Reconciling conservation and development in Madagascar’s rapidly-expanding protected area system Charlie J. Gardner Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biodiversity Management University of Kent September 2014 Abstract The creation and management of protected areas is our principal approach to conserving biodiversity worldwide. Management and governance models for these diverse institutions have become more pluralistic in recent decades, moving away from the traditional exclusionary protected area model that has proliferated historically. Indeed, most new protected areas are being established for ‘multiple-use’ and, therefore, permit a range of human livelihood activities to occur within their boundaries. However, we know little about how such sites can be effectively managed. In this thesis, I use an interdisciplinary mixed-methods approach to investigate the implementation of new multiple-use protected areas in Madagascar. Madagascar is a global conservation priority characterised by high levels of endemism, and has a largely forest-dependent biota. Since most of the human population is rural and dependent on natural resources for subsistence and income to differing extents, the expanded protected area system is managed for both conservation and socioeconomic goals (poverty alleviation and development). However, these objectives may be conflicting since human resource use can be a significant driver of biodiversity loss. I begin by examining trends in new protected area establishment at the nationwide-level to generate insights into protected area categorisation, and the role of natural resources and protected areas in poverty alleviation. I then consider the impacts of forest use on biodiversity, through a literature review and empirical study of bird and reptile communities across a degradation gradient. The findings indicate that habitat change arising from forest use may impact the high-value, endemic component of the fauna most negatively. In addition, I develop a simple index to enumerate the conservation value of different species. This is then used to determine how degradation influences the conservation value of exploited habitats, as well as assessing if the index is a suitable tool that can be used to prioritise conservation investment across a portfolio of sites. Finally, I seek to understand the drivers of natural resource use by rural communities within the Ranobe PK32 protected area, and discover that both bushmeat hunting and charcoal production are fallback activities or supplements to other livelihoods. The evidence collated in the thesis, derived from both ecological and social perspectives, suggests that managing new protected areas in Madagascar for conservation and development is overambitious, and that, at least in forest areas, management cannot be optimised towards both goals simultaneously. Acknowledgements An extraordinary number of people have helped and supported me, in various ways, over the last six years as I have prepared this thesis. Firstly I must thank my supervisors, initially Douglas MacMillan and then Zoe Davies, for welcoming me into the School and guiding me on my way as I progressed with my research. You have provided stimulating ideas and critique, endless opportunities for learning from your experience and expertise, and much-valued pastoral care during difficult times. Much of the progress I have made as a researcher and thinker during my time at DICE is thanks to you. Many other people at DICE and the wider University of Kent, both staff and students, have contributed directly or indirectly to my research in myriad ways. These include Jake Bicknell, Christine Eagle, Richard Griffiths, Jennie Hogg, Patricia Howard, Nicola Kerry- Yoxall, Nigel Leader-Williams, Shelley Malekia, Kristian Metcalfe, Byron Morgan, Helen Newing, Raj Puri, Dave Roberts, Tom Roberts, Bob Smith, Freya St John, Matt Struebig and Chris Williams. My only regret over my time as a doctoral student concerns just how little time I have been able to spend on campus. I have treasured every visit and this has been entirely thanks to those listed above and others including Dan Challender, Mark Rayan Darmaraj, Enrico di Minin, Chloe Inskip, Bruno Nhancale, Jinka Robinson, Janna Steadman, Simon Tollington, Diogo Veríssimo and too many others to mention. Lastly, I must thank the many gracious hosts who opened their doors to me and given me a bed or sofa on my infrequent visits to Canterbury – thanks to Bob Smith, Dex and Vanee, Scruffi, Rachel McNutt, Jake and Jinka Bicknell, Chloe and Rowan Tully, and Liz Gladin. Away from Kent my life, work and research in Madagascar have been helped and supported in numerous ways by many dozens of friends and colleagues, at WWF or elsewhere. Whether