1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Scientific Classification

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Scientific Classification

→ Scientific Penguin Classification Scientific Classification

Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

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Communication Class ­ Aves Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits 1. This class includes all birds. Birds have an outer covering of feathers, are endothermic (warm-blooded), have front limbs modified into wings, and lay eggs. Reproduction Order ­ Sphenisciformes Hatching & Care of Young 1. This order includes all living and extinct penguins. Longevity & Causes of Death Family ­ Spheniscidae Conservation & Research 1. Spheniscidae includes all penguins, living and extinct, and is the only Family in the Order Sphenisciformes. Appendix

Books for Young Readers

Bibliography

The Spheniscidae family includes all living and extinct species of penguins.

Genus, Species

1. Most scientists recognize 18 species of penguins

emperor, Aptenodytes forsteri

king, Aptenodytes patagonicus

Adélie, Pygoscelis adeliae

gentoo, Pygoscelis papua

chinstrap, Pygoscelis antarcticus http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/scientific-classification/ 1/3 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Scientific Classification

northern rockhopper, Eudyptes moseleyi

southern rockhopper, Eudyptes chrysocome

macaroni, Eudyptes chrysolophus

royal, Eudyptes schlegeli

Fiordland crested, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus

erect-crested, Eudyptes sclateri

Snares Island , Eudyptes robustus

yellow-eyed, Megadyptes antipodes

fairy (also known as little blue), Eudyptula minor

Magellanic, Spheniscus magellanicus

Humboldt, Spheniscus humboldti

African (formerly known as black-footed), Spheniscus demersus

Galápagos, Spheniscus mendiculus

2. Some scientists recognize a 19th species: the white-flippered form of fairy penguin, Eudyptula albosignata.

Fossil Record

1. Scientists recognize 40 or more species of extinct penguins. 2. Scientists believe that penguins diverged from flying birds at least 60 to 65 million years ago during the Cretaceous Period. As the ancestors of penguins became adapted to an oceanic environment, structural changes for diving and swimming led to the loss of flying adaptations. 3. To date, the discovery of all penguin fossil fragments has been limited to the Southern Hemisphere. Records show that prehistoric penguins were found within the range of present-day penguins.

The earliest penguin fossil fragments were found in New Zealand in the mid-1800s. The oldest penguin fossils date from 61 to 62 million years ago.

Fossil records show that the largest extinct species lived in the Miocene Period (11 to 25 million years ago). Pachydyptes ponderosus probably stood 1.4 to 1.5 m (4.5 –5 ft.) and may have weighed 90 to 135 kg (198–298 lb.). Anthropornis nordenskjoldi probably stood 1.5 to 1.8 m (5–5.9 ft.) and weighed 90 to 135 kg (198–298 lb.) Measurements are estimates, since only a few bone fragments have been found.

4. The extinct species of penguins began disappearing during the Miocene, about the same time that the number of prehistoric seals and small whales started increasing in the oceans. One hypothesis is that seals, whales, and penguins may have competed for the same food source. Another hypothesis is that penguins could have become prey for some of these other predators. Both factors may have contributed to their extinction.

5. Penguins share molecular and morphological characteristics with birds in the Order Procellariiformes (the albatrosses, shearwaters, and petrels), the Order Gaviiformes (loons and grebes), and frigatebirds (Order Pelecaniformes).

Discovery Of Modern Penguins

1. The first European explorers to see penguins probably were part of the Portuguese expedition of Bartholomeu Dias de Novaes in 1487-1488. They were the first to travel around what is now known as the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. 2. The first documentation of penguin sightings is credited to members of the Portuguese voyage of Vasco de Gama to India in 1497. They described penguins (African) they saw along the southern coasts of Africa. 3. The discovery of South America's Magellanic penguin was chronicled during the journey of Spanish http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/scientific-classification/ 2/3 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Scientific Classification explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1520. 4. The origin of the word "penguin" has been a subject of debate. The theories of researchers and historians range from references to the amount of fat (penguigo in Spanish and pinguis in Latin) penguins possess to the claim that the word was derived from two Welsh words meaning "white head". The most agreed-upon explanation is that "penguin" was used as a name for the now-extinct great auk, which the modern-day penguin resembles and for which it was mistaken.

Adélie penguins portray the "typical" penguins.

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Habitat & Distribution

Scientific Classification Penguin Habitat & Distribution → Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication Distribution Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits 1. All 18 species of penguins live in the Southern Hemisphere. (See Appendix for information on distribution for each species.) Penguins are found on every continent in the Southern Hemisphere. Reproduction They are abundant on many temperate and subantarctic islands. 2. In general, flightless penguins have greater limits on foraging ranges and search capacities compared to Hatching & Care of birds that can fly. Thus to be successful, penguins must find predictable food sources within their Young limited foraging range. The more northernly Spheniscus penguin species, for example, are limited in distribution to primarily highly productive areas of the ocean such as upswellings and continental Longevity & Causes of shelves. Death 3. About 95% of Galápagos penguins, the most northernly of all penguin species, is found along the Conservation & western coast of Isabela and around Fernandina Island by the most productive upswellings caused by Research the Equatorial Undercurrent (also called the Cromwell Current.)

Appendix Habitat Books for Young Readers 1. Penguins generally live on islands and remote continental regions free from land predators, where their inability to fly is not detrimental to their survival. Bibliography

Penguins generally live in remote areas free from land predators.

2. These highly specialized marine birds are adapted to living at sea—some species spend months at a time at sea. Penguins are usually found near nutrient-rich, cold-water currents that provide an abundant supply of food. 3. Different species thrive in varying climates, ranging from Galápagos penguins on tropical islands at the equator to emperor penguins restricted to the pack ice and waters of Antarctica.

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Some of the temperate penguin species inhabit tropical climates.

These penguins are adapted to survive in the freezing climate of Antarctica.

4. The seasons of the Southern Hemisphere are opposite those of the Northern Hemisphere. When continents above the equator experience spring and summer, the areas below the equator experience fall and winter. 5. The most southerly penguin colony in the world are a group of Adélies that regularly nest near Camp Royds, Antarctica.

Migration

1. Adult penguins of most species usually disperse from rookeries (nesting colonies) to feed in coastal waters.

Adélie penguins in the southernmost breeding colonies in the Ross Sea migrate as much as 17,600 km (10,936 mi.) each year. 2. Young birds usually disperse when they leave their colonies and may wander thousands of kilometers. They generally return to the colonies where they were hatched to molt and breed.

Population

1. Population data usually are gathered during the breeding season. Some researchers count chicks to estimate the total population, others count breeding pairs. (See Appendix for information on population estimates for each species.)

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Physical Characteristics

Scientific Classification Penguin Physical Characteristics Habitat & Distribution

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Communication Size Behavior

Diet & Eating Habits 1. The emperor penguin is the largest of all living penguins, standing to 1.1 m (3.7 ft.) tall and can weigh more than 41 kg (90 lb.) Reproduction 2. The smallest of the penguins is the little penguin, standing just 41 to 45 cm (16-18 in.) and weighing about 1 kg (2.2 lb.) Hatching & Care of Young Body Shape Longevity & Causes of Death 1. The penguin's body is adapted for swimming. Its body is fusiform (tapered at both ends) and streamlined. A penguin has a large head, short neck, and elongated body. Conservation & Research

Appendix

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Bibliography

All species of penguins are excellent swimmers.

2. The tail is short and wedge-shaped. 3. The legs and webbed feet are set far back on the body, which gives penguins their upright posture on land.

Coloration

1. All adult penguins are countershaded: dark on the dorsal (back) surface and white on the ventral (underside) surface. The dark dorsal side blends in with the dark ocean depths when viewed from above. The light ventral side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below. The result is that predators or prey do not see a contrast between the countershaded penguin and the environment.

2. Many species have distinct markings and coloration.

The emperor penguin has a black head, chin, and throat, with broad yellow patches on each side of the head.

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emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri

The king penguin has a black head, chin, and throat, with vivid orange, tear-shaped patches on each side of the head. The orange coloration extends to the upper chest.

king penguin Aptenodytes patagonicus

The Adélie penguin has a black head and distinctive white eye rings.

Adélie penguin Pygoscelis adeliae

The gentoo has a black head with white eyelids, and a distinct triangular white patch above each eye, usually extending over the head.

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gentoo penguin Pygoscelis papua

The top of a chinstrap's head is black and the face is white, with a stripe of black extending under the chin.

chinstrap penguin Pygoscelis antarcticus

The crested penguins (genus Eudyptes), such as the rockhopper and macaroni, are distinguished by orange or yellow feather crests on the sides of the head, above the eyes.

crested penguins genus Eudyptes

The southern rockhopper's species name, chrysocome, means "golden haired," a reference to the golden yellow crest feathers above its eyes.

The yellow-eyed penguin, as its name suggests, has yellow eyes and a stripe of pale yellow feathers extending from the eye to the back of its head.

The little penguin, also known as the little blue, has slate-blue to black feathers and a white chin and chest.

Temperate penguins (genus Spheniscus), such as the Humboldt and Magellanic, have unfeathered fleshy areas on the face and one or two distinct black stripes across the chest.

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temperate penguins genus Spheniscus

3. Chicks, juveniles, and immature penguins may have slightly different markings than adults. Generally, they appear duller in color than adults. Adult markings take a year or longer to develop. 4. Sexual dimorphism

Generally, penguins are not sexually dimorphic: males and females look alike. Crested penguins are exceptions: the males are more robust and have larger bills than females.

When seen in pairs during breeding season, royal penguins are one of the easiest penguins species to visually identify males from females. Males have larger bills and white cheeks while females often have gray colored cheeks.

Flippers

1. Wings are modified into paddle-like flippers. The bones are flattened and broadened, with the joint of the elbow and wrist almost fused. This forms a tapered, flat flipper for swimming.

Instead of having wings like other birds, penguins have tapered, flattened flippers for swimming.

2. Each flipper is covered with short, scale-like feathers. The long wing feathers typical of most birds would be too flexible for swimming through water.

3. Penguins propel themselves through the water by flapping their flippers.

Head

1. Different species of penguins can be identified by their head and facial markings. 2. Penguins have a variety of bill shapes. A penguin captures fish, squid, and crustaceans with its bill.

Generally, the bill tends to be long and thin in species that are primarily fish eaters, and shorter and stouter in those that mainly eat krill.

The mouth is lined with horny, rear-directed spines to aid in swallowing live prey. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/physical-characteristics/ 4/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Physical Characteristics 3. Eyes.

The color of irises varies among the species.

Many species have brown, reddish-brown, or golden-brown eyes.

Rockhopper and macaroni penguins have red eyes.

Fairy (little blue) penguins have bluish-gray eyes.

As their name implies, yellow-eyed penguins have yellow eyes.

Nearly all birds studied have circular pupils. Rare exceptions include the king and emperor penguins. The pupil of an emperor penguin becomes "diamond-shaped" when strongly constricted.

A king penguin's normally circular pupil changes to small, square-shaped pinholes when constricted. A king penguin's pupil area can adjust from brightness to the darkness of the ocean as they dive to hunt. In fact, the area of their pupils can change an amazing 300-fold—more than any bird species known.

Like other birds, penguins have a nictitating membrane, sometimes called a third eyelid. This is a clear covering that protects the eye from injury.

Legs & Feet

1. Penguin legs are short and strong. Feet are webbed, with visible claws. The legs are set far back on the body to aid in streamlining and steering while swimming. This placement also causes penguins to stand vertically and walk upright.

Penguins have short legs and strong, webbed feet with visible claws.

2. Penguins walk with short steps or hops, sometimes using their bills or tails to assist themselves on steep climbs.

The maximum walking speed for Adélie penguins is 3.9 kph (2.4 mph.)

Emperor and king penguins walk slowly and do not hop.

Some species, like the rockhopper penguins, jump from rock to rock.

3. When traveling on ice, Antarctic penguins often "toboggan" on their bellies. They use their flippers and feet to slide their bodies forward along the ice.

These emperor penguins are tobogganing over the ice. This is a faster method of locomotion on land than walking. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/physical-characteristics/ 5/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Physical Characteristics Tail

1. A penguin's tail is short and wedge-shaped, with 14 to 18 stiff tail feathers. Adélie, gentoo, and chinstrap penguins (collectively known as brush-tailed penguins) have longer tail feathers, which they often use as a prop when on land.

