/sucking mouthparts. e. To space or not to space? -- Since pillbugs are not true bugs but rather are crustacean arthropods, no space is included between ‘pill’ and ‘bugs.’ The same rule applies to ladybugs and fireflies (both are beetles, not true bugs or true flies). The space is used correctly in house flies and honey bees.

!4 II. Other Terrestrial Invertebrates and How They Differ from Arthropods A. Phylum Platyhelminthes -- flatworms, planaria, flukes, tapeworms 1. body dorso-ventrally flaened, incomplete digesve tract (mouth/anus opening); planarians in streams, endoparasites of vertebrates B. Phylum Nematoda -- nematodes, roundworms 1. non-segmented worms with a complete digesve tract; important role as detrivores and predators in soil; some species are endoparasites C. Phylum Annelida -- earthworms, clamworms, leeches 1. segmented worms (internal and external segmentaon); thought to share a common ancestor with the arthropods because of segmentaon and the fact that both have a ventral nerve cord; annelids have no segmented appendages, however D. Phylum Mollusca -- snails, slugs, mussels, clams, squid, octopods 1. non-segmented bodies with diverse forms; nearly all species have a muscular foot, a visceral mass and a shell-secreng mantle; second largest in species diversity aer the Arthropoda; aquac and some terrestrial snails can serve as intermediate hosts for fluke parasites

III. Chelicerate Class Arachnida -- Arachnids (Spiders, Mites, etc) 11 Orders recognized A. Chelicerate Characteriscs 1. front segments fused into a cephalothorax, rear segments form an abdomen 2. first pair of mouthparts is the chelicerae (fangs) 3. second pair of mouthparts is the pedipalps (palps) B. Order Araneae – true spiders; (44,000 species); all predators; males have “boxing glove” palps for courtship and sperm transfer; produce silk from abdominal spinnerets C. Order Acarina – mites, cks, chiggers; (45,000 species); scavengers, predators, parasites, symbionts; oldest terrestrial animals D. Order Opiliones – daddy longlegs, harvestmen; (6500 species); cephalothorax and abdomen fused; scent glands for chemical defense; two simple eyes on an ocularium (elevated turret on top of the cephalothorax) E. Order Scorpionida – scorpions; (1100 species); well-developed, chelate palps; narrow, tail-like postabdomen w/sng; [“Scorpions in Tennessee,” September/October, 2012 issue (Vol. LXXVIII, No. 5) The Tennessee Conservaonist.] F. Order Pseudoscorpionida – pseudoscorpions; (3300 species); chelate pedipalps; spin silk from chelicerae, phorec (method of dispersal in which small animals cling to a much larger animal’s body and are carried some distance before releasing their grip)

!5 IV. Crustacean Arthropods -- Crayfish, etc. A. Crustacean characteriscs 1. front segments fused into a cephalothorax (carapace), rear segments not fused but form an abdomen 2. at least some appendages are biramous (two-branched) 3. many have two pairs of antennae B. Most are aquac, rarely semi-aquac in freshwater and marine environments 1. Class Malacostraca – crayfish, lobsters, crabs (decapods), shrimp, pillbugs; largest class (75% of all crustacean species) 2. Class Copepoda – copepods; antennae long, modified for swimming; most are planktonic filter-feeders 3. Class Branchiopoda – water fleas, fairy shrimp; tadpole shrimp; gills on appendages; carapace

V. Myriapodan Arthropods -- Cenpedes, Millipedes A. Myriapodan characteriscs 1. front segments fused into a head, rear segments not fused but form a trunk 2. one pair of antennae B. Class Chilopoda -- cenpedes, “hundred legs”; 1 pair of legs per trunk segment; fast runners; predators; maxilliped mouthparts have poison glands and can bite; long antennae C. Class Diplopoda -- millipedes, “thousand legs”; 2 pairs of legs per trunk segment; slow walkers; feed on decaying plants, do not bite; short antennae; roll up and produce repugnant hydrogen cyanide when disturbed (can somemes have a sweet almond smell)

