ACTION SPORTS IN TRANSITION: OPTIMIZING PERFORMANCE by Tom Willmott A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirements for the degree of Professional Doctorate in Elite Performance at the University of Central Lancashire November/2017 STUDENT DECLARATION FORM Concurrent registration for two or more academic awards I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution Material submitted for another award I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work Collaboration Where a candidate’s research programme is part of a collaborative project, the thesis must indicate in addition clearly the candidate’s individual contribution and the extent of the collaboration. Please state below: Signature of Candidate Type of Award ___Professional Doctorate in Elite Performance______________ School ____School of Sport and Wellbeing_________________________ i Abstract Within the past two decades, the snowboard and freeski disciplines of halfpipe, slopestyle and big air (collectively Park & Pipe) have progressed dramatically in objective performance levels while transitioning into Olympic sports. This thesis investigates the nature and impact of this transition, with a focus on athlete performance and coaching. A general overview of the sport from a biopsychosocial perspective is followed by a more specific investigation into skill acquisition and the role of the coach in Park and Pipe as an action sport. A retrospective analysis of trick progression amongst eight elite performers at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics is complemented by interviews with ten current elite Park and Pipe coaches and an athlete survey to achieve triangulated perspectives exploring approaches to training and associated coaching methods. The inherent risk of injury in action sports is considered throughout, along with approaches to managing this risk at an athlete, coach and systemic level. A suite of both formal and informal tools is presented including the application and use of professional judgment and decision making (PJDM, Collins & Collins, 2014). This thesis provides insight for the action sports athlete, coach, high performance support team and management, exploring theory and application, examining change, success, failure, and providing a number of solutions to the optimal performance challenge. By establishing what current Park and Pipe best coaching practice looks like and comparing this to athlete preference, this research provides a picture of where the sport is currently at, proposes direction for the future, and highlights potential transfer to other action sports. Specific areas of focus and contribution to existing knowledge include sport progression modelling, holistic long- term athlete development, the use of motor imagery in skill acquisition, risk management, decision-making, and the periodisation of risk. ii Table of Contents Author’s Declaration………………………………………………….……………………. i Abstract………………………………………………………………….……………………. ii Table of contents……………………………………………………….……………………. iii List of tables…………………………………………………………….……………………. vii List of figures…………………………………………………………….………………...... viii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………….………………….. ix Abbreviations……………………………………………………………….……………...... x List of publications arisen from the thesis……………………………….………………. xii Glossary……………………………………………………………………….……………… xiii Chapter 1: Introduction and Outline of the Thesis……………….…………….. 1 1.1 Context of the Work…………………………………….……………. 1 1.1.1 My Own Status and Interests…………….………….. 1 1.1.2 Terminology - Key Ideas and Concepts……………... 2 1.1.3 An Overview of Attention in the Academic Literature………………………………….…………. 6 1.1.4 The Cultural Focus Within Park and Pipe...………… 7 1.2 My Approach to the Topic - The Pragmatic Philosophy….……….... 8 1.3 Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions……………….……….. 9 1.4 Research Objectives…………………..…………………….……….. 10 1.5 Outline Structure of Study Progression……………………………... 11 Chapter 2: Challenges in the Transition to Mainstream - Parameterizing the Cultural Challenge………………………………………………………….…….... 12 2.1 Introduction to THE SECTION (Chapters 2 and 3)………….…....... 12 2.2 Old and New: the Psychosocial Milieu of these Action Sports.…….. 12 2.3 Examining Park and Pipe Through Bio-Psycho-Social Lenses.…….. 13 2.3.1 The Bio-Psycho: Physical Challenges and Risks......... 13 2.3.2 The Psycho-Social: X-games, Olympic Inclusion, Impacts on Progression…………………………........ 18 2.3.3 The Social: Sport Culture and ‘Progression versus Style’…………………………………………….…... 19 2.3.4 Psychomotor Demands…………………………….... 20 2.4 Addressing these Challenges: Other Considerations………………... 22 2.4.1 The Current ‘Athlete’ Profile………………………... 