Feathers

1. Shiny feathers uniformly overlap to cover a penguin's skin. Penguin feathers are highly specialized - short, broad, and closely spaced. This helps keep water away from the skin. Tufts of down on the feather shafts increase the insulative properties of the feathers.

Penguin feathers are short and stiff.

2. Penguins have more feathers than most other birds, with about 100 feathers per square inch. 3. Most penguin species go through one complete molt (shed their feathers) each year, usually after the breeding season. The exception is the Galápagos penguin, which usually goes through two molts per year.

Molting is essential because feathers wear out during the year. Feathers become worn when penguins rub against each other, come in contact with the ground and water, and regularly preen (clean, rearrange, and oil) their feathers.

The new feather grows under the old one, pushing it out. The old feather does not fall out until the new one is completely in place. The molt is patchy and can give individual penguins a scruffy look.

During the molt, feathers lose some of their insulating and waterproofing capabilities, and penguins stay out of the water until their plumage is restored to optimal condition.

Depending on the species, the average length of the molt varies from 13 days for the Galápagos penguin to 34 days for the emperor penguin.

Penguins fast when molting. Prior to this, they each build up a thick layer of fat to provide energy until the molt is complete.

While molting penguins can look a little scruffy. This Adélie penguin has just begun to molt. In another two weeks, it will have all new feathers.

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Senses

Scientific Classification Penguin Senses Habitat & Distribution

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Behavior Hearing Diet & Eating Habits 1. As in most birds, penguin hearing is probably good, but not as acute as that of marine mammals. Reproduction Hearing for penguins has not been well researched. One study on African penguins found a hearing range of 100 to 15,000 Hz with a peak sensitivity between 600 to 4,000 Hz. Hatching & Care of Young Eyesight Longevity & Causes of Death 1. A penguin's eyes are adapted to see clearly both in air and under water.

Conservation & Research

Appendix

Books for Young Readers

Bibliography

Penguins can see well in the air and under water.

2. Penguins have binocular vision. 3. Penguins have color vision and are sensitive to violet, blue, and green wavelengths of light and possibly to ultraviolet light as well.

Taste

1. The sense of taste in penguins has not been extensively studied. In general, the sense of taste is poorly developed in birds.

Smell

1. A penguin's sense of smell may be more developed than early studies indicated. The olfactory lobe of a penguin's brain is large. Studies on Humboldt penguins and African penguins indicate that at least some species can smell prey-related odors, which may help them locate productive foraging areas at sea. Humboldt penguins also use their sense of smell to discriminate related and nonrelated individuals and detect nest mates.

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Studies conducted with Humboldt penguins indicate they may have a sense of smell.

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Adaptations

Scientific Classification Penguin Adaptations for an Aquatic Environment Habitat & Distribution

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Behavior Swimming Diet & Eating Habits 1. Penguins may spend several months at a time at sea, only coming ashore for breeding and molting. The Reproduction Fiordland crested penguins occasionally grow barnacles on their tails—an indication that they are at sea for long periods. Hatching & Care of 2. Earlier estimates of swimming speeds were taken from observations of penguins swimming alongside Young moving ships, a method that proved to be unreliable.

Longevity & Causes of Emperors have been observed swimming 14.4 kph (8.9 mph), though they normally do not exceed Death 10.8 kph (6.7 mph.)

Conservation & King penguins have been recorded with a maximum swim speed of 12 kph (7.6 mph), although they Research typically swim from 6.5 to 7.9 kph (4–4.9 mph.)

Appendix Adélie penguins probably reach maximum burst speeds of 30 to 40 kph (18.6-24.8 mph), but typically swim at about 7.9 kph (4.9 mph.) When swimming, an Adélie penguin can accelerate Books for Young enough to leap as high as 3 m (9.8 ft.) out of the water onto an ice floe. Readers Little penguins swim slower at about 2.5 kph (1.6 mph.) Bibliography

The heavy, stocky penguin body is poorly adapted for flying in air but superbly adapted for movement through the water.

3. A penguin hunches its head into its shoulders to maintain its streamlined shape and reduce drag while swimming. Its keeps its feet pressed close to the body against the tail to aid in steering.

4. Penguin wings are paddlelike flippers used for swimming. The motion of the flippers resembles the wing movements of flying birds, giving penguins the appearance of flying through water. The wing and breast muscles are well developed, to propel penguins through water - a medium much denser than air.

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Not only do they "fly" underwater, these Adélie penguins appear to "fly" out of the water easily jumping 1.8 m (6 ft.) into the air. This behavior is commonly seen when penguins come ashore onto rough or high terrain such as ice floes and rocky shorelines.

5. Having solid, dense bones helps penguins overcome buoyancy. 6. Although it is more energy efficient for penguins to swim under water than at the water's surface, they must come to the surface to breathe. Many species of penguin porpoise--leap in and out of the water, like dolphins or porpoises.

When porpoising, penguins can continue breathing without interrupting forward momentum. They maintain a steady speed of 7 to 10 kph (4.3-6.2 mph.) and breathe about once a minute.

Porpoising also may confuse underwater predators.

Not all species exhibit this behavior. Emperor penguins are not known to porpoise and this behavior is infrequently seen in king penguins.

Diving

1. Most prey of penguins inhabit the upper water layers, so penguins generally do not dive to great depths or for long periods.

Most species stay submerged less than a minute.

Macaroni penguin dive depths typically range between 20 to 80 m (66–262 ft.) during the day and are usually less than 20 m (66 ft.) at night.

Gentoo penguins can reach a maximum dive depth of 200 m (656 ft.) although dives are usually from 20 to 100 m (66–328 ft.)

Adélie penguins have been recorded staying under water for nearly six minutes, although most dives are much shorter. They have been recorded diving to as deep as 170 m (558 ft.), although most dives are to less than 50 m (164 ft.)

Chinstraps can reach depths of 121 m (397 ft.), but most dives are less than 50 m (164 ft.) Dives last from 30 seconds to 3 minutes.

Most dives of king penguins last less than four to six minutes, although dives of up to eight minutes have been documented. The maximum recorded depth for a king penguin dive was 343 m (1,125 ft.)

Emperors hunt fast midwater squids and fishes and therefore tend to dive more deeply and remain submerged longer than other penguins. The deepest dive recorded for an emperor penguin was 565 m (1,854 ft.) The longest recorded dive for an emperor penguin was 27.6 minutes. Both of these measurements are considered extremes; most dives are between 21 to 40 m (70-131 ft.) of the surface and last two to eight minutes.

Penguins mainly hunt prey in pelagic (open ocean) waters, however sparse evidence (such as stomach content analysis) suggests that gentoo, yellow-eyed and emperor penguins dive and feed at the benthic (ocean floor) level as well. However, a detailed dive study of southern rockhoppers nesting/feeding off the coastal waters of the Kerguelen Archipelago suggest that benthic feeding is an important part of their diets.

A group of 16 female southern rockhoppers were fitted with time-depth recorders (TDRs). In addition to performing traditional pelagic dives for food, these birds also dove regularly to highly consistent depths, indicating that they were hunting on the ocean's floor as well.

The higher the amount of benthic dives recorded from a penguin, the greater the stomach content of the returning bird. This indicated that the benthic dives likely http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/adaptations/ 2/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Adaptations for an Aquatic Environment targeted high concentrations of crustaceans resting on the sea floor during the day. Pelagic dives averaged 53 seconds verses 66 seconds for benthic dives.

Likely this behavior is rarely duplicated elsewhere since, unlike most known penguin breeding areas, the Kerguelen Archipelago features the presence of a shallow oceanic shelf where penguins can feed.

Synchronized diving has been seen for northern rockhopper and Adélie penguins. The behavior is poorly understood and observed only at the surface of the water, although individuals were fitted with time/depth recorders so additional underwater data was recorded and analyzed as part of these studies.

A single pair of female northern rockhoppers observed in one study showed identical surface and depth dives hundreds of times straight during a period of seven hours. Their Euphausiid prey (Thysanoessa gregaria and Nematoscelis megalops) are known to form concentrated, dense swarms, suggesting that the rockhopper's synchronized efforts were likely a cooperative effort to increase foraging efficiency.

Three pairs and one trio of Adélies were observed surface diving together in another study.

At the surface each small group would synchronously dive together, however, duration and diving depths underwater would vary. It is therefore assumed that no cooperative foraging took place underwater compared to the findings suggested previously in the northern rockhopper study.

The first Adélie to resurface would wait for their partner(s) to return to surface before repeating the behavior. Each group dove together 34 to 60 times over a period lasting 1.7 to 4.5 hours.

The krill prey in this particular area, E. superba and E. crystallorophias, generally form less dense swarms and distribute themselves over a wider depth range than the krill hunted in the northern rockhopper study. This may help explain the diving behavior differences between the two studies.

Leopard and Weddell seals are known to feed upon Adélies in this area. It is therefore believed that synchronously diving into the water at the surface is a behavior used to reduce the chances of predation.

A unique small-group feeding event of gentoo penguins was witnessed in 2006. A large flock of gentoos feeding on a swarm of krill separated into about 25 groups, each composed of 12 to 100 birds. Each separate group dove together, independent of the other groups. After one to two minutes underwater, individual members of a group would resurface. When all members of a particular group resurfaced, they would reform tightly together and repeat the behavior. The gentoos did not mix or interact with others outside their particular group during this feeding event. 2. Unlike diving marine mammals, penguins slightly inhale just before a dive.

This increases oxygen stores, but makes the penguins more positively buoyant during a shallow dive and increases the risk of decompression sickness for deeper dives.

A study on Adélie and king penguins showed that penguins can regulate their air intake before a dive, vigorously flap their flippers during the initial descent to overcome positive buoyancy, and then passively ascend from a dive using the expanding air volume in their body to conserve energy.

Scientists believe that the deeper diving penguins, the king and emperor penguins, take in less air before diving while the other species make shorter, shallow dives and take in more air before a dive.

3. During deep dives, the penguin heart rate slows.

The heart rate of king penguins drops from 126 bpm when resting at the surface between dives to about 87 bpm during dives.

The heart rate of a diving emperor penguin is usually about 15% lower than its resting heart rate, which averages about 72. During one deep, 18-minute long dive, the emperor penguin's heart rate progressively slowed to 3 bpm, with a heart rate of 6 bpm for five minutes. However, the during the surface intervals between very deep and long dives, an emperor penguin's heart rate can increase to a maximum of 256 bpm, which likely aids in eliminating carbon dioxide and replenishing and reloading the penguin's oxygen stores in its tissues. 4. Under experimental diving conditions, penguins exhibit reduced peripheral blood flow. 5. The temperatures of a penguin's peripheral areas (limbs and skin) drop during a dive while those of the core regions (heart, deep veins, and pectoral muscle) are maintained at the normal temperature. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/adaptations/ 3/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Adaptations for an Aquatic Environment Respiration

1. When swimming, penguins inhale and exhale rapidly at the surface. Just before a dive, penguins inhale and then dive on a breath of air.

Salt Secretion

1. Penguins have glands under the eyes that help rid the body of excess salt. The secretion of salt and fluid often collect as droplets on the bill and are shaken off. These glands are so effective that penguins can drink sea water without ill effects.

Sleep

1. A penguin typically sleeps with its bill tucked behind a flipper, which some scientists believe serves no known purpose in penguins, but is a remnant of ancestral relations to flighted birds. Other researchers believe the behavior may reduce the amount of heat lost through the face, particularly the nostrils. 2. To conserve energy while fasting, penguins may increase the time they spend sleeping. 3. During the Antarctic winter, when the period of darkness may last more than 20 hours, huddling emperor penguins that are incubating eggs may sleep for most of a 24-hour period.

Thermoregulation

1. The internal temperature range of penguins is 37.8°C to 38.9°C (100°F-102°F). 2. Overlapping feathers create a surface nearly impenetrable to wind or water. Feathers provide waterproofing critical to penguins' survival in water that may be as cold as -2.2°C (28°F) in the Antarctic. Tufts of down on feather shafts trap air. This layer of air provides 80% to 84% of the thermal insulation for penguins. The layer of trapped air is compressed during dives and can dissipate after prolonged diving. Penguins rearrange their feathers by preening. 3. To conserve heat, penguins may tuck in their flippers close to their bodies. They also may shiver to generate additional heat. 4. A well defined fat layer improves insulation in cold water, but probably is not enough to keep body temperature stable at sea for long. Penguins must remain active while in water to generate body heat. 5. Species in colder climates tend to have longer feathers and a thicker fat layer than those in warmer climates. An emperor penguin can build up a 3 cm (1.2 in.) thick fat layer before the breeding season.