VI. Hexapodan Arthropods -- Insects, etc. A. Hexapodan characteriscs 1. front segments fused into a head, middle segments fused into a thorax, rear segments form an abdomen 2. paired mouthparts either retracted in head or extended 3. one pair of antennae B. Class Entognatha -- mouthparts in head capsule; ny soil/leaf lier arthropods 1. Order Collembola -- springtails 2. Order Protura -- proturans 3. Order Diplura -- diplurans

!6 C. Class Insecta -- mouthparts outside of head capsule; 30 total orders recognized; 12 twelve most diverse orders 1. Coleoptera (beetles) – 350,000 species a. elytra – hardened forewings; membranous hindwings 2. Lepidoptera (buerflies & moths) – 180,000 species a. flaened, striate scales on forewings and hindwings 3. Diptera (true flies) – 150,000 species a. one pair of forewings, halteres are knob-like hind wings that aid equilibrium in flight 4. Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants) – 115,000 species a. forewings larger than hindwings, narrow peole waist at base of abdomen 5. Hemiptera (true bugs, plant/treehoppers, cicadas, aphids) – 80,000 species a. piercing/sucking mouthparts b. some keys sll recognize Homoptera (plant/treehoppers, cicadas, aphids) as a separate order c. [“Forecast: Cicadas”, May/June, 2011 issue (Vol. LXXVII, No. 3) The Tennessee Conservaonist.] 6. Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids) – 24,000 species a. forewings called tegmina since they are parally thickened, hindleg femora enlarged; [“Calls of the Night (Katydids),” coauthored with Bob English, May/June, 2006 issue (Vol. LXXII, No. 3) The Tennessee Conservaonist.] 7. Trichoptera (caddisflies) – 12,000 species a. wings covered with hair-like setae, aquac larvae are case-builders 8. Dictyoptera (cockroaches, mands, termites) – 8000 species a. wings are “net-veined” with many intersecng veins b. some keys sll recognize Blaaria (cockroaches), Mantodea (mands) and Isoptera (termites) as separate orders 9. Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) – 6500 species a. strong, toothed mandibles, membranous wings, large compound eyes 10. Psocoptera (book lice, bark lice) – 5500 species a. wings held vercally and close together, somemes hairy or scaly 11. Phasmida (sck insects, leaf insects) – 3000 species a. slender, cylindrical bodies, long antennae 12. Ephemeroptera (mayflies) – 2100 species a. membranous wings held vercally and close together, mouthparts non-funconal in adults

!7 VII. Insect Anatomy (3 tagmata) A. Head 1. antennae (one pair) 2. mouthparts 3. ocelli (simple eyes) 4. eyes (compound) B. Thorax 1. legs (3 pairs) 2. wings (not all insects) 3. spiracles (breathing holes connuous with the internal, branching respiratory tubes called trachea; can be mechanically closed to reduce water loss) C. Abdomen 1. hindgut 2. reproducve tract 3. spiracles 4. malpighian tubules (kidney-like structures aached to the hindgut) D. Variaons in Insect Mouthparts 1. chewing – generalist, e.g., grasshopper 2. piercing/sucking – plant and blood feeders, e.g., mosquito 3. siphoning – nectar feeding, e.g., buerfly 4. sponging – surface fluid feeding, e.g., house fly

VIII. Insect Metamorphosis A. Ametabolous -- larvae are miniatures of adults (e.g., silverfish & non-insectan hexapods). B. Paurometabolous – terrestrial nymphs (no gills) gradually look more like adults with each molt (e.g., grasshoppers, true bugs) C. Hemimetabolous – aquac naiads with gills look more like adults with each molt; changes more pronounced (e.g., mayflies, dragonflies) D. Holometabolous -- larvae and adults feed on different food sources; larva, pupa (cocoon, chrysalis), and adult life stages (e.g., buerflies, bees, beetles). E. Idenfying immature insects 1. caterpillar clickable guide at www.bugguide.net 2. Caterpillars of Eastern North America by David L. Wagner (2005) (includes moth caterpillars) 3. Buerflies of Tennessee – Field & Garden by Rita Venable (2014) and Buerflies of Alabama – Glimpses into Their Lives by Paulee H. Ogard & Sara C. Bright (2010) both have photographs of caterpillars 4. Immature Insects, Volumes I & II (1997 & 2013), Frederick W. Stehr, Editor; includes all insect orders but both volumes are very expensive 5. a good photograph sent via email to an entomologist will oen yield an ID