22 2.4.2 Nuances that make Injury Prevention Different in Action Sports………………………………………... 23 2.4.3 Social Influences on Progression…………………..... 24 2.5 The Brave New World……………………………………………..... 25 2.5.1 Enter the Coach…………………………………........ 25 2.5.2 Elite Training Facilities…………………………….... 26 iii 2.5.3 Nature of Performance Progression and Competition Pathways……………………………..…………….... 26 2.6 Implications………………………………………….………………. 27 2.6.1 Mitigating High Injury Risk…………..…………....... 27 2.7 Concluding Comments………………………………..…………....... 32 Chapter 3: Addressing the Cultural Milieu………………………….………........ 34 3.1 What Sorts of Challenges Exist to this New Direction?...................... 34 3.2 The (Finnish-Snowboarding) World of Action Sports According to Ojala and Thorpe….…………………………………………………. 34 3.3 Confirmation, Confusions and Counters - My Response………….... 35 3.4 In Conclusion……………………………………………………….. 40 3.5 Section Summary………………………………………………….... 41 Chapter 4: Methodology…………………………………………………………… 42 4.1 Introduction to THE SECTION (Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7)………….... 42 4.2 Chapter 5 Methods – Athlete Interview……………………………... 42 4.2.1 Athlete Interview - Participants……………………... 42 4.2.2 Athlete Interview Design……………………………. 43 4.2.3 Athlete Interview - Data Analysis and Trustworthiness……………………………………… 43 4.3 Chapter 6 Methods – Coach Interview……………………………… 48 4.3.1 Coach Interview - Participants………………………. 48 4.3.2 Coach Interview Design……………………………... 50 4.3.3 Coach Interview - Procedure………………………... 52 4.3.4 Coach Interview - Data Analysis and Trustworthiness……………………………………… 52 4.4 Chapter 7 Methods – Athlete Survey………………………………... 53 4.4.1 Athlete Survey - Participants………………………... 53 4.4.2 Athlete Survey - Questionnaire Design.…………….. 53 4.4.3 Athlete Survey - Recruitment and Procedure……….. 54 4.4.4 Athlete Survey - Analyses…………………………... 54 4.4.5 Athlete Survey - Limitations………………………… 55 Chapter 5: Retrospective Survey of Skill Progression: Investigating Progression in Park & Pipe – Parameterizing the Coaching Challenge………... 56 5.1 Nature of the Sport and Training Opportunities……………………. 56 5.2 Athlete Interview Results and Discussion…………………………... 58 5.2.1 Objective 2.1 - Understanding Trick Progression…… 59 5.2.2 Objective 2.2 - Relative Weighting of Different Training Modalities………………………………….. 72 5.3 Limitations and Future Directions………………….......................... 74 5.4 Preliminary Conclusions and Implications…………………………. 76 Chapter 6: Coach Interviews: ‘Getting the Balance Right – The Art and Science of Coaching Action Sports’……………………………………………...... 80 6.1 Introduction - What does the Coach Think?....................................... 80 iv 6.2 Results……………….…………………………………………......... 82 6.2.1 Tabulated results…………………………………….. 82 6.3 Detailed Reflection and Discussion on the Four Main Themes…….. 88 6.3.1 Theme 1 - The Nature of the Optimum Coach- Athlete Relationship……………………………….... 88 6.3.2 Theme 2 - Training Aid and Coaching Tool Use and Efficacy……………………………………………… 93 6.3.3 Theme 3 - Planning, Reflection and Adaptation…..... 102 6.3.4 Theme 4 - Catering for the High Levels of Risk Inherent Within the Activity……………………….... 105 6.4 General Discussion………………………………………………….. 110 Chapter 7: And How Does That Feel? Athlete Experience of Coaching in Park and Pipe…………………………………………………………………………….. 113 7.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 113 7.2 Results and Discussion…………………………………………........ 113 7.2.1 Demographics……………………………………….. 114 7.2.2 Perceived Usefulness of Tools……………………..... 117 7.2.3 Athlete Preference for Coach Involvement………….. 123 7.2.4 The Extent to Which These Varied Across the Stage of Learning………...………………………………… 125 7.2.5 Other Factors - Gender, Level of Performance……... 127 7.3 Comparisons and Contrasts to the Coach Perspective……………..... 129 7.4 Summary - The Joint Picture………………………………………... 132 Chapter 8: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Consequences in Risk Management/Mitigation.…………………………………………………………... 133 8.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….. 133 8.2 Theoretical Perspectives…………………………………………….. 133 8.3 Evidence for the Role of Depleted Self-Regulation……………........ 135 8.4 Practical Steps to Counter Negative Influences……………………... 138 8.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………... 143 Chapter 9: Conclusions, General Discussion, Recommendations for Future Study…………………………………………………………………….................... 144 9.1 Introduction……………………………………………………….…. 144 9.2 Messages Emerging from the Thesis………………………………... 144 9.2.1 The Social Setting………………………………........ 144 9.2.2 Trick Progression in Park & Pipe, Methods of Coaching and Athlete Response…………………….. 147 9.2.3 Psychological Perspectives on the Coaching