Penguins living in the coldest regions have longer feathers and thicker body fat than those living in warmer regions.

6. The dark plumage of a penguin's dorsal surface absorbs heat from the Sun, which increases body temperature.

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/adaptations/ 4/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Adaptations for an Aquatic Environment Penguins warm up by turning their dark colored backs to the Sun.

7. On land, king and emperor penguins tip up their feet, and rest their entire weight on their heels and tail, reducing contact with the icy surface. 8. During storms, emperor penguins huddle together to conserve. As many as 6,000 males will cluster while incubating eggs during the middle of the Antarctic winter. The penguins on the boundaries of the huddle continually move into the more sheltered interior, giving each penguin in the huddle equal access to warmth and benefit from huddling.

One of the methods penguins use to conserve body heat is huddling.

9. Emperor penguins are able to recapture 80% of heat escaping in their breath through a complex heat exchange system in their nasal passages. 10. On land, overheating may sometimes be a problem.

Penguins may prevent overheating by moving into shaded areas and by panting.

Penguins can ruffle their feathers to break up the insulating layer of air next to the skin and release heat.

If a penguin is too warm, it holds its flippers away from its body, so both surfaces of the flippers are exposed to air, releasing heat.

Temperate species, like Humboldt and African penguins, lack feathers on their legs and have bare patches on their faces. Excess heat can dissipate through these unfeathered areas.

Penguins that live in warmer climates - like the Magellanic - have bare patches of skin around the bill and eyes to help release excess body heat.

Penguins that live in cold climates - like the Adélie - have feathers covering most of their bills to help conserve body heat.

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/adaptations/ 5/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Adaptations for an Aquatic Environment 11. A penguin's circulatory system adjusts to conserve or release body heat to maintain body temperature.

To conserve heat, blood flowing to the flippers and legs transfers its heat to blood returning to the heart. This countercurrent heat exchange helps ensure that heat remains in the body.

If the body becomes too warm, blood vessels in the skin dilate, bringing heat from within the body to the surface, where it is dissipated.

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Communication

Scientific Classification Penguin Communication Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

→ Communication

Behavior Vocalization Diet & Eating Habits 1. Penguin calls (vocalizations) are individually identifiable, allowing mates to recognize each other and Reproduction also their chick. This is important because members of a large colony of penguins are nearly indistinguishable by sight. Hatching & Care of Young Penguin Vocalization

Longevity & Causes of 2. Research has identified differences in the calls of male and female emperor penguins. These differences Death probably function in courtship and mate selection. 3. There are three main kinds of penguin calls. Conservation & Research The contact call assists in recognition of colony members. The contact call of emperor and king penguins can be heard one kilometer (0.6 mi.) away. Appendix The display call is the most complex of all the calls and is used between partners in a colony. The Books for Young call must convey information on territorial, sexual, and individual recognition. Readers The threat call is the simplest and is used to defend a territory and warn other colony members of Bibliography predators.

The threat call is used to defend a territory.

Displays

1. Penguins communicate by vocalizing and performing physical behaviors called displays. They use many vocal and visual displays to communicate nesting territories, mating information, nest relief rituals, partner and chick recognition, and defense against intruders.

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Penguins perform physical behaviors called displays to communicate.

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Behavior

Scientific Classification Penguin Behavior Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

→ Behavior Social Behavior Diet & Eating Habits 1. Penguins are among the most social of all birds. All species are colonial. Reproduction

Hatching & Care of Young

Longevity & Causes of Death

Conservation & Research

Appendix

Books for Young Penguins are among the most social of all birds. Readers 2. Penguins may swim and feed in groups, but some may be solitary when diving for food. Emperor Bibliography penguins have been observed feeding in groups with coordinated diving. 3. During the breeding season penguins come ashore and nest in huge colonies called rookeries. Some rookeries include hundreds of thousands of penguins and cover hundreds of square kilometers.

While on land, some penguins gather in the thousands, like the Adélie penguin colony on Paulet Island off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula.

4. Penguins exhibit intricate courting and mate-recognition behavior. Elaborate visual and vocal displays help establish and maintain nesting territories. 5. Although king penguins are highly gregarious at rookery sites, they usually travel in small groups of 5 to 20 individuals. 6. Penguins communicate by vocalizing and performing physical behaviors called "displays". They use many vocal and visual displays to communicate nesting territories and mating information. They also use displays in partner and chick recognition, and in defense against intruders.

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Male penguins perform ecstatic displays to establish possession of nesting sites, attract females, and warn other males to stay away.

Individual Behavior

1. Navigation.

Studies of Adélie penguins indicate that they use the sun to navigate from land to sea. They adjust for the sun's changing position in the sky throughout the day. 2. Preening.

Penguins preen their feathers frequently. Feathers must be maintained in prime condition to ensure waterproofing and insulation.

Penguins preen with their bills. A gland near the base of the tail secretes oil that the penguin distributes throughout its feathers.

Penguins preen for several minutes in the water by rubbing their bodies with their flippers while twisting and turning.

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Diet & Eating Habits

Scientific Classification Penguin Diet & Eating Habits Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Food Preferences And Resources

→ Diet & Eating Habits 1. Penguins eat krill (a shrimp-like crustacean in the Family Euphausiidae), squids, and fishes. Various Reproduction species of penguins have slightly different food preferences, which reduce competition among species. (See Appendix for information on diet for each species.) Hatching & Care of 2. The smaller penguin species of the Antarctic and the subantarctic primarily feed on krill and squids. Young Species found farther north tend to eat fishes. Longevity & Causes of 3. Adélie penguins feed primarily on small krill, while chinstraps forage for large krill. Death 4. Emperor and king penguins mainly eat fishes and squids. Conservation & Research Food Intake

Appendix 1. Intake varies with the quantity and variety of food available from different areas at different times of the year. Books for Young Readers 2. The entire breeding population of Adélie penguins may consume as much as 1,500,000,000 kg (1,500,000 metric tons) of krill, 115,000,000 (115,000 metric tons) of fishes and 3,500,000 (3,500 Bibliography metric tons) of squid each year.

Method Of Collecting And Eating Food

1. Penguins feed at sea. Most feeding occurs within 15.3 to 18.3 m (50-60 ft.) of the surface. The location of prey can vary seasonally and even daily.

Penguins rely on the ocean for food. And although they are well studied on land, penguin behavior at sea is relatively unknown.

2. Penguins primarily rely on their vision while hunting. It is not known how penguins locate prey in the darkness, at night, or at great depths, Some scientists hypothesize that penguins are helped by the bioluminescence (light producing) capabilities of many oceanic squids, crustaceans, and fishes. 3. Penguins catch prey with their bills and swallow it whole while swimming. A penguin has a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey. 4. Galápagos penguins have been observed participating in multispecies feedings with numerous types of seabirds including flightless cormorants (Campsohaelius (Nannopterum) harrisi), brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), brown noddies (Anous stolidus), blue-footed (Sula nebouxii) and masked http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/diet-and-eating-habits/ 1/3 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Diet & Eating Habits boobies (Sula dactylatra), magnificent frigatebirds (Fregata magnificens), and Audubon shearwaters (Puffinus lhenninieri). Field observations indicate that pursuit-divers, such as Galápagos penguins and flightless cormorants, force prey animals to stay near the shore and surface of the water for a longer period of time, thus increasing the duration of these flocks. 5. Different species travel various distances from the colony in search of food.

Hunting areas may range from 15 km (9 mi.) from the colony for Adélies to nearly 900 km (559 mi.) from the colony for king penguins. Emperor penguins may cover 164 to 1,454 km (102–903 mi.) in a single foraging trip.

Antarctic penguins swim, walk, and toboggan from feeding grounds to rookeries. When fishing grounds are far away, penguins will feed in seal holes and other openings in the ice.

Conspicuous Band Markings

1. Fish predators (piscivores) are likely more effective at chasing and catching individuals, thus schooling fish may form dense aggregations as a defensive strategy against predators. In tests, schooling fish such as Cape anchovies are known to depolarize (break apart) when shown models with stripes compared to models without stripes. 2. Adult penguins in the genus Spheniscus have at least one black stripe around their bodies. It is believed that such a conspicuous marking may force individual prey fish away from the main school, potentially increasing the penguin's hunting efficiency.

3. The absence of such striping patterns in other penguin genera that do not concentrate on schooling fishes as part of their diet further supports this theory.

Stone Swallowing

1. One emperor was found to have 4.5 kg (10 lb.) of stones in its stomach contents. Stones have also been found in the stomach contents of Adélie, African, gentoo, Magellanic, and yellow-eyed penguins. Whether these stones were ingested by accident or not is unknown in these cases, however, king, rockhopper, and macaroni penguins have been clearly observed swallowing stones on purpose, sometimes in great numbers. 2. King penguins in apparent good physical condition, breeding at Marion Island, were seen to purposely look for nearby stones. A single stone, approximately 10-mm to 30-mm in diameter, was selected at a time. The king would then throw its head back and allow the stone to be swallowed. The kings averaged swallowing six to 24 stones per minute, with one ingesting 31 stones in total. 3. It's theorized that stones are swallowed to reduce buoyancy while diving or to alleviate the sensation of hunger. It's also believed that rockhopper and macaroni chicks swallow stones to aid in the digestion of tough exoskeletons of the crustaceans that play an important part of their diets.

Fasting

1. Penguins go through annual fasting periods. Prior to fasting, penguins build up a fat layer, which provides energy.

Penguins fast for prolonged periods during breeding seasons; they do not leave nesting areas to feed. Some penguins fast throughout the entire courtship, nesting, and incubation periods.

Penguins also fast during annual molting periods. The temporary reduction in insulation and waterproofing caused by the loss of feathers during a molt prohibits penguins from entering the water to feed. Their fat layer provides energy until the molt is over.

Penguins fast during annual molting periods.

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Chicks fast near the time they are ready to shed juvenile feathers for adult plumage. Usually by this time, the parents no longer are feeding the chick. Growth stops during this fasting period, but resumes once the molt is complete. 2. The length of fasting depends on penguin species, sex, and type of fasting. The king and emperor penguins have the longest fasting periods.

Breeding male king penguins may fast for up to 54 days during courtship and the first incubation shift.

Breeding male emperor penguins may fast 90 to 120 days during courtship, breeding, and the entire incubation period.

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Reproduction

Scientific Classification Penguin Reproduction Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Sexual Maturity Diet & Eating Habits 1. Like most seabirds, penguins tend to be long-lived. They may take three to eight years to reach sexual → Reproduction maturity. 2. With some of the smaller species, breeding may begin at three to four years, but most larger species are Hatching & Care of not accomplished breeders until much later. On average, breeding does not begin until the fifth year, Young and a few males do not breed until the eighth year. Longevity & Causes of Death Mating Activity

Conservation & 1. Breeding seasons differ from species to species. Research Most species have an annual breeding season - spring through summer. Appendix The king penguin has the longest breeding cycle of all the penguin species, lasting 14 to 16 months. Books for Young A female king penguin may produce a chick during alternate breeding seasons. Readers Emperor penguins breed annually during the antarctic winter, June through August. Bibliography During the emperor breeding season, air temperature may drop to -60°C (-76°F) and winds may reach speeds up to 200 kph (124 mph).

For most of the winter, antarctic penguins live in an environment of darkness or half- light. Why emperors breed during the harshest season of the year is unknown, but some scientists speculate that when the chicks become independent five months later (in January and February, the antarctic summer), environmental conditions are more favorable for the young birds.

The little penguin breeds throughout the year and has the shortest breeding cycle, which lasts about 50 days.

Some of the temperate penguins, like the Humboldt and the African, tend to nest throughout the year.

2. Courtship.

Courtship varies among species. It generally begins with both visual and auditory displays. In many species, males display first to establish a nest site and then to attract a mate. Not all species exhibit all displays, but in general there are three distinct types of displays.