!8 IX. Insect Communicaon A. Sound is commonly used to aract mates (and somemes parasic flies); grasshoppers hear using a pair of tympanic membranes on their first abdominal segment; katydids hear with tympanic membranes on their front legs 1. stridulaon – insects rub a file-like structure, usually on a wing, against a scraper membrane on the other wing (e.g., field cricket) 2. tymbal organs -- a pair of cup-like frames supporng a cucular membrane aached to muscles in male cicadas and treehoppers; these oen loud calls are species specific B. Light is used by male and female firefly species (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) C. Chemical communicaon takes the form of contact, trail-marking (e.g, ants, termites) and sex pheromones 1. contact pheromones are oen used to communicate informaon within a social insect colony 2. sex pheromones are used by solitary insect species to achieve mang (some silkworm moth pheromones produced by females can aract males from miles away) D. Dance communicaon in social insects (e.g., waggle and round dances of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, to give precise sun/compass direcons to a source of nectar)

X. Ecological Roles of Arthropods A. Arthropods fill diverse niches and occupy diverse habitats B. Heterotrophs (all animals get their energy from an autotroph – photosynthesizing plant source) 1. predators a. herbivores – plant consumers which eat or mine tunnels through plant ssue or suck fluids from their vascular ssue; some caterpillars protect themselves with toxin-filled spines and are called snging or urcang caterpillars. [“Snging Caterpillars,” July/August, 2012 issue (Vol. LXXVIII, No. 4) The Tennessee Conservaonist.] b. carnivores – mosquitoes are considered “micropredators” c. predatory insects are oen used as agents of biological control, the introducon of a natural enemy to control a pest species; e.g., two beetle species nave to Japan are being used to control the hemlock wooly adelgid; also e.g., two European weevil species have been used to control musk thistle (unintended consequence was negave impact on a rare nave thistle species in the Midwest); when insects used as “biocontrol” agents are used with periodic pescide applicaons, this is called integrated pest management (IPM)

!9 2. parasites – arthropod parasites are ectoparasites a. arthropod ectoparasites include cks, fleas and lice 1. ck-borne diseases include Lyme Disease, Rocky Mountain Spoed Fever, STARI (Southern Tick Associated Rash Illness), and Ehrlichiosis. A recently discovered illness, Heartland Virus, has been linked to ck exposure. b. parasitoid – a parasite that spends a substanal poron of its life aached to or living within a host organism, usually resulng in the host’s death (e.g., cuckoo wasp as a parasitoid of a mud dauber wasp) 3. mutualism – both species benefit from the interacon; somemes called symbiosis; e.g., yucca moth and yucca plant 4. commensalism – one species benefits, the other species is neither benefited or harmed; e.g., beetle larvae feed on feces in boom of bird nest 5. detrivores – arthropods which feed on dead organic maer like decaying wood or leaf lier (e.g., termites) 6. pollinators – coevoluon with flowering plants; many bizarre aractants for potenal pollinators (bees, flies, beetles, moths and buerflies); flower color, shape and supply of nectar and pollen are specific for the pollinator; most pollinang insects see in the UV range, locang “runways” we cannot see; flowers pollinated at night usually have white or pale colored flowers (to reflect moonlight) and a sweet, strong fragrance [“Powerful Pollinators”, coauthored with Lisa Powers, March/April, 2010 issue (Vol. LXXVI, No. 2) The Tennessee Conservaonist.] C. Crypsis (camouflage or protecve resemblance) by arthropods D. Aposemac or warning coloraon 1. bright, contrasng colors like red/black or yellow/black E. Types of mimicry exhibited by arthropods 1. Batesian mimicry – harmless or good tasng mimic species (e.g., Viceroy buerfly) evolves to look like a harmful/bad tasng model (e.g., Monarch buerfly); usually with aposemac coloraon 2. Mullerian mimicry – two or more species which are harmful/bad tasng evolve to look alike; once predator is “trained”, all species in the mimicry complex are protected; oen aposemac coloraon F. Startle/shock displays 1. species displays aposemac coloraon or changes shape to resemble a predator to confuse/deter a potenal predator G. Social vs. Solitary 1. Social insects exhibit three characterisc traits: Large colonies containing overlapping generaons, cooperave brood care, and a sterile worker caste. There are several intermediate levels depending on which of these traits are exhibited and to what extent. Honey bees, ants, and termites are true social insects. 2. Most nave bees are solitary.

