The Role of Women in Javanese Literature: a Case Study of Serat Gandakusuma SJ 194 NR 324 and SW 5 SB 47

The role of women in Javanese literature: A case study of Serat Gandakusuma SJ 194 NR 324 and SW 5 SB 47

W.P. Sudarmadji & A. Prasetiyo Department of Area Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: This study is a modified version of a dissertation. It analyzes the text entitled Serat Gandakusuma. Here, the focus of the analysis is the study of two texts of Gandaku- suma produced in two different scriptoria. The first one, which was edited philologically, is a text produced in the keraton (palace) peripheral. The second one is a text that was produced in the coastal peripheral. We will analyze how the two texts that come from different peripherals present the roles of female characters with regard to the type of culture in each peripheral based on how each text formulates the story, which strongly involved the main female character, especially to support the main male character for achieving the true dignity.

1 INTRODUCTION

The development of literature in Java can be traced back at least to the 9th century A.D. Records indicate that, during that era, an ancient Javanese literary work entitled Kakawin Râmâyana was composed in 820–832 Çaka (Poerbatjaraka 1952, p. 2–5). Since then, the world of Javanese literature has continued to undergo development and innovation. The growth of Javanese literature cannot be separated from multifarious and intertwining social and cultural factors and phenomena. One of the most important factors in the development of the Javanese literature was the religious transition from Hinduism–Buddhism to Islam among the Javanese people. While some original features of the old faiths were retained, the arrival of Islam had inevitably introduced new features to the Javanese literature, especially when the new faith had taken deep root among the local populace. The influence of Islam on the Javanese literature is clearly demonstrated in a literary work entitled Menak. The Menak tale is actually a Javanese adaptation of Hikayat Amir Hamzah (the Epic of Amir Hamzah) in Malay tradition (Poerbatjaraka 1952, p. 109). Pigeaud argued that the Menak tale has been known in Java since at least the 17th century. Since that time, it has continued to develop. The development was such that it eventually lost much of its original trace and became an independent and self-contained Javanese–Islamic romance (Pigeaud 1967, pp. 212–213). In addition to the popularity of Hikayat Amir Hamzah, which led to its adaptation in the form of the Menak cycle, there was a great interest among the Javanese people in romances originated from the Arabic–Persian tradition. Those romances were then adapted by Java- nese poets or authors based on Malay manuscripts. With their strong Islamic tinge, these Javanese romances remained very popular in the northern coast of Java until the 19th century. They are Joharmanik, Jaka Nastapa, Prantaka, Jatikusuma, and Jatiswara (Pigeaud 1967, pp. 219–222).

2 SERAT GANDAKUSUMA

The text analyzed in this study is Serat Gandakusuma. This work displays the characteristic of a Javanese romance with an Islamic nuance. The data consist of two versions of the text, which, taken together, form a complete corpus for this research. The first text is kept in the

381 Manuscript Room of Universitas Indonesia Library with the code number SJ 194 NR 324, while the second text is kept in Sonobudoyo Museum Library Yogyakarta with the code number SW 5 SB 47. Our full corpus of Serat Gandakusuma consists of 10 manuscripts, which are kept sep- arately in Sonobudoyo Museum Library Yogyakarta and Universitas Indonesia Library’s Manuscript Room. Text selection was performed based on the descriptions of Serat Gan- dakusuma manuscripts produced by us. However, some parts of the texts cannot be examined because they do not fulfill two criteria: completeness and availability in either of the two places where the manuscripts are stored—the former was the most important inclusion cri- terion in this work. Some sections of the texts have even been completely lost, so they had to be excluded from our analysis. From the metrical system of tembang macapat (Javanese lyric poem), in which both versions of the text were composed, and the writing style of a number of words and the prolog of the text, it is clear that the two versions of Serat Gandakusuma are the products of two different scriptoria. The first one is the coastal scriptorium, which is marked by its characteristic diction, distinctive language style, and more metrical flexibility. The second one is the palace scriptorium, which is indicated by more metrical rigidity, better spelling consistency, more profuse and poetical word choice, and formal language. The general plotline of these two texts is about the journey of Raden Gandakusuma, the crown prince of Bandaralim. One night, he was abducted and then killed by his half-brother, Prabu Jaka or Menak Tekiyur. His corpse was then flung into the sea. The presence of the corpse in the ocean generated a chaos in the nature. This condition forced the goddess Sar- irasa, the ruler of Sirrullah in the depth of the ocean, to rise to the surface to see what had triggered the turmoil. Upon seeing a light emanating from Gandakusuma’s corpse, the goddess Sarirasa approached it and revived it using her magical power. She then led Gandaku- suma into a long and perilous journey, which concluded with a great reunion of the royal family of Bandaralim and Gandakusuma’s coronation as a king, accompanied by Sarirasa as his queen. From the formulation of the tale, Serat Gandakusuma can be categorized as Javanese Sufism literature, which typically features a protagonist who has to undergo a long journey to achieve salvation. It is interesting to examine Serat Gandakusuma because it emphasizes the role of a female character as both the medium and the goal of the protagonist, Raden Gandakusuma, in completing his spiritual journey. Indeed, women often play a prominent role in the Javanese Suf- ism literature. The main focus of this work is how the two texts, which were produced in two different scriptoria, reflect and position the role of its main female character, the goddess Sarirasa. We first show the difference between the dissertation as the original source of this work and this study. This study discusses the role of women as represented by the main female character shown through the formulation of plots, parts of dialogs, and the authors’ point of view in both texts. It does not include in-depth discussion on the Sufi concept, which is sym- bolized through the elements in the structure of the story and the comparison between them.