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Male penguins arrive first to the rookeries to establish and defend their nesting sites.

Ecstatic. Also called trumpeting, head swinging or advertisement, this display establishes possession of a nest site, attracts females, and warns other males to stay away. Males at the nest site commonly exhibit the ecstatic display before females arrive or when building nests. The male may dip its head low and then stretch its head and neck upward with flippers held outstretched and squawk or "bray". Male penguins can perform the ecstatic display in a sitting or standing position. Some species, like the Adélie, chinstrap, and crested penguins, may swing their head or flap their flippers while calling.

Mutual ecstatic. Once paired, male and female penguins perform the mutual ecstatic display together. This display seems to strengthen the pair bond, coordinate nesting behavior, and advertise a nesting territory. The mutual display is similar to the ecstatic display—head and neck stretched upward with a braying vocal. Crested, brush-tailed, and temperate penguins, stand facing each other, performing the action in unison. Within these species there are some behavior differences. For example, gentoos generally hold their outstretched head and flippers still, while macaronis flap flippers and roll their heads from side to side. Emperor penguins have a unique mutual display position: Standing face-to-face, individuals hold their heads down with bills pointed to the ground while braying. Mutual displays continue throughout the breeding season, often taking place at the nest when parents switch places for egg incubation and chick feeding.

Bowing. Bowing displays may lessen the likelihood of aggression and strengthen recognition between partners. One or both of the penguins dips its head and points its bill at the nest or at the other bird's bill. The call is a low hiss or growl Crested penguins may vibrate their bills while pointing in a type of display called "quivering."

These gentoo penguins enact the "bowing" display. This behavior appears to strengthen the bond between breeding pairs.

Emperor and king penguins are the only known marine birds to reflect ultraviolet (UV) light from their bills, and a male king penguin's bill may be used as a cue in finding and selecting a mate.

UV light, invisible to the human eye, can be perceived by most birds. UV reflection off the feathers of studied songbirds has been a recognized factor for mate selection.

During courtship, king penguin males come face-to-face and flaunt their bills to possible mates. The strong contrast of the black background of their bills is believed to augment UV light reflection. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/reproduction/ 2/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Reproduction

The bills of sexually immature king juveniles do not reflect UV light, adding to the hypothesis that UV reflection in adult males is used to attract mates. 3. Most penguin species are monogamous (one male breeds with one female during a mating season); however, research has shown that some females may have one to three partners in one season and some males may have one or two partners. 4. Mate selection is up to the female, and it is the females that compete for the males. 5. In some penguin species, a female selects the same male from the preceding season to mate with. Adélie penguins have been documented re-pairing with the previous year's mate 62% of the time. Chinstraps re-paired in 82% of possible cases, and gentoos re-paired 90% of the time. In one study of Adélies, females paired with males within minutes of arriving at the colony. 6. When a female selects a different mate it is usually because her mate from the previous season fails to return to the nesting area. Another reason may be mistiming in returning to the nesting area. If they arrive at different times and miss each other, one or both penguins may obtain new mates. 7. Eudyptes penguins are closely related and some in this genus are known to crossbreed with different Eudyptes members . Rockhoppers are known to interbreed with macaroni, royal, and erect-crested penguins, for example, with matings producing hybrid offspring that in some cases have successfully reproduced as well.

Nesting

1. Nest site fidelity.

Studies have shown that individuals of most penguin species return each year to the same rookeries. In addition, most penguins return to the same nesting site within the rookery. Studies have indicated that fidelity to the previous year's nest site was 99% for male Adélie penguins, 94% for chinstraps, and 63% for gentoos.

Rockhoppers appear to have an amazingly precise breeding timetable, with males returning to the spot of their former nest virtually on the same day each year, regardless if weather or environmental factors have changed from the previous breeding season.

Males arrive first to the rookeries to establish and defend their nesting sites. In a study on Adélie and chinstrap penguins, females arrived one day and five days after the males, respectively.

When it is time to breed, mature birds return to the rookery where they hatched. This results in large numbers of penguins at a single rookery rather than penguins colonizing new areas. Some penguin rookeries number millions of birds.

Various penguin species may share a particular rookery site. It is not uncommon to find gentoos nesting near Adélie and chinstrap penguins for example, but nesting areas within the rookery are kept segregated by each species. 2. Nesting habitats vary among species.

Emperor penguins form colonies on the Antarctic continent. They prefer sites on a fairly level surface of land-fast sea ice sheets in areas sheltered from wind, with easy access to feeding areas. Rookeries must be far enough inland that the ice does not melt under them prior to the chicks being ready to go to sea.

King penguins nest and breed on subantarctic and antarctic islands. They prefer beaches and valleys of level ground or gentle slopes, free of snow and ice, and accessible to the sea.

Adélies often nest 50 to 60 km (31.1-37.3 mi.) from the edge of the sea ice on the antarctic continent and nearby on rocky islands, peninsulas, beaches, hillsides, valleys, and other areas free of ice.

Cape Adare is home to the largest single colony of Adélie penguins with an estimated population of 282,000 breeding pairs.

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/reproduction/ 3/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Reproduction Gentoo penguin colonies can be inland or coastal on antarctic and subantarctic islands and peninsulas. They tend to breed on ice-free ground on beaches, in valleys, on inland hills, and on cliff tops.

Gentoo penguins nest in-land or on coastal peninsulas and islands.

Chinstrap penguins nest on fairly steep slopes.

The South Sandwich Islands have the largest population of nesting chinstraps with an estimated 5 million pairs.

Fiordland crested penguins nest in a wet, coastal rain forest habitat, under bushes, between tree roots, in holes, or on rocky coasts among rocks or in caves.

Galápagos penguins nest in volcanic caves or cracks in rock.

The temperate penguins and the little penguin often nest underground in burrows, rock crevices, caves, under shrubs, or in scrapes in the ground. These species breed in areas where the climate can range from tropical to subantarctic. Underground or other sheltered burrows provide an environment with a relatively constant air temperature for the eggs and chicks.

Temperate penguins nest in underground burrows.

Some Humboldt penguins burrow and create nesting sites in guano (fecal) deposits.

3. Nesting materials vary from species to species and from location to location.

Adélies build nests of small stones that they use to line depressions in the ground. Some chinstrap and gentoos also construct nests out of stones. The stones help keep the eggs above the surface http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/reproduction/ 4/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Reproduction when the rookery floods from melting snow. Adélie, gentoo, and chinstrap penguins are known to take stones from other nests. A penguin returning to the nest sometimes brings its mate a stone as a courtship gesture.

Chinstrap penguins usually construct nests with perimeters of eight to ten stones, just enough to prevent eggs from rolling away.

Gentoo penguins use nesting materials ranging from pebbles and molted feathers in Antarctica to vegetation on subantarctic islands. One medium-sized gentoo nest was composed of 1,700 pebbles and 70 molted tail feathers.

Male and female Adélie penguins build their nests out of pebbles, bones, and moss.

Emperor and king penguins build no nests. They stand upright while incubating a single egg on the tops of their feet under a loose fold of abdominal. Under this loose fold is a featherless patch of skin called a brood patch, which occurs in all incubating birds. The brood patch contains numerous blood vessels that, when engorged with blood, transfer body heat to the eggs.

This gentoo penguin has constructed its nest out of pebbles.

The eggs of emperor penguins are incubated on the tops of their feet and under their abdominal brood patch.

Eggs http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/reproduction/ 5/6 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Reproduction 1. Eggs may be white to bluish or greenish. The shape varies among species. In Humboldt and Adélie penguins the egg is more or less round. In emperor and king penguins the egg is rather pear-shaped, with one end tapering almost to a point. With this elliptical shape, if an egg falls off of the feet of a parent bird, the egg will roll in a circle instead of away from the parent. 2. Egg size and weight varies with species. From the records of SeaWorld's successful penguin breeding programs, emperor penguin eggs measure 11.1 to 12.7 cm (4.4-5 in.) long and weigh 345 to 515 g (12.1- 18 oz.), and Adélie penguin eggs measure 5.5 to 8.6 cm (2.2-3.4 in.) long and weigh 61 to 153.5 g (2.1- 5.4 oz.).

A sample of penguin eggs. Clockwise from top center: king, emperor, Magellanic, Adélie, and gentoo. King and emperor penguins incubate eggs on the topes of their feet. The elliptical shape fits snugly. In addition, if the egg happens to fall off, it will roll in a circle instead of a straight line away from the parent bird.

3. A nest of eggs is called a clutch, and with the exception of emperor and king penguins, clutches usually contain two eggs. (Emperor and king penguins lay a single egg.) A clutch with more than one egg presents a better chance of at least one chick surviving.

In the Eudyptula, Spheniscus, and Pygoscelis genera, the first-laid egg is generally larger than the second, and usually hatches first (except in the chinstrap species). Usually the first chick to hatch has the survival advantage since it will already have fed and will be larger by the time the second egg hatches. The second, usually smaller, chick cannot compete with the larger chick for food and may perish in times of scarce food resources.

In the Eudyptes genus, the second-laid egg and the subsequent chick is usually the larger of the two and usually the survivor. It typically hatches first or at the same time as the chick from the first-laid egg. The first-laid egg is often kicked out of the nest by the adults prior to hatching time.

The chinstrap and yellow-eyed species usually lay two eggs. Parents typically raise both chicks, which are nearly equal in size.

Incubation

1. Incubation is the time spent warming the egg before it hatches. With the exception of emperor penguins, partners take turns incubating eggs, allowing each mate to leave to feed for several days at a time.

2. A female emperor penguin transfers a single egg to the top of her mate's feet. The female goes to sea to feed while the male incubates the egg. She returns several weeks later, usually just before the egg is ready to hatch, to relieve her mate so that he may feed. The male fasts throughout the courtship, nesting, and incubation periods. He lives off reserves of body fat which may be 3 to 4 cm (1.2-1.6 in.) thick, and loses up to 45% of his body weight.

3. The incubation period varies with species. It may be as short as one month, as in the erect-crested penguins, or as long as 62 to 66 days for emperor penguins.

4. The incubation temperature for penguins is approximately 36°C (96.5°F); it is a bit lower for the larger species. Emperor penguins can maintain an incubation temperature of 31°C (87.8°F) in an environment that is -60°C (-76°F).

5. The greatest single cause for reproductive failure in some species is the mistiming between parents for nest relief during incubation. This usually occurs when the female fails to return from a foraging trip before the male deserts the nest. A male will spontaneously leave the nest and eggs when the motivation to feed overcomes that for incubating eggs.

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Hatching & Care of Young

Scientific Classification Penguin Hatching & Care of Young Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Hatching Diet & Eating Habits 1. Chicks first "pip" by poking a small hole in the egg. They then chip at the shell until they can push off Reproduction the top. Chicks take up to three days to chip their way out. 2. Fine down feathers cover most newly hatched chicks. (King penguin chicks hatch naked and grow down → Hatching & Care of feathers within a few weeks.) Young Down feathers of different species may be white, gray, black, or brown. Longevity & Causes of Death Down feathers are not waterproof, and chicks must remain out of the water until they acquire their juvenile plumage. Conservation & Research Adult plumage is acquired at about one year.

Appendix

Books for Young Readers

Bibliography

This king penguin chick hatched featherless but will grow down feathers in a few weeks.

3. In all species, the coloration and markings of chicks separate them from adults. Scientists believe that the chicks' coloration elicits parental behavior from the adults, and that adult penguins do not perceive the young birds as competitors for mates or nesting sites.

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4. The striking markings of emperor chicks may help to make the chicks more visible against the ice and snow, significant because emperors don't have individual nest sites where the young can be found.

The markings of emperor penguin chicks may make them more visible against the ice and snow.

Care of the Chicks

1. Chicks require attentive parents for survival. Both parents feed the chick regurgitated food. Adults recognize and feed only their own chick. Parents are able to identify their chick by its distinctive call.

Penguins feed their chicks regurgitated food.

2. During fieldwork at the Falkland Islands, a researcher observed a behavior never witnessed before—an older gentoo chick was recorded several times regurgitating food and feeding its younger sibling. It is not understood why the older chick would feed its younger sibling, as in theory such an action would likely reduce the older chick's chances of survival.