!10 XI. Idenfying, Collecng, Observing A. Dichotomous Keys 1. different types of dichotomous keys; some use illustraons 2. all dichotomous keys are “two choice” keys and should also include in each “couplet” the number of the couplet from which the idenfier has just come 3. most dichotomous keys require that he idenfier know the names and locaon of key characters or structures. 4. internet keys, some beginning from silhouees like www.bugguide.net, are becoming more popular B. Methods of collecng and observing insects 1. picking – refers to either hand-picking insects off of vegetaon or capturing insects in jars or other containers with an easily removable lid 2. beang – refers to holding a beatsheet beneath vegetaon and striking the upper branches with a sck; insects fall on sheet and play dead temporarily 3. sweep neng – refers to using an insect net with a coarse, muslin bag to sweep back and forth through a vegetaon (e.g., an old field); insects can be shaken to the boom of the bag, placed inside a killing jar charged with ethyl acetate and the jar’s lid loosely screwed on for a few minutes before transferring the bag’s contents to the killing jar and ghtly screwing on the lid. 4. neng – refers to using an aerial (see-through) net to capture fast-flying insects like dragonflies and buerflies 5. aquac neng – refers to using a muslin/mesh D-net sampler which is placed downstream of an area to be sampled followed by disturbing rocks and stream substrate to dislodge aquac invertebrates 6. separang/sieving decaying leaves, wood on a sheet with metal or plasc sieves of different grid sizes 7. Berlese funnel sampling – decaying leaf lier/soil is collected in trash bags, carried to a lab and placed in funnels with a screen mesh at their bases. A low waage (25 W) bulb is used to drive moisture-loving minute arthropods like mites and pseudoscorpions towards the base of the funnel so that they will fall into jar of ethanol. 8. light trapping – commercially available corded or baery-powered incandescent and UV light traps (e.g., New Jersey light trap, CDC light trap) are used to aract night-flying insects where a small fan blows them down into a collecon chamber or jar of ethanol; most light traps come equipped with a photoelectric switch 9. piall trapping – small holes are dug along a transect line, an outer cup is placed flush to the soil surface; an inner cup with 50% ethanol or diluted ethylene glycol is placed in the outer cup with a funnel placed inside and flush to the soil surface; trap covers can be placed to avoid rainfall flooding traps; trap contents should be removed every other day; catches nocturnal walking arthropods like ground beetles and spiders.

!11 10. sugaring – prepare concocons of old molasses, stale beer, rong fruit; allow these to ferment a few days, then paint these on tree trunks along trails at shoulder level. Moths and other night-flying insects will be aracted, especially on nights with lile moonlight C. Collecng ethics 1. if good collecons of insects in your area already exist (e.g., the collecon at the Warner Park Nature Center in Nashville) then it is probably best not to start a personal insect collecon; most insects in the state are not rare but isolated populaons, especially of showy insects like buerflies, can become rare due to over collecng 2. if collecons of insects, plants, etc. are desired from state parks or natural areas, a Scienfic Research and Collecng permit must be obtained 3. a good pair of binoculars and an insect field guide are a way to document the occurrence of species in an area without having to collect specimens with a net or other type of collecng equipment and later release them 4. reference collecons of idenfied insects from a geographic area or a season within that area are useful in idenfying other insects collected in that area and monitoring the rareness or abundance of certain species D. Collecon types and techniques 1. photographic collecons which can be displayed on the Internet or printed and placed in an album 2. physical collecons of dead insects killed and pinned in a display box or preserved in ethanol in vials (so-bodied arthropods like aquac macroinvertebrates and spiders). 3. In either of the above collecon types, proper labels are very important. The locaon label is placed beneath the insect on a pin. The idenficaon label goes below the locaon label.