conducting or participating in fieldwork, sharing literature, discussing ideas or helping with bureaucracy, my research would not have possible without them. Space and a dodgy memory prevent me thanking everyone, but my gratitude extends particularly to Martin Nicoll, as well as Franco Andreone, Mamisoa Andriafanomezana, Gildas Andriamalala, Christiana Andriambahiny, Cathucia Andriamihaja, Sedera Andrianarivelo, Lalandy Andriatsimihetry, Anthony Arnold, Neil D’Cruze, Julio Josepha Duchene, Christian Eonintsoa, Roland Eve, Mark Fenn, Barry Ferguson, Firengea Gabriel, Joerg Ganzhorn, Frank Glaw, Steve Goodman, Al Harris, Rick Hughes, Richard Jenkins, Richard Lewis, Tsibara Mbohoahy, Niall O’Connor, Sean Peabody, Jacques Pollini, Andy Raberamantsoa, Simon Rafanomezantsoa, Felana Raharimpamonjy, Marie-Jeanne Raherilalao, Domoina Rakotomalala, Coca Rakotomalaza, Dorissah Ramiandrisoa, Victor Randriambola, Harison Randrianaivo, Achille Raselimanana, Bodo Rasendrasoa, Laurette Rasoavahiny, Bernardin Rasolonandrasana, Eric Rasolondranaly, Nanie Ratsifandrihamanana, Jonah Ratsimbazafy, Joel Ratsirarson, Chris Raxworthy, Flavien Rebara, Alison Richard, Roger Safford, Voahangy Soarimalala, Roderick Stein-Rostaing, Xavier Vincke, Malika Virah- Sawmy, Miguel Vences, Ryan Walker, Lucienne Wilmé, Sebastien Wohlhauser and Sama Zefania. The research that forms part of this thesis was carried out in the scope of WWF Madagascar and Western Indian Ocean Programme Office’s Toliara Land and Seascape project. The fieldwork for two other chapters was funded by an African Bird Club conservation grant. All published chapters have benefited immensely from the input of journal editors and anonymous reviewers. Finally, I thank my family who have supported me from afar, especially my father Tom who set me on the path to becoming a conservationist as a young boy, and who provided endless help and support with tasks that couldn’t be accomplished from Madagascar; Catherine, Rob and Amanda who have given me a place to stay in London, and my wife Louise Jasper who has sat by my side, in the field and at the office, throughout my PhD and offered endless support, advice, and inspiration. Author’s declaration The research contained within this thesis was conducted in collaboration with the Ala Maiky programme of WWF’s Madagascar and Western Indian Ocean Office. Chapters 6 and 7 were supported by an African Bird Club conservation award and Chapter 8 was part -funded by WWF’s ‘Toliara Land and Seascape’ project supported by WWF-Sweden. All chapters in this thesis were written by Charlie Gardner and are formatted in the style of manuscripts for publication. The publication details of published chapters are provided at the start of each chapter. Comments and editorial suggestions were made by Z.G. Davies (all chapters) and D.C. MacMillan (Chapters 3 and 4). Further contributions made by others are detailed on the cover pages or acknowledgements of each chapter. Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents vi List of Tables xi List of Figures xii CHAPTER 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research preface 1 1.2 Conservation science: an interdisciplinary field 2 1.3 Protected areas 3 1.3.1 Evolving narratives 3 1.3.2 Categorisation and governance 5 1.3.3 Coverage and effectiveness 7 1.4 Biodiversity and conservation in Madagascar 9 1.4.1 A global conservation priority 9 1.4.2 Human impacts: past and present 9 1.4.3 Conservation history 14 1.4.4 The Durban Vision 15 1.5 Study site 18 1.6 Thesis context and overview 20 References 25 CHAPTER 2. Protected areas for conservation and poverty alleviation: 50 experiences from Madagascar 2.1 Moving beyond the ‘conservation-poverty’ debate towards on-the- 51 ground implementation 2.2 Reconciling conservation, natural resource use and poverty alleviation 52 in Madagascar’s new multiple-use protected areas 2.2.1 Anjozorobe-Angavo and Loky-Manambato 54 2.2.2 Tsimembo-Manambolomaty 55 2.2.3 Velondriake 56 2.3 Generic lessons to be learnt from the Malagasy case studies 56 References 60 CHAPTER 3. IUCN management categories fail to represent new, 63 multiple-use protected areas in Madagascar 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 The Madagascar protected area system 66 3.3 Methods 67 3.4 Results 69 3.4.1 Naturalness 73 3.4.2 People-nature interactions 75 Lac Alaotra 75 Southern spiny forest 76 3.5 Discussion 76 References 79 CHAPTER 4. A review of the impacts of anthropogenic habitat change on 85 terrestrial biodiversity in Madagascar: implications for the design and management of new protected areas 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Methods 88 4.2.1 Analysis of impacts 89 4.3 Results 89 4.3.1 Birds: community impacts 91 4.3.2 Birds: impacts