3. Male emperor penguins exhibit a feature unique among penguins. If the chick hatches before the female returns, the male, despite his fasting, is able to produce and secrete a curdlike substance from his esophagus to feed the chick, allowing for survival and growth for up to two weeks.

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Chicks require attentive parents for survival.

4. Parents brood chicks (keep them warm) by covering them with their brood patch. 5. In some species, partially grown chicks gather in groups called crèches. (Crèche is a French word for crib.)

Crèches provide some protection from predators and the elements.

Crèches were once thought to be functional nurseries with adults providing protection and communal care. This has proven not to be the case. Parents feed only their own chick.

King chicks are believed to form crèches for protection against harsh weather, predation, and aggressive, non-related adults.

The preferred place for a king penguin crèche to form is in the central parts of the colony.

A contributing factor for king chicks to join a crèche comes from harassment by non- related king penguin adults—lone chicks suffered the most aggression by non-related adults with those that had joined a crèche suffering the least.

The outer edges of a crèche are the most vulnerable to predation, and king chicks at the periphery appeared to be more vigilant when resting based on measuring the time they kept their eyes open.

At times intense competition flared between chicks for access to the center of the crèche. Chicks in the poorest health were pushed to the edges of the crèche where they were preyed upon by giant petrels.

When weather turned severe, king chicks formed larger, more condensed crèches. Spacing between individual chicks decreased and the chicks turned their backs to the wind and rain.

Temperate or subtropical crested penguins, like the macaroni or erect- crested, and penguins that nest in burrows, like the little or Humboldt, do not form crèches.

6. Chick "adoption" and "kidnapping."

During a two year study of emperor penguins in Antarctica, mainly non-breeding adult females and failed breeding female emperors often "kidnapped" and attempted to "adopt" chicks that clearly were not their own.

Out of 2,068 chicks hatched in the colony in 1993, adoption occurred in 351 cases. Adoption took place 185 times out of the 351 cases (53%) after the kidnapping of a chick or where a chick was found wandering around the colony. Chicks were 1 to 2 months old.

Most adoptions were short-lived events, lasting an average of 0.5 to 10 days. Attempts to feed the adopted chicks were seen in a minimum of about 15% of the cases (52 out of 351). Long-term adoption was seen in only about 2% of the cases.

Most adoption attempts ended badly for the chick. "Readoption" of a chick to its true parents was only seen in rare instances where the chick was taken close to its true parents but was quickly abandoned by its kidnapper.

In contrast to most bird species, penguins generally maintain high levels of the hormone prolactin (PRL) throughout their entire breeding season, even those that may lose their eggs or chicks.

PRL is also referred to as the "parenting hormone" for its connection in maintaining the http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/hatching-and-care-of-young/ 3/4 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Hatching & Care of Young strong bond between a chick and parents. The kidnapping behavior witnessed in adult emperor penguins is believed to be a result of high levels of PRL.

Emperor adults that had their PRL levels artificially decreased (by the administration of bromocriptine) kidnapped chicks at a lower level than those that maintained higher levels of PRL.

At least 65 bird species have been known to "adopt" the young of a different species, including one instance where a king penguin attempted to raise a brown skua chick.

Adult brown skuas are natural enemies of king penguin chicks. Brown skua chicks, however, are brown with fuzzy down that may superficially resemble a newly hatched king penguin.

A king penguin adult was seen pushing a brown skua chick onto its feet, apparently attempting to brood the skua as it would a newly hatched king penguin chick.

Both skua parents attempted a rescue by harassing the penguin. Twice they succeeded in taking their chick back, however, the determined king fought back and retook the chick by beating its flippers and pecking at the parents. Human intervention by one of the observers finally ended the conflict and the chick was returned back to its real parents.

Chick Development

1. A chick depends on its parents for survival between hatching and the growth of its waterproof feathers before it can fledge (leave the colony to go forage at sea.)

This period may range from seven to nine weeks for Adélie chicks to 13 months for king penguin chicks.

For most penguin species, once a chick has replaced its juvenile down with waterproof feathers it is able to enter the water and becomes independent of its parents.

Some juvenile gentoo penguins that have undergone a complete molt, leave the colony to forage at sea during the day but return to the colony with some still receiving food from their parents for an average of 12 days following their first foraging trip at. Following this period of extended parental care the gentoo fledglings disperse from the colony.

Chicks are completely dependant upon their parents from the time they hatch to the growth of their waterproof feathers.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Longevity & Causes of Death

Scientific Classification Penguin Longevity & Causes of Death Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Longevity Diet & Eating Habits 1. The average life expectancy of penguins is probably 15 to 20 years. Some individuals live considerably Reproduction longer. 2. High mortality occurs among the young. Hatching & Care of Young Winter starvation may claim the lives of 50% of king penguin chicks.

→ Longevity & Causes Emperor chicks may experience a 90% mortality within the first year of life. of Death

Conservation & When mortality affects one chick in species producing two offspring of moderate size differences, it Research is usually the smaller chick that does not survive.

Appendix

Books for Young Readers

Bibliography

There is a high mortality rate among penguin chicks.

Predators

1. When in the water, penguins may be eaten by leopard seals, fur seals, sea lions, sharks, or killer whales.

This leopard seal is one of the primary predators of penguins but poses more of a threat in the water than on land.

2. On land, foxes, snakes, and introduced predators such as feral dogs, cats, and stoats (members of the weasel family) prey on eggs and chicks of some penguin species, including the yellow-eyed and http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/longevity-and-causes-of-death/ 1/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Longevity & Causes of Death Galápagos penguins. 3. Antarctic and subantarctic eggs and chicks are susceptible to predatory birds such as antarctic skuas, sheathbills, and giant petrels. These predators may prey on chicks that have strayed from the protection of the crèche or are sickly and too weak to defend themselves.

Skuas may work in pairs to obtain their prey. One bird distracts the penguin on the nest, and the other swoops in to steal the egg or chick.

Sheathbills intercept chinstrap regurgitation as penguin parents feed their offspring.

Antarctic skuas (Catharacta antarctica), sheathbills (Chionis alba), and giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus) prey on penguin eggs and chicks.

4. Gulls and ibises eat 40% of African penguin eggs. 5. Little penguins rely on burrows and a nocturnal lifestyle to avoid predators such as swamp harriers, peregrines, gulls, snakes, rats, and lizards. 6. During a nine-season study off Ross Island, home to a breeding colony of some 130,000 pairs of Adélie penguins, killer whales were observed harassing, chasing, herding, and surrounding Adélies in the water but never consuming them.

The small Adélie may be regarded as an insignificant food source compared to the Weddell seals, leopard seals, emperor penguins and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) that killer whales are known to prey upon in this area.

Occasionally adult killer whales would deliver a single Adélie to the rest of its pod, without any attempt to eat the penguin. It's speculated that the Adélie served as a "training simulator" to younger whales on how to provide food for the rest of the pod. 7. Introduced predators including cats, ferrets, and stoats that eat chicks and eggs, and dogs that prey on adults pose the largest threat to yellow-eyed penguin populations.

Human Impact

1. Hunting

Historians believe that, for centuries, indigenous peoples have hunted some species of penguins and taken eggs for centuries.

Mass exploitation occurred when early explorers, sealers, whalers, and fishermen turned to penguin colonies as sources of fresh meat and eggs. Sometimes more than 300,000 eggs were taken in annual harvests from one African island. Explorers were known to kill and salt 3,000 penguins in a day for voyage provisions. Penguins were easy prey because of their inability to fly and their seeming lack of fear of humans. Although egg- collecting was banned in 1969, illegal harvesting continues today.

During much of the 19th century, and into the 20th, penguin skins were used to make caps, slippers, and purses. Feathers were used for clothing decorations and as mattress stuffing.

The extraction of oil from penguins' fat layers became economically important in the 1800s and early 1900s. Oil was used for lighting, tanning leather, and fuel. In the Falkland Islands alone, an estimated 2.5 million penguins were killed within a 16-year time span. The oil industry came to a halt in 1918 due to protests by the general public and because of cheaper and better quality chemical products.

In some places, such as islands in the southern Indian Ocean, fishermen still use penguin meat for bait. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/longevity-and-causes-of-death/ 2/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Longevity & Causes of Death 2. Seabird guano has great commercial value as a nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Although the Incas used seabird guano to improve their crops as far back as 500 BC, they carefully managed the resource by extracting it at a slower rate than it was being produced. Guano became a major product of international trade in the 1800s, and in the early 1900s, guano deposits were in danger of being depleted. Although it negatively impacted Humboldt penguin and other ground-burrowing penguin populations in the past guano harvesting is better managed today in most regions. 3. Overfishing.

Human competition for food sources can affect penguin populations.

Overfishing of anchovetta (a small fish), the primary food source of the Humboldt penguin, has contributed to penguin population declines.

Krill are commercially fished—mainly for human nutritional supplements and for aquaculture feed. Expansion of the krill fishery in the Southern Ocean can reduce krill populations and place nutritional stress upon penguins that specialize in krill such as Adélies and chinstraps. 4. Climate change.

Penguins require sea ice for nesting and feeding areas. Sea ice also provides shelter and food for many species that penguins prey on.

Emperor penguins require expansive areas of very thick sea ice as a stable, flattened place to hatch their eggs and care for their chicks from April to December.

Sea ice in these areas is usually locked into place by glaciers or grounded icebergs.

In Pt. Géologie, which is the northernmost emperor penguin rookery, warmer temperatures from climate change are producing thinner sea ice which breaks up too early and the chicks are swept into the sea before they can survive on their own. This colony is declining as a result from about 6,000 breeding pairs in the 1970s to about 3,000 breeding pairs in 1998.

Other emperor penguin colonies are also likely to decline as global warming continues.

Adélie penguins begin nesting in October (austral spring) on land in snow free areas with gently sloping beaches and with plenty of small rocks to use in constructing their nests. They also require loose pack ice or areas of open water within the pack ice that are relatively near the rookery as a place to find food while they care for their chicks.

Sea ice break up from climate change is opening up some new rookery areas for Adélie penguins and populations at these areas are increasing or stable.

Yet, in the more northern areas, such as the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, where pack ice forms for a shorter time each year due to warming, Adélie populations are declining and moving to more southern locations such as the Ross Sea.

Additionally, the warmer air in the Antarctic Peninsula holds more moisture and results in more frequent and stronger snowstorms which can make these areas unsuitable for Adélie nesting.

As the climate continues to warm, the more southern locations for Adélie rookeries will also become less suitable for nesting.

During the Antarctic summer, Adélie and chinstrap penguins use ice floes as a feeding platform: they search beneath ice for krill and fishes and rest on the ice between meals.

Since 1970, krill populations have declined by 80% in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica due to reductions in sea ice from climate change.

Sea ice provides a refuge for krill and also food in the form of algae that forms in the cracks and on the underside of the ice. The reduction of krill has very likely played a key role in the declines of many western Antarctic Peninsula and Scotia Sea populations of Adélie penguins and chinstrap penguins since both species rely on krill as a primary food source.

The overall breeding population of chinstrap penguins has declined by more than 50%, and these penguins are more at risk from this threat since, unlike Adélies, chinstraps do not have rookeries in other areas of the Antarctic.

Gentoo, king, macaroni, and southern rockhopper penguins are all species that do not rely on sea ice. As more areas become ice free in the Antarctic, these penguins should be able to extend their range south. Yet, warming oceans could shift prey availability or cause declines in prey such as krill and impact populations for these penguin species in http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/longevity-and-causes-of-death/ 3/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Longevity & Causes of Death the future.

Climate change can also negatively impact temperate penguin species.

Recent declines in Humboldt and Galapagos penguin populations have been linked to an increase in the amount and severity of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, which many scientists believe are linked to climate change.

Magellanic and other penguin species have to travel further to forage due to shifting prey populations, which has also been linked to ocean variability from climate change. These longer foraging trips make it more likely that fasting parents tending their nests will abandon their nests before their partners' return.

Climate change is also associated with both shifts in nesting seasons and increases in rainfall. For Magellanic penguins, a later nesting season leads to younger chicks than normal coping with the rainy season. Additionally, an increase in rain can collapse burrows and flood nests. Both factors can drastically decrease chick survival.