4. insect pins (rather than sewing pins), typically a no. 3 (available from www.bioquip.com) are used; see diagram next page for placement of pins in common species E. Cizen Science 1. Monarch Watch -- hp://www.monarchwatch.org/ 2. Lost Ladybug Project -- hp://www.lostladybug.org/

!12

!13 XII. State Conservaon Issues

A. Pest insect species 1. oen exoc or introduced species which become invasive due to the lack of natural predators and parasites 2. human transport, intenonal or accidental, is the most oen cause of the introducon 3. pest species include hemlock woolly adelgid, balsam woolly adelgid, emerald ash borer, gypsy moth, Asian longhorned beetle, Japanese beetle, red and black fire ants, brown marmorated snk bug, kudzu bug, etc. A full list of invasive, exoc insect species may be found at hp://www.invasive.org/species/insects.cfm.

B. Tennessee’s Threatened and Endangered Insects 1. Only one endangered insect species currently – American burying beetle, Nicrophorus americanus; burying beetles can be found by tying brightly colored dental floss to strips of raw chicken, placing these in woods and returning to find where the chicken was buried 1-2 days later 2. Diana frillary, Speyeria diana, is an example of a threatened/vunerable species in Tennessee 3. [“Tennessee's Threatened and Endangered Insects” coauthored with Andrea English, September/October, 2006 issue (Vol. LXXII, No. 5) The Tennessee Conservaonist.]

C. Tennessee’s state insects 1. two state insects: a. firefly or lightning bug (1975) b. ladybug or ladybird beetle (1975) 2. one state agricultural insect: honey bee (1990) 3. one state buerfly: zebra swallowtail (1995) 4. total of four (more than any other state!)

!14 XIII. Resources A. Idenficaon guides 1. Insects, America North of Mexico (Peterson Field Guides), Donald J. Borror and Richard E. White, Houghton Mifflin, 1970. 2. Tracks and Signs of Insects and Other Invertebrates – A Guide to North American Species, Charley Eiseman and Noah Charney, Stackpole Books, 2010. 3. Buerflies of Tennessee: Field & Garden, Rita Venable, Maywood Publishing, 2014. 4. Caterpillars of Eastern North America, David L. Wagner, Princeton University Press, 2005.

B. Idenficaon website resources 1. Bugguide.net - clickable guide hp://bugguide.net/ 2. Forestry Images.org (includes the Bugwood Network) hp://www.forestryimages.org/ and hp://www.insecmages.org/ 3. Tennessee moth enthusiasts Facebook group: hp://www.facebook.com/#!/groups/218162658292567/ 4. Tennessee Naturalists Facebook group: hp://www.facebook.com/#!/groups/TennesseeNaturalistProgramOwlsHill/ 5. Buerflies and Moths of North America hp://www.buerfliesandmoths.org/ 6. A Walk Through the Moth Families hp://mothphotographersgroup.msstate.edu/WalkThroughIndex.shtml 7. Listen to the Songs of Insects hp://www.songsofinsects.com/iframes/specieslist.html 8. Discover Life in America’s ID Nature Guide for Insects hp://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q 9. Tree of Life web: Arthropoda hp://www.tolweb.org/Arthropoda/2469 10. American Museum of Natural History keys to Insect Orders hp://www.amnh.org/learn/biodiversity_counts/ident_help/Text_Keys/text_keys_index.htm