3 AN OVERVIEW OF SERAT GANDAKUSUMA

This section outlines the general plotline of the epic as produced by two different scriptoria and discusses several important constituting elements of the epic. The version of Serat Gan- dakusuma with the code number SJ 194 NR 324 will be referred to in this study as “text A”. This set of manuscripts contains 38 pupuh or chapters written in tembang macapat style. The version of Serat Gandakusuma with the code number SW 5 SB 47 will be referred to in this study as “text B”, and it consists of 41 pupuh or chapters. Both texts share the same general plotline, which consists of: – The introduction of the characters Both texts begin with elaborating Gandakusuma’s identity as the son of the king of Bandaralim.

382 – The abduction of Gandakusuma Both texts share this part of the tale in which Gandakusuma was abducted from the palace of Bandaralim. The abductor was one of Gandakusuma’s own brothers, Prabu Jaka, also known as Menak Tekiyur, assisted by another character named Darba Moha (in text A) or Dremba Moha (in text B). – The assassination of Gandakusuma After being abducted, Gandakusuma was assassinated by the same character, Prabu Jaka or Menak Tekiyur. His body was then thrown into the sea. – The appearance of the goddess Sarirasa In both texts, Gandakusuma’s death is described to trigger an extraordinary turbulence in the surrounding nature. This great turmoil was immediately felt by a supernatural being named the goddess Sarirasa, who lived at the bottom of the ocean, in a cave named Sir- rulah. She then left her abode to search for the cause of the turmoil. – The resurrection of Gandakusuma The goddess Sarirasa then found and revived Gandakusuma. Gandakusuma fell in love with her, but she did not accept his love directly. – The deliverance of the goddess Sariraga and the marriage of Gandakusuma and the goddess Sariraga After a long conversation with the goddess Sarirasa, Gandakusuma agreed to help her release the goddess Sariraga who was captured by a king named Prabu Dasaboja or Prabu Dasabahu. After she was released, Gandakusuma was then married to the Goddess and then crowned as a king in Kakbahbudiman or Gabahbudiman, which was the home of the goddess Sariraga. – The seizure of the magical heirlooms of Baginda Amir In general, these heirlooms would assist Gandakusuma in defeating his enemies, the heathen kings. – The marriage of Gandakusuma and the goddess Sarirasa After seizing the entire set of magical heirlooms, Gandakusuma married the goddess Sar- irasa. However, the goddess gave Gandakusuma one condition for marrying her: he had to be able to answer a riddle that she would give. The riddle was answered correctly, and the marriage took place. – The defeat of Prabu Jaka At the end of the tale, Prabu Jaka or Menak Tekiyur was finally defeated. Bandaralim was reclaimed, and Gandakusuma rightfully assumed his throne.

4 THE MAIN FEMALE CHARACTER AND HER ROLE IN GANDAKUSUMA’S TALE

It can be deduced from the above plotline overview that even though Gandakusuma serves as the protagonist, there are many parts of the story which demonstrate that he is very much dependent on a female character named the goddess Sarirasa. First, Sarirasa revived Gan- dakusuma. Second, Sarirasa assisted Gandakusuma in releasing the goddess Sariraga from Prabu Dasaboja’s grip. Third, she planned the strategy for waking Kanekaputra from his meditation. She also introduced the idea to recapture the magical heirlooms of Baginda Amir. Finally, during the final battle, she helped Gandakusuma to defeat his enemies. Both texts evidently suggest that the goddess Sarirasa played a very important role in the development of the story. Nevertheless, due to the fact that the texts were produced in two different scriptoria, they are expected to display some differences in terms of character formulation and description of the goddess Sarirasa. Below are some of the differences.