If the average global temperature rise is kept below 2°C (4°F), penguin colonies—particularly those in the Antarctic—could be sustained into the future. 5. The introduction of predators has had devastating effects in some areas. Rats, cats, dogs, pigs, and ferrets have been known to prey on chicks, eggs, and even adult penguins. Introduced herbivores, such as sheep and rabbits, cause serious deterioration of habitat. 6. Colonies of penguins have been affected by building activities and road construction.

One colony of king penguins at Iles Crozet (a small group of islands in the Indian Ocean) was completely destroyed. A nearby area was cleared, and fortunately, the penguins recolonized.

Currently, an important Humboldt penguin nesting site in northern Chile is threatened by construction of two coal-fired power plants. 7. Trash in the ocean can affect seabirds. Penguins have been known to ingest plastic that resembles their prey or become tangled in debris, causing injury and death. 8. Accidental catch in fishing gear.

A key threat to Humboldt penguin populations is accidental entanglement in artisanal fishing nets.

9. Oil pollution.

Oil fouls penguin feathers, reducing the waterproofing and insulating properties of their plumage. The birds become susceptible to hypothermia (chilling.)

Penguins also ingest the oil while trying to preen, which poisons them and causes internal organ damage.

In the 1980s and early 1990s, more than 40,000 Magellanic penguins were oiled each year in the Punta Tombo colony in Argentina. During this time, many oil tankers illegally dumped their ballast water, which was contaminated with petroleum. The number of oiled penguins has significantly decreased in the Punta Tombo colony with both reductions in the dumping of ballast water and a change in tanker shipping lanes. Large numbers of penguins that overwinter in the waters off northern Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil are still oiled from oil-contaminated ballast water.

On June 23, 2000 the ore carrier Treasure caused an oil spill near Robben and Dassen islands off South Africa. The International Fund for Animal Welfare's (IFAW) International Oiled Wildlife Response Team, directed by the International Bird Rescue Research Center (IBRRC), was immediately mobilized to South Africa to help care for more than 20,000 oiled penguins, with 90% of these penguins successfully released following rehabilitation. Survival rates of oiled penguins that were cleaned, rehabilitated and returned to the wild were nearly the same as unoiled birds.

On Oct. 5, 2011 the container ship, the CV Rena, ran aground on Astrolabe Reef, in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand spilling several hundred tons of fuel into the surrounding waters. Although, about 2,000 seabirds died as a result of the spill, 383 little penguins and 37 other types of seabirds were rescued. Of the rescued, penguins, 95% were returned to the wild after being cleaned and cared for. Researchers involved in monitoring the little penguin colonies found a normal nesting rate for rescued, de-oiled, and returned penguins.

Members of SeaWorld’s Bird Departments have helped clean and care for oiled penguins in the Treasure and Rena oil spills and also other penguin rescue efforts. 10. Traces of contaminants including brominated flame retardants and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other pesticides (chlorinated hydrocarbons) have been found in the tissues of krill, penguins, and other types of Antarctic wildlife and ice algae. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/longevity-and-causes-of-death/ 4/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Longevity & Causes of Death

POPs and brominated flame retardants can be transported to the Antarctic via air and water currents and migratory animals.

These contaminants can accumulate in an animal's tissues and biomagnify as they travel up the food chain.

Scientists measuring DDT levels in Adélie penguins during the breeding season found that DDT concentrations remained relatively the same in some colonies even though DDT pesticide use been banned in the Northern Hemisphere and has dramatically decreased in the Southern Hemisphere since 1980. A potential source for the persistence of DDT in Antarctic marine food webs is glacial meltwater.

Accumulation of brominated flame retardants and POPs in the tissues of animals can lead to reproductive problems, a decrease in immune response, skin conditions and even cancer. A study on juvenile Magellanic penguins found a positive correlation between heptachlorobiphenyl (a type of POP) levels and cardiovascular failure. 11. The popularity of "ecotourism" is increasing with cruise ships frequenting antarctic waters. Enthusiastic sightseers must be careful not to interfere with normal penguin activity by staying back and keeping noise levels down.

Ecotourism is bringing more people into the penguins' habitat to observe them. However, effort must be made to not interfere with normal penguin activity.

El Niño

1. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a natural phenomenon that involves a change in wind and ocean current patterns, which warms surface temperatures and reduces the upwelling of nutrient-rich water. A decrease in nutrients affects plankton, krill, and small fishes, which comprise the food supply for marine animals. The penguin species most affected are the Humboldt and Galápagos penguins.

The 1982-1983 ENSO caused a 65% depletion of the Humboldt population off the coast of Peru. The population partially recovered, but once again plummeted during the 1997-1998 El Niño event.

Up to 77% of the Galápagos penguin population was wiped out by the 1982-1983 ENSO, leaving only 463 total birds. A slow recovery began in 1985. However, a further decline of 66% of the population occurred during the 1997-1998 ENSO. The population appears to be once again in a recovery phase.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Conservation & Research

Scientific Classification Penguin Conservation & Research Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Legal Protection For Penguins Diet & Eating Habits 1. Currently all 18 species of penguins are legally protected from hunting and egg collecting.

Reproduction 2. The Antarctic Treaty was signed by 12 nations in 1959 and reauthorized in 1991 to protect Antarctica and preserve its living resources. The Treaty makes it illegal to harm, or in any way interfere with, a Hatching & Care of penguin or its eggs. Every penguin specimen collected with a permit must be approved by and reported Young to the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR). Longevity & Causes of 3. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an Death international treaty developed in 1973 to regulate trade in certain wildlife species, including penguins. CITES categorizes various animals according to their current status. → Conservation & Research Appendix I lists species that are endangered, or in danger of extinction. The Humboldt penguin is listed on CITES Appendix I. Appendix Appendix II lists species that are threatened, or likely to become endangered. The African penguin Books for Young is listed on CITES Appendix II. Readers

Bibliography

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

4. IUCN/The World Conservation Union.

IUCN/The World Conservation Union is a worldwide conservation organization. This organization links together government agencies, non-government agencies, and independent states to encourage a worldwide approach to conservation. See the species appendix for listings for each species.

5. The Endangered Species Act, 1973 (ESA).

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) is administered by the U.S. Departments of Interior and Commerce. It seeks to stop the extinction of wild animals and plants in the United States, other nations, and at sea.

Under the ESA, the African and Galàpagos penguins are listed as "endangered" (species faces a very high risk of extinction.) The erect crested, fiordland crested, Humboldt, yellow-eyed, and little (white-flippered form) penguins are listed as "threatened" (species is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future.)

Wildlife Refuges

1. Protection of habitat began in the early 1900s. In 1919 the Tasmanian government stopped all http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/conservation-and-research/ 1/3 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Conservation & Research exploitation of penguins on Macquarie Island and proclaimed the island a sanctuary. In 1997, Macquerie island was designated as a World Heritage site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2. In 1924 the French declared the Kerguelen Islands off Antarctica a National Park.

Conservation Management Plan

1. The Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) is an assessment tool to evaluate the status of various animals and to determine conservation priorities. CAMP was developed by the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)/The World Conservation Union.

In September of 2004, the Fifth International Penguin Conference was held in Ushuaia, Argentina. Following the conference, a two-day collaborative workshop sponsored by SeaWorld and the New England Aquarium reviewed the 2004 IUCN penguin Red List fact sheets, updated the 1998 CAMP for all species of penguins, and looked at penguin conservation priorities and future initiatives.

Zoological Parks

1. Most people do not have the opportunity to observe penguins in the wild. The unique ability to observe and learn directly from live animals increases public awareness and appreciation of wildlife. 2. The Species Survival Plan (SSP) is a captive propagation and management program to preserve, in zoos and aquariums, selected species - most of which are threatened or endangered in the wild. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) Wildlife Conservation Management Committee (WCMC) has designated an SSP for Humboldt penguins. SeaWorld San Diego is a "Participating Institution".

Aviculturists help care for emperor penguin chicks. In 1980 SeaWorld San Diego became the only park to successfully breed emperor penguins outside the Antarctic.

3. Currently the four SeaWorld parks maintain emperor, king, Adélie, gentoo, chinstrap, rockhopper, macaroni, Magellanic, and Humboldt penguin species. Each of these species has successfully reproduced within the parks' comprehensive breeding program.

Dr. Ann Bowles, Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute scientist, recorded the vocalizations of emperor penguins. Dr. Bowles determined each bird had an individually distinctive call.

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/conservation-and-research/ 2/3 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Conservation & Research SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund

1. The non-profit SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund works on behalf of wildlife and habitats worldwide. The goal of the Fund is to encourage sustainable solutions by supporting critical conservation initiatives worldwide. Visit SWBG-ConservationFund.org to learn more about projects involving penguins and other animals around the world. 2. The Fund has sponsored a number of projects on marine and terrestrial animals including penguins.

The SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund provided the Falkland Islands Penguin Census with a grant for the 2005 to 2006 season. The project conducted a full census of all king, gentoo, macaroni, and southern rockhopper penguins. This involved counting every colony where these species breed, soon after egg-laying finished. The census was part of an on-going long-term monitoring program and was associated with an annual seabirds monitoring program. Results were compared to previous censuses of 2000 and 1995 to establish the trends and fluctuations in population size of the four species of penguins. On this basis, a review of current penguin management and prioritization of conservation work will be undertaken.

The Fund also provided an Animal Crisis Grant in 2010 to assist the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCOOB) in hand-raising hundreds of abandoned African penguin chicks that would not have survived on their own. On several penguin colonies, chicks that hatch late in the season are frequently abandoned by their parents when the weather grows warmer and as food supplies diminish and adults begin their annual molt. Chick bolstering is an important part of safe guarding the future viability of this endangered species. Research shows that hand rearing African penguins has a significantly positive effect on conserving the wild population, with hand reared and returned chicks showing higher survivorship to breeding age and higher productivity than birds that fledge naturally in the wild. The Fund and SeaWorld's work with SANCOOB has included both Animal Crisis Grants and regular grants along with experienced staff to support emergencies.

A 2011 grant from the Fund helped researchers with the University of Washington's Penguin Project track 15 Magellanic penguins using geolocator tags to gather data on the penguins' movements during winter.

How Can You Help Penguins

1. If you eat seafood, choose seafood that is certified by the Marine Stewardship Council or Aquaculture Certification Council. Eating sustainable seafood will reduce the amount of accidental deaths due to entanglement in fishing gear and ensure that penguins and other ocean animals can find enough food to eat. 2. You can help penguins impacted by climate change by reducing your energy usage at home, work, or school. Here are a few suggestions on how to reduce your footprint so they can continue to make theirs:

Turn off the lights, TV, DVD player, gaming system, stereo, and computer when not in use. Saving energy will also save you money.

Walk, ride your bike, carpool, and drive less.

Unplug appliances and turn off power strips when not in use.

Do a free home energy audit.

Plant a tree. Plants, especially trees, act as sinks and soak up CO2.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Appendix

Scientific Classification Penguin Appendix Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Emperor Penguin Diet & Eating Habits

Reproduction GENUS SPECIES Aptenodytes forsteri Hatching & Care of Young SIZE 112 cm (44 in.), 27-41 kg (60-90 lb.)

Longevity & Causes of DISTRIBUTION circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack ice Death PREY fishes, squids

Conservation & PREDATORS leopard seals, killer whales, skuas Research POPULATION estimated at about 238,000 breeding pairs → Appendix IUCN classifies this species as "near threatened"; populations, especially in the northern part of the emperor Books for Young CURRENT STATUS penguin's range, are expected to decline within the next few Readers generations as a result of projected climate change.

Bibliography

The distribution of emperor penguins is circumpolar on the Antarctic continent within limits of the pack ice.

King Penguin http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 1/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews

GENUS SPECIES Aptenodytes patagonicus

SIZE 94 cm (37 in.), 13.5-16 kg (30-35 lb.)

subantarctic islands and peninsulas, usually forage in DISTRIBUTION ice-free waters

PREY squids, fishes

PREDATORS leopard seals, skuas, giant petrels, gulls, sheathbills

POPULATION about 2,000,000 adults

IUCN classifies this species as "least concern"; CURRENT STATUS population stable or increasing

King penguins are found on subantarctic islands and peninsulas. They usually forage for food in ice-free waters.