!15 XIV. Review Quesons

1. Approximately 80% of all animals known to science are a. arthropods b. mammals c. invertebrates d. endotherms (generang their own body heat)

2. Nematodes and snails are not considered arthropods because a. they are slimy b. their legs are segmented c. they generate their own heat d. their bodies are not segmented

3. Species that evolve to look alike exhibit a. warning coloraon b. crypsis camouflage c. mimicry d. mutualism

4. The Class Hexapoda covers many different Orders of typical insects. Which of the following is not included in Hexapoda? a. mason bee b. millipede c. cockroach d. stonefly

5. Spiders, cks, and mites are characterized by chelicera which are a. hairs on their legs b. eight eyes c. first pair of mouthparts containing fangs d. spinnerets

6. Most crustacean arthropods live a. aached to the roots of trees b. in aquac environments c. at elevaons above 5,000 feet d. in underground caves

7. Which characterisc does not apply to insects? a. body with three disnct regions -- head, thorax, abdomen b. constant body temperature (homeothermic) c. three pairs of legs d. one pair of antennae

!16 8. Night pollinators, such as moths, are aracted by a. white or pale colored flowers b. strong, sweet fragrance c. ultraviolet nectar guides d. both b and c e. both a and b

9. Many insects use chemicals called ______to communicate danger, signal a food trail, or aract a mate. a. pheromones b. spiracles c. ephemera d. hydrogen cyanide

10. Most nave bees a. construct large hives b. are solitary c. bore holes in house eaves d. hide in flowers at night

11. Spiders are a. insects b. arachnids c. beetles d. both a and b

12. Tick bites should be taken seriously as they may result in which of the following illnesses? a. Lyme’s Disease b. Rocky Mountain Spoed Fever c. Pertussis d. both a and b

13. Which common name is appropriately ‘spaced’? a. fireflies b. pill bugs c. fire flies d. honeybees

14. Tiny arthropods that live in the soil and leaf lier are a. sck insects b. aphids c. springtails d. fairy shrimp

!17 15. Insects that feed on plant fluids or blood need mouthparts that allow a. siphoning b. piercing and sucking c. sponging d. lapping

16. Tennessee’s state buerfly is the a. Monarch b. Spicebush Swallowtail c. Zebra Swallowtail d. Juniper Hairstreak

17. Which non-nave insect is a threat to Tennessee forests? a. European Honey Bee b. Emerald Ash Borer c. Southern Pine Beetle d. Japanese Beetle

18. A Berlese funnel separates ny arthropods from leaf lier using a. heat b. water c. gravity d. forced air

19. Many pollinang insects have the ability to see a. in total darkness b. in the UV range of light c. in technicolor d. infinite shades of gray

20. Insect species whose larvae grow inside the bodies of other species ulmately killing the host are called a. parasites b. homeotherms c. predators d. parasitoids

21. In ametabolous insect metamorphosis, the larvae a. eat different food from the adult b. look more like the adult with each successive molt c. look like miniatures of the adult d. never mature

!18 22. What prominent difference disnguishes dragonflies from damselflies? a. At rest, dragonfly wings are horizontal, damselfly wings vercal. b. Nothing, they are indisnguishable. c. Damselflies are twice as large. d. Dragonflies are never found near water.

23. The body of an arthropod is protected by a hardened exoskeleton composed of a complex carbohydrate called a. cellulose b. chin c. keran d. calcium

24. What is NOT a characterisc of arthropods? a. paired, jointed appendages b. poikilotherms c. complete digesve tract d. head, thorax, and abdomen fused into one segment

25. True flies (Diptera) have one pair of forewings. Their hind wings were modified into halteres which are a. wing covers b. small knobbed structures that aid equilibrium c. a non-funconing set of antennae d. straps holding the forewings in place

Answer Key 1. a 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. b 7. b 8. e 9. a 10. b 11. b 12. d 13. a 14. c 15. b 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. b 20. d 21. c 22. a 23. b 24. d 25. b

!19