4.1 The identity of the character Both texts have a different way of describing who the goddess Sarirasa was. This is shown in the two passages below, translated from the original text. 383 Text A: (Chapter 5: 2) It was said that the princess was very difficult to describe. According to some people, she was actually the son of the Prophet Kilir. There were also some who said that she was a daughter who became the heart of water. Nobody knew except the Holiest One, who knew everything and possessed the characteristics of sama’ and bashar. Text B: (Chapter VII: 1–4) It was told that she was the one who sat on the throne, the adorable gem of the ocean, famous all over the world, and she was truly the woman whose beauty was incomparable. She was neither a genie nor a heavenly angel. She did not belong to the human race, nor did she become a descendant of the giants. She was in actuality the heart of water (the ocean). She was the noblest essence (heart/mind). She was revered like angels. She united her soul at the depth of the sea, reigning over the ocean. Anything she wished, it could come true. She was highly skillful in both hard and fine tasks, and she could also adjust herself to both the young and the elderly. The blessing of a noble life remained with her. A life which was full of the purest perceptions. Such perception was conceived in the real picture of Sang Sukma Maha Luhur (the Most Glorious Soul) in the disguise of the Princess Sarirasa, the essence of the earth. The beautiful light glowed faintly. The rainbow shone brightly, and the stars moved about. Sparkling when (one) beheld (it). Light fell like a full moon. Her origin was the same as that of the One who was the highest in the universe.

4.2 The resurrection of Gandakusuma Both texts also give different accounts regarding how Gandakusuma was revived. Text B is somewhat more dramatic because it describes the process in more detail. Text A gives a briefer description. Text A: (Chapter 5: 13 and 15) “God is never mistaken about the people who perform good things by giving help. They will certainly receive kindness. If they do evil, they will be punished. That is His sure promise. If this is so, it is better for me to give him) help. O, handsome body, I ask you to retreat to the seashore.” The goddess Sarirasa immediately took the medicine that was put in a container in the form of a small bottle made of diamond, which she put in her hair bun. She quickly opened the bottle and raised it over the wounds on the body three times. Text B: (Chapter IX: 4, 12–13) The princess took the holy water. She then dropped some of the water over Raden Gandaku- suma’s head. All his wounds were healed in an instant. Like a flower, the princess then lifted up her heart and said solemnly, “Gandakusuma, live, by His permission!” The prince did not wake. The princess said again, “O, Tambangraga, wake! Wake, by the word of mine; wake, by the word of the Highest One.” Still, the crown prince did not recover. The princess said again, “Live, o, pilgrim. Live, by my word, by my will.”

4.3 The riddle of the goddess Sarirasa As mentioned in the plotline overview above, the goddess Sarirasa gave Gandakusuma a riddle, which he had to answer correctly as the condition for marrying her. Surprisingly, both texts feature two different riddles, as shown by these two passages below. Text A: (Chapter 14: 24 and 26) “During the full moon, the weaving loom is broken in one thrust. After the departure of the eastern star, where can it be found?” The King’s heart was suddenly filled with joy upon 384 hearing the princess’s words. The king stood up immediately. He quickly approached the princess. “Later, when we are in our bed, (o) my sweet one, I shall tell you.” Then, His Majesty the King summoned the celebrant, preacher, and muezzin, no one was left uncalled. Prabu Anom at that time submitted to his celebrant. Thus, he was married to the goddess Sarirasa. Text B: (Chapter XXV: 31–33) “... answer this riddle correctly: is the Sirullah cave at the bottom of the serene ocean?” The king answered solemnly, “It is called the vast ocean, it is crystal clear and brightly brilliant. It is the palace of the grandest perception. Meanwhile, you take abode in the truest perception, the spirit of the life of the whole universe, it is the manifestation of the essential spirit, the king above all who live, just like Gandakusuma as the place where perceptions gather. The Sirullah cave is the place of seclusion of the Living One, who lives without being vivi- fied. There live you, I, and Sariraga. Therefore, all three must never separate. Humans and God. The earliest perception is marked by a true human being. Below is an outline of the appearances and roles of the main characters in the epic. 1. The death of Gandakusuma In both texts, the goddess Sarirasa made her first appearance after Gandakusuma was mur- dered. In order to prepare for the goddess’ first appearance, both texts create a leading cause in the form of fierce natural phenomena triggered by Gandakusuma’s death. 2. The resurrection of Gandakusuma The goddess Sarirasa felt that the ocean was in a terrible turmoil, so she rose to the sea surface to find out the source of the trouble. After witnessing that the turbulence was being caused by Gandakusuma’s corpse, Sarirasa moved to revive the prince. At this point, there are several subplots, which are relevant to our discussion, as follows: – Both texts agree that the goddess Sarirasa had known the cause of Gandakusuma’s death and felt pity on him. – Text B recounts that, before the goddess Sarirasa revived Gandakusuma, she had been involved in a battle with a Chinese princess named the goddess Karsinah. The battle between those two female characters ended with Sarirasa’s victory. – The media that Sarirasa used to revive Gandakusuma was medicine, which was carried in a small diamond bottle and put in her hair bun (text A) or holy water (in text B). The water was poured on the injured parts of Gandakusuma’s body (text A), while the medicine was slowly poured over his head (text B). – After pouring the water/medicine, two different things happened. In text A, Gandakusuma immediately recovered and lived again. Meanwhile, in text B, Gandakusuma did not wake until the goddess Sarirasa said, “Live, o, pilgrim. Live, by my word, by my will”. 3. The deliverance of the goddess Sariraga In the next episode, the goddess Sarirasa gave a plan and directions to Gandakusuma on how to live his second life. The first mission was to release the goddess Sariraga who was captured by Prabu Dasaboja in the land of Kandhabuwana. The most important subplots are as follows. – The goddess Sarirasa tested the faithfulness of Gandakusuma. – The goddess Sarirasa gave Gandakusuma a condition for being united with her. – Prabu Dasaboja was conquered and converted into Islam. This involved securing Prabu Dasaboja’s commitment to being the foremost and most loyal ally of Gandakusuma. In addition, this deliverance mission became very important because it would serve as a means by which Gandakusuma could assume the throne of Gabahbudiman, the home of the goddess Sariraga. 4. Supporting Gandakusuma’s claim as a king In this episode, the goddess Sarirasa assisted Gandakusuma in completing all the requirements that he would need to support his claim as a king. Those requirements are as follows: 385 – a skillful and powerful chancellor or prime minister; – sacred heirlooms, which could augment the king’s dignity; – a queen (the goddess Sarirasa herself). 5. Adept commander in the battlefield Finally, the goddess Sarirasa proved to be a very adept commander, as well as a brilliant war- rior with supernatural powers. She was able to defeat the heathen kings. Of all heathen kings who had been killed in the battle, some were revived by her to be converted into Islam and also had to swear loyalty to Gandakusuma as his new allies.