Adélie Penguin

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 2/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews

GENUS SPECIES Pygoscelis adeliae

SIZE 46-61 cm (18-24 in.), 3.5-4.5 kg (8-10 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack ice

PREY primarily krill, also squids and fishes

PREDATORS leopard seals, skuas, sheathbills

POPULATION estimated at about 2,370,000 breeding pairs

IUCN classifies this species as "near threatened"; Adélie penguin populations are expected to decline, particularly in CURRENT STATUS the northern part of their range, within the next few generations as a result of sea ice loss from climate change.

Adélie penguin distribution is circumpolar on the Antarctic continent within the limits of the pack ice.

Gentoo Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Pygoscelis papua

SIZE 61-76 cm (24-30 in.), 5.5-6.5 kg (12-14 lb.)

circumpolar in subantarctic and antarctic waters; avoids DISTRIBUTION pack ice and continental coasts (except near the Antarctic Peninsula)

PREY krill, squid

PREDATORS skuas, leopard seals, antarctic fur seals, New Zealand sea lions, Southern sea lions

POPULATION estimated 387,000 breeding pairs

IUCN classifies this species as "near threatened"; some http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 3/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews CURRENT STATUS populations have experienced declines, overall population may be increasing.

Gentoo penguin distribution is circumpolar in subantarctic and Antarctic waters. They avoid pack ice and most continental coasts with the exception of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Chinstrap Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Pygoscelis antarcticus

SIZE 46-61 cm (18-24 in.), 4 kg (9 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION antarctic and South American islands

PREY krill, small fishes

PREDATORS leopard seals, skuas, sheathbills

POPULATION about 8,000,000 individuals

CURRENT STATUS IUCN classifies this species as "least concern"

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 4/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews

Chinstrap penguins are found on Antarctic and South American islands.

Rockhopper Penguin

GENUS SPECIES southern rockhopper, Eudyptes chrysocome northern rockhopper, Eudyptes moseleyi

SIZE 41-46 cm (16-18 in.), 2.5 kg (5-6 lb.)

subantarctic islands (southern rockhopper on the Falkland Islands and islands offshore of Chile and Argentina; DISTRIBUTION northern rockhopper in the South Atlantic Ocean on Gough Island and islands in Tristan da Cunha and also in the southern Indian Ocean on Amsterdam and St. Paul Islands.

PREY fishes, squids, krill

New Zealand fur seals, New Zealand sea lions, Southern sea PREDATORS lions, skuas, gulls

POPULATION about 1,230,000 southern rockhopper pairs and about 265,000 northern rockhopper pairs

IUCN classifies the northern rockhopper as "endangered" CURRENT STATUS and the southern rockhopper as "vulnerable"; populations of both species are declining.

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 5/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews

Rockhopper penguins are found on subantarctic islands.

Royal Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptes schlegeli

SIZE 66-76 cm (26-30 in.), 5.5 kg (12 lb.)

Macquarie, Bishop, and Clerk Islands in the Southern DISTRIBUTION Ocean

PREY krill, squids

PREDATORS New Zealand fur seals, skuas, giant petrels

about 850,000 breeding pairs; most of population on POPULATION Macquarie Island

IUCN classifies this species as "vulnerable"; populations CURRENT STATUS recovering from earlier exploitation

http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/appendix/ 6/16 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Appendix: Penguin Species Overviews

Royal penguins are found on the Macquarie, Bishop and Clerk Islands in the Southern Ocean as well as around the New Zealand coast.

Erect-Crested Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptes sclateri

SIZE 64 cm (25 in.), 2.5-3.5 kg (6-8 lb.)

breed only on the Antipodes and Bounty Islands of New DISTRIBUTION Zealand

PREY probably squids, fishes

possibly New Zealand sea lions, New Zealand fur seals, PREDATORS Australian sea lions

POPULATION estimated 130,000 to 140,000 mature individuals

IUCN classifies this species as "endangered"; listed as CURRENT STATUS "threatened" on the ESA; populations are declining

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Erect-crested penguins are found along the coasts of Australia, New Zealand and on the Antipodes and Bounty Islands.

Macaroni Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptes chrysolophus

SIZE 51-61 cm (20-24 in.), 4.5 kg (10 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION subantarctic islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans

IDENTIFICATION A crest of orange plumes extends backwards

PREY squids and krill

PREDATORS leopard seals, antarctic fur seals, skuas, sheathbills

POPULATION about 9 million breeding pairs

IUCN classifies this species as "vulnerable"; listed as CURRENT STATUS "threatened" on the ESA; declining; nesting sites small, widespread and vulnerable to predation and human interference.

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Macaroni penguins are found on subantarctic islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans.

Fiordland Crested Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptes pachyrhynchus

SIZE 61 cm (24 in.), 2.5-3 kg (6-7 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION subantarctic islands and New Zealand

PREY small fishes, crustaceans, cuttlefish

New Zealand fur seals, stoats (weasel relatives), weka (rail PREDATORS bird)

POPULATION estimated 5,000 to 6,000 adults

IUCN classifies this species as "vulnerable"; listed as "threatened" on the ESA; declining; nesting sites small, CURRENT STATUS widespread and vulnerable to predation and human interference.

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Fiordland crested penguins are found on subantarctic islands and New Zealand.

Snares Island Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptes robustus

SIZE 64 cm (25 in.), 2.5-3 kg (6-7 lb.)

south of New Zealand in the Snares Islands (all within 3 DISTRIBUTION sq. km)

PREY krill, squids, fishes

PREDATORS New Zealand sea lions

POPULATION about 62,000 mature penguins

CURRENT STATUS IUCN classifies this species as "vulnerable"; all individuals are in less than five locations.

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Snares Island penguins are found south of New Zealand in the Snares Islands which encompasses just 3 square kilometers.

Yellow-Eyed Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Megadyptes antipodes

SIZE 76 cm (30 in.), 6 kg (3 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION southeast New Zealand

PREY fishes and squids

New Zealand sea lions, domestic predators (prey on PREDATORS chicks)

POPULATION estimated 5,930 to 6,970 mature individuals

IUCN classifies this species as "endangered"; listed a CURRENT STATUS "threatened" on the ESA; small breeding range and population numbers fluctuating and declining

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Yellow-eyed penguins are found in southeast New Zealand.

Magellanic Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Spheniscus magellanicus

SIZE 61-71 cm (24-28 in.), 5 kg (11 lb.)

Falkland Islands and along the coasts of Chile and DISTRIBUTION Argentina

PREY small fishes, cuttlefish

PREDATORS Southern sea lions, leopard seals, Patagonian foxes

POPULATION about 1,300,000 breeding pairs

IUCN classifies this species as "near threatened"; population has declined at Punta Tombo and in the CURRENT STATUS Falkland Islands. Threats include overfishing by commercial fisheries and oil.

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Magellanic penguins are found on the Falkland Islands and along the coasts of Chile and Argentina.

African Penguin (formerly Black-Footed Penguin)

GENUS SPECIES Spheniscus demersus

SIZE 61-71 cm (24-28 in.), 3 kg (7 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION South African waters

mostly anchovies, sardines but also other fishes, squids, PREY and crustaceans

South African fur seals, Southern sea lions, octopus, sharks, PREDATORS sacred ibis, gulls

POPULATION about 52,000 adults

IUCN and the ESA classify this species as "endangered"; CITES lists in Appendix II (threatened); population CURRENT STATUS decreasing; mainly threatened by overfishing by commercial fisheries and shifts in prey populations.

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African penguins are found in South African waters.

Little Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Eudyptula minor

SIZE 41–45 cm (16–19 in.), about 1 kg (2 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION southern Australia and New Zealand

PREY small fishes

PREDATORS Australian sea lions, fur seals, dogs, cats, stoats, ferrets

POPULATION less than 1 million individuals in Australia

ESA lists the white-flippered species/subspecies CURRENT STATUS as "threatened"; listed as "least concerned" by the IUCN

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Fairy penguins are found along the coasts of southern Australia and New Zealand.

Humboldt Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Spheniscus humboldti

SIZE 56-66 cm (22-26 in.), 4 kg (9 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION islands off western South America, and along the coasts of Peru and Chile

PREY anchovetta (small fish)

PREDATORS possibly sharks and Southern sea lions

POPULATION approximately 2,500 to 9,999 mature individuals

IUCN classifies this species as "vulnerable"; listed as "threatened" on the ESA; CITES lists in Appendix I CURRENT STATUS (endangered); significant threats include overfishing of prey species, drowning in gill nets, illegal capture for consumption, use as bait, illegal capture for the pet trade, and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.

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Humboldt penguins are found on islands off of western South America and along the coasts of Peru and Chile.

Galápagos Penguin

GENUS SPECIES Spheniscus mendiculus

SIZE 53 cm (21 in.), about 2.5 kg (5-6 lb.)

DISTRIBUTION Galápagos Islands

PREY small fishes

PREDATORS sharks, eared barn owls, Galápagos hawk, feral cats, dogs

POPULATION about 1,200 mature individuals

IUCN classifies this species as "endangered "; listed as endangered on the US Endangered Species List; increased CURRENT STATUS human exploitation of the island contributes to habitat degradation and disturbances. This species has also suffered population declines as a result of ENSO events.

Galápagos penguins are found on the Galápagos Islands and off the coast of Ecuador on the equator.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Books for Young Readers

Scientific Classification Penguin Books for Young Readers Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior Book List Diet & Eating Habits Adrian, Mary. Wildlife in the Antarctic. New York: J. Messner, 1978. Reproduction Benson, Patrick. Little Penguin. New York: Philomel Books, 1991. Hatching & Care of Young Bianchi, John. Penelope Penguin: The Incredibly Good Baby. Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books, 1992 (fiction). Longevity & Causes of Death Bonners, Susan. A Penguin Year. New York: Delacorte Press, 1981 (fiction).

Conservation & Coats, Judith. Penguins. Flightless Birds of the Southern Hemisphere. San Diego. SeaWorld Education Research Department Publication. 2001.

Appendix

→ Books for Young Readers

Bibliography

Cowcher, Helen. Antarctica. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1990.

Davis, Lloyd Spencer. Penguin. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1994.

Deguine, Jean-Claude. Emperor Penguin. Battleboro, Vermont: Stephen Greene Press, 1974.

Eberle, Irmengarde. Penguins Live Here. New York: Doubleday, 1975.

Fatio, Louise. Hector Penguin. New York: McGraw, 1973 (fiction).

Fatio, Louise. Hector and Christina. New York: McGraw, 1977 (fiction).

Hogan, Paula Z. The Penguin. Milwaukee: Raintree Children's Books, 1979.

Johnson, Sylvia A. Penguins. Minneapolis: Lerner, 1981.

Lester, Helen. Tacky the Penguin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988 (fiction).

McMillan, Bruce. Puffins Climb, Penguins Rhyme. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993.

Peladino, Catherine. Pomona: The Birth of a Penguin. New York: Franklin Watts, 1991.

Penney, Richard L. Penguins are Coming. New York: Harper and Row, 1969.

Pettingill, Eleanor Rice. Penguin Summer. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1960. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/books-for-young-readers/ 1/2 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Books for Young Readers

Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. Another Penguin Summer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975.

Santsing, David. The World of Penguins. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Gareth Stephens Publishing, 1988.

Scarf, Maggie. Antarctica: Exploring the Frozen Continent. New York: Random House, Inc., 1970.

Schlein, Miriam. Antarctica: The Great White Continent. New York: Hastings House Publishers, Inc., 1980.

Seventy, Vincent. Animals in the Wild - Penguin. New York: Scholastic, 1983.

Somme, Lauritz and Sybille Kalas. The Penguin Family. Saxonville, Massachusetts: Picture Book Studio, 1988.

Tenaza, Richard. Penguins. New York: Franklin Watts, 1980.

Thompson, David Hiram. The Penguin: Its Life Cycle. New York: Sterling, 1974.

Todd, Frank S. The Sea World Book of Penguins. San Diego: Sea World Press, 1981.

Wexo, John B. Zoobooks: Penguins. San Diego: Wildlife Education, Ltd., 1993.

Whitlock, Ralph. Penguins. New York: Raintree Children's Books, Two Continents Publishing Group, Ltd., 1977. Williams, Geoffrey T. The Last Frontier: Antarctica. Los Angeles: Price Stern Sloan, Inc. 1992.

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PARKS KIDS SHOP ANIMALS CARE LANGUAGE

Bibliography

Scientific Classification Penguin Bibliography Habitat & Distribution

Physical Characteristics

Senses

Adaptations

Communication

Behavior References Diet & Eating Habits Ainley, D.G. The Adélie Penguin: Bellwether of Climate Change. New York, Columbia University Press. 2002. Reproduction Ainley, D.G., LeResche, R.E. and W.J.L. Sladen. Breeding Biology of the Adélie Penguin. Berkeley. University Hatching & Care of of California Press. 1983. Young Ancel, A., Kooyman, G.L., Ponganis, P.J., Gendner, J.P., Lignon, J., Mestre, X., Huin, N., Thorson, P.H., Robisson, P. and Y. Le Maho. Foraging behavior of emperor penguins as a resource detector in winter and Longevity & Causes of summer. Nature. 360:336 – 339. 1992. Death Araya, B. and F. Todd. Status of the Humboldt penguin in Chile following the 1982–83 El Niño. Spheniscid Penguin Newsletter. 1(1): 8–10. 1988. Conservation & Research Angelier, F., Barbraud, C., Lormee, H., Prud'homme, F., & Chastel, O. Kidnapping of chicks in emperor penguins: a hormonal by-product? The Journal of Experimental Biology, 1413-1420. 2006. Appendix Australian Antarctic Division, Emperor Penguins: antarctica.gov.au/about- antarctica/wildlife/animals/penguins/emperor-penguins Books for Young Baldassin, P., Taniquchi, S., Gallo, H., Silva, R.H. and R.C. Montone. Persistent organic pollutants in juvenile Readers Magellan penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) found on the northern shore of the state of São Paulo and southern shore of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 64(11): 2502–2506. 2012. → Bibliography Ballard, G. and David G. Ainley. Short Note killer whales harassment of Adélie penguins at Ross Island. Antarctic Science 17 (#), 385-386. 2005. Ballard, G., Toniolo, V., Ainley, D.G., Parkinson, C.L., Arrigo, K.R. and P.N. Arrigo. Responding to climate change: Adélie penguins confront astronomical and ocean boundaries. Ecology. 91(7): 2056–2069. 2010. Banks, J.C., Mitchell, A.D., Waas, J.R. and A.M. Paterson. An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence within the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) complex. Notornis. 49: 29–38. 2002. Barham, P.J., Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M. and T. M. Leshoro. Differences in breeding success between African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) that were and were not oiled in the MVTreasure oil-spill in 2000. Emu. 107(1): 7–13. 2007. BBC Earth News. 2009. news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8033000/8033782.stm

Bengtson, J.L., Croll, D.A. and M.E. Goebel. Diving behavior of chinstrap penguins at Seal Island. Antarctic Science. 5(1): 9–15. 1993. Bingham, Mike. Food Transfer between Gentoo penguin Pygoscelis papua siblings. Marine Ornithology 25:70. 1997. BirdLife International: birdlife.org

Bohec, LC, Gauthier-Clerc M, Maho LY. The Adaptive Significance of Crèches in the King Penguin. Animal Behaviour. 70:527-538. 2005. Bowmaker, J.K. and G.R Martin. Visual pigments and oil droplets in the penguin, Spheniscus humbolti. Journal of Comparative Physiology, A. 156: 71–77. 1985. Brooke, M. and T. Birkhead, Eds. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Ornithology. New York, Cambridge University Press. 1991. California Academy of Sciences: calacademy.org/medialibrary/blogs/thelongview/category/dispatches-from- the-voyage/antarctica/cape-royds Campbell, B. and E. Lack., Eds. Dictionary of Birds. Vermillion, South Dakota, Buteo Books. 1985.

Carroll, R.L. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. New York, W.H. Freeman and Company. 1988. http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/bibliography/ 1/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Bibliography

Cherel, Y., Tremblay, Y., Guinard, E., and Georges, J. Y. Diving behavior of northern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome moseleyi) during the brooding period at Amsterdam Island (Southern Indian Ocean). Marine Biology 134:375-385. 1999. Cherel, Y., Stahl, J.C. and Y. Le Mayo. Ecology and physiology of fasting in king penguin chicks. Auk. 104:254–262. 1987. Cherel, Y., Robin, J.P., Walch, O., Karmann, H., Netchitailo, P. and Y. Le Maho. Fasting in king penguin. I. Hormonal and metabolic changes during breeding. American Journal of Physiology. 254: 170–177. 1988. Chiuchio,A.L., Dickhut, R.M., Cochran, M.A. and H.W. Ducklow. Persistent organic pollutants at the base of the Antarctic marine food web. Environmental Science & Technology. 38(13): 3551–3557. 2004. Coffin, H.R., Watters, J.V. and J.M. Mateo. Odor-based recognition of familiar and related conspecifics: A first test conducted on captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). PLoS ONE. 6(9): e25002.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025002. 2011. Collar, N.J. and P. Andrew. Birds to Watch, ICBP Technical Publication No. 8. Snithsonian Press. 1988.

Cool Antarctica: Emperor penguins: coolantarctica.com/Antarctica fact file/wildlife/Penguin_royalty_King_and_Emperor_penguins.htm Cooper, A. and D. Penny. Mass survival of birds across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Molecular evidence. Science. 275: 1109-1113. 1997. Copeland, Karen E. Concentrated small-group foraging behavior in Gentoo penguins Pygoscelis papua. Marine Ornithology 36: 193-194. 2008. Croxall, J.P. and R.W. Davis. Metabolic rate and foraging behavior of Pygoscelis and Eudyptes penguins at sea. In Penguin Biology: L.S. Davis and J.T. Darby, Eds. San Diego, Academic Press. Pp. 207–228. 1990. Culik, B.M., Putz, K., Wilson, R.P., Allers, D., Lage, J., Bost, C.A., and Y. Le Maho. Diving energetics in king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus). Journal of Experimental Biology. 199: 973-983. 1996. Cunningham, G.B., Strauss, V. and P.G. Ryan. African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) can detect dimethyl sulfide, a prey-related odour. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 2001: 3123–3127. 2008. Davis, L. Timing of nest relief and its effect on breeding success in Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae). Condor. 84: 178–183. 1982. Davis, L.S. and J.T. Darby, Eds. Penguin Biology. San Diego. Academic Press, Inc. 1990.

Davis, L.S. and E. A.H. Speirs. Mate choice in penguins. In Penguin Biology. Davis, L.S. and J.T. Darby, Eds. San Diego. Academic Press, Inc. 1990. del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A., and J. Sardatal, eds. Handbook of Birds of the World, Vol. 1. Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona, Lynx Editions. 1992. Despin, B. Oiseau Revue fr. Orn. 42:69–83. 1972. In Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Dresp, B. Jouventin, P. Langley, K. Ultraviolet reflecting photonic microstructures in the King Penguin beak. Biology Letters. Volume 1, Number 3, 310-313. 2005. Ellis, S. The penguin conservation management plan (CAMP): Introduction and Overview. Penguin Conservation. June:13–17. 1993. Falla, R.A. Rep. B.A.N.Z.Antarc. Res. Exp. Ser. B., II. 1937. In Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Froget, G., Butler, P.J., Woakes, A.J., Fahlman, A., Kuntz, G., Le Maho, Y. and Y. Handrich. Heart rate and energetic of free-ranging king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 207: 3917–3926. 2004. Frost, P.G.H., Siegfried, W.R., A.E. Burger. Behavioural adaptations of the jackass penguin, Spheniscus demersus to a hot arid environment. Journal of Zoology. 179(2):165–187. 1976. Geisz, H.N., Dickhut, R.M., Cochran, M.H., Fraser, W.R. and H.W. Ducklow. Melting Glaciers: A Probable Source of DDT to the Antarctic Marine Ecosystem. Environmental Science & Technology. 42:3958–3962. 2008. GPS (Global Penguin Society): globalpenguinsociety.org/about-us.html

Groscolas, R. Metabolic adaptations to fasting in emperor and king penguins. In Penguin Biology, Marchant and J.T Darby, Eds. San Diego, Academic press. 269–296. 1990. Harrington, H.J. Nortornis. 9:33–39. 1960. In Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Harrison, G.L., McLenachan, P.A., Phillips, M.J., Slack, K.E., Cooper, A., and D. Penny. Four new avian mitochondrial genomes help get to basic evolutionary questions in the late Cretaceous. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21(6): 974-983. 2004. Howland, H.C. and J.G. Sivak. Penguin vision in air and water. Vision Research. 24(12): 1905-1909. 1984.

International Bird Rescue: bird-rescue.org

International Penguin Conservation Work Group (IPCWG): penguins.cl/about-penguins.htm

Johnstone, G.W. ANARE Scient. Rep. Ser. B, 1. 123:1–62. In Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and http://seaworld.org/en/animal-info/animal-infobooks/penguin/bibliography/ 2/5 1/10/2015 PENGUINS - Bibliography Antarctic Birds. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Jouventin, P., Barbraud, C. and Rubin, M. Adoption in the emperor penguin. Animal Behaviour. 50,1023 -1029. 1995. Kooyman, G.L., Drabek, C.M., Elsner, R., and W.B. Campbell. Diving behavior of the emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri. Auk. 88:775-795. 1971. Kooyman, G.L., Cherel, Y., Le Maho, Y., Croxall, J.P., Thorson, P.H., Ridoux, V. and C.A. Kooyman. Diving behavior and energetics during foraging cycles in king penguins. Ecological Monographs. 62(1): 143-163. 1992a. Kooyman, G.L., Ponganis, P.J., Castellini, M.A., Ponganis, E.P., Ponganis, K.V.,Thorson, P.H., Eckert, S.A., and Y. LeMaho. Heart rates and swim speeds of emperor penguins diving under sea ice. Journal of Experimental Biology. 165(1): 161-180. 1992b. Kooyman, G.L. Breeding habits of emperor penguins in the western Ross Sea. Antarctic Science. 5(2): 143- 148. 1993. Kooyman, G.L. and T.G. Kooyman. Diving behavior of emperor penguins nurturing chicks at Coulman Island, Antarctica. The Condor. 97:536-549. 1995. Ksepka, D.T., Bertelli, S. and N.P. Giannini. The phylogeny of the living and fossil Sphenisciformes (penguins). Cladistics. 22 (5): 412–441. 2006. Lamey, T. Hatch asynchrony and brood reduction in penguins. In Penguin Biology: L.S. Davis and J.T. Darby, Eds. San Diego, Academic Press. Pp. 207–228. 1990. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand, and Antarctic Birds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Martin, G.R. Eye structure and foraging in king penguins Aptenodyte patagonicus. Ibis. 141 (3): 444–450. 2008. Martin, G.R. and S.R. Young. The eye of the Humboldt penguin, Speniscus humbolti: Visual fields and schematic optics. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B. 223: 197–222. 1984. McGonigal, David. Antarctica. Secrets of the Southern Continent. Australia: Firefly Books, Ltd. 2008.

Meir, J.U., Stockard, T.K., Williams, C.L., Ponganis, K.V. and P.J. Ponganis. Heart rate regulations and extreme bradycardia in diving emperor penguins. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 211: 1169–1179. 2008. Mills, Kyra L. Multispecies Seabird Feeding Flocks in the Galápagos Islands. The Condor Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 277-285. 1998. Müller-Scwarze, D. The Behavior of Penguins: Adapted to Ice and Tropics. Albany, New York. State University of New York Press. 1984. Murphy, R.C. Auk. 64:454–455. 1947. In Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Marchant, S. and P.J. Higgins, Eds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990. Nel, D.C. and P.A. Whittington, Eds. Rehabilitation of Oiled African Penguins: A Conservation Success Story. Cape town: BirdLife South Africa and the Avian Demography Unit. University of Cape Town. 2003. Penguin Project: mesh.biology.washington.edu/penguinProject

Penguin Net: penguin.net.nz/species/yep

Penguin Science: penguinscience.com

Penguin TAG. Spheniscus Penguin Husbandry Manual, First Ed. EAZA. 1993

Penguin TAG (Penguin Taxon Advisory Group): zoopenguins.org

Penguin World: penguinworld.com

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Yellow-Eyed Penguin Trust: yellow-eyedpenguin.org.nz/penguins

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