5 THE GODDESS SARIRASA IN THE “COASTAL” TEXT AND THE “PALACE” TEXT

It seems that, based on the above textual comparison, the goddess Sarirasa played a signifi- cant role in enabling Gandakusuma to achieve his ultimate triumph at the end of the tale. Even though both texts exhibit a similar general plotline, there are still several differences in the way both texts depict the goddess’ role. In text A, which was composed in the coastal scriptorium, the author and/or scribe tended to exercise more carefulness in describing the identity of the goddess Sarirasa. It seems that the author described only what is necessary and put more emphasis on the goddess’ physical appearance. On the contrary, text B, which was composed in the palace scriptorium, tends to be more dramatic in nature and explicitly represents the goddess Sarirasa as “the real picture of Sang Sukma Maha Luhur (the Most Glorious Soul)”. With regard to the resurrection of Gandaku- suma, text B clearly vests more power and strength in the goddess Sarirasa, which enabled her to revive Gandakusuma by the mere power of her words. This cannot be found in text A. In text A, Gandakusuma was revived by means of medicine in a container, which the goddess placed in her hair bun. In spite of some minor differences, both texts also give the same general account of the division of role and power between Gandakusuma and the goddess Sarirasa after Gandaku- suma became both the king and the husband of the goddess Sarirasa. As a general rule, ever since Gandakusuma was able to solve Sarirasa’s riddle, Sarirasa’s dominance over Gandaku- suma’s life and future plans, both as an individual and as a leader, had been gradually fad- ing. Sarirasa no longer served as Gandakusuma’s strategy and decision maker. However, she continued to be his companion as his queen, as well as his confidante, by employing all of her magical powers, especially her healing and resurrection powers.

6 CONCLUSION

Literature is an inseparable part of a society that has produced it. The two versions of Gan- dakusuma tales are the products of a society that flourished in a particular place and time. These spatial and temporal factors have inevitably exerted a great influence on how female characters, together with their roles and functions, are represented in the tale. Text A, as the product of the coastal scriptorium, tends to show a higher degree of explicit- ness as well as carefulness when it comes to the depiction of the goddess Sarirasa as a female character. On the contrary, text B, as the product of the palace scriptorium, tends to further explore Sarirasa’s character in terms of physical and non-physical qualities. In text A, Sar- irasa is depicted as a woman with supernatural powers, but a constant effort is also made to avoid giving an impression that Gandakusuma, as the main character, was inferior to her. In text B, Sarirasa is depicted as having all kindness and strengths. Sarirasa’s identity is estab- lished from the very beginning of her appearance and maintained until the end of the tale. Our analysis of both texts demonstrates that the ancient Javanese culture, as reflected in Serat Gandakusuma, gives an equal treatment to both male and female in terms of room and power. Nevertheless, in spite of her powers, Sarirasa did not exert her influence by force. She

386 is still depicted as an ideal Javanese woman; she might wield a great power and influence, but she also had to display all the qualities required of a typical Javanese woman: gentleness, patience, and calmness.

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