AMERICAS LEADING MAGAZINE

$2.75 JULY-AUGUST 1981 ORT ISSN 0001-9836

Why Can't Africa Feed Itself?

Also in this issue:

Senator Kassebaum on Africa Press reform f in Zimbabwe Recovery or relapse in Zaire? Reagan and Namibia FOR YOUR AFRICAfs REFERENCE SHELF FROM HOWARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

N Walter Rodney EXPERIENCE

Introduction by- Vincgnt Harding Hdalixlby LorraineA Williams,

HOW EUROPE AFRICA AND THE AFRICA AND AFRICANS AS SEEN UNDERDEVELOPED AFRICA AFRO-AMERICAN EXPERIENCE: BY CLASSICAL WRITERS: By Walter Rodney with an Introduction Light Essays The William Leo Hansberrv African by Vincent Harding Edited by Lorraine A. Williams History Noteoook, Volume II A penetrating study of the complex inter- This rare volume of lectures by eight Edited by Joseph E. Harris relationship of Europe and Africa from eminent scholars provides penetrating These timely essays, taken from the fifteenth century to the mid-twentieth documentation of the historical relation- Hansberry's private papers, reflect his century. ship between American and African interpretations of comments by classical 0-88258-096-5 SG.95 paper blacks John Hope Franklin, Benjamin writers about Africa and Africans. A. Ouarles, Ravford W. Logan, John W 0-88258-037-x $10.95 ClOttl PILLARS IN ETHIOPIAN HISTORY: Blassmgame, Otev M. Scruggs, Clifton F. 0-88258-089-2 $ 6.95 paper The William Leo Hansberry African Brown, William Leo Hansberry and Okon History Notebook, Volume I Edet Uya offer a volume that is rich A STUDY ON THE Edited by Joseph E. Harris in diversity. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE Four narrative histories focus upon the 0-882 58-030-2 $8.95 ClOtfl BRITISH WEST INDIES towering figures and epochs of Ethiopia's 0-88258-087-6 $6.95 paper TO THE END vital heritage the Queen of Sheba, the OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY origin and development of Ethiopian THE POLITICS OF CHANCE: By Elsa V Govela Christianity, medieval international rela- A Jamaican Testament A comprehensive study on the printed tions, and Ezana the Great By Michael Manley histories of what was once known as the 0-88258-009-4 $8.95 ClOttl A powerful declaration regarding growth, British West Indies 0-88258-090-6 $6.95 paper development, and change in Jamaica 0-88258-04S-5 $8.95 paper 0-88258-049-3 $9.95ClOttl 0-88258-060-4 $4.50 paper HOWARD UNIVERSITY PRESS illk Howard University Press/2900 Van Ness Street, N.W./Washmgton, D C 20008, (202) 686-6696 JULY-AUGUST 1981 AMERICAS VOLUME 26. NUMBER 4 LEADING MAGAZINE ON AFRICA

A Publication of the African-American Institute

The African-American Institute Agriculture Progress or Catastrophe in Africa? Chairman By David Norman George N Lindsay President Agriculture Donald B. Easum Rural Reform in Zimbabwe Publisher By Frank C. Baliance Ronald E Spnngwater Editor Agriculture Anthony J Hughes The Role of External Aid 15 Assistant Editor By Lane E. Holdcroft Margaret A. Novicki Agriculture Document Washington Correspondent Nigeria's Green Revolution 19 Richard Deutsch By Alhaji Ibrahim Gusau Editorial Secretary Ellen E. Brown African Update 23 Editor: Joseph Margolis Circulation, Subscriptions, Associate Editor: Margaret A. Novicki Advertising. Management, and Production Services by Editorial Assistant: Michael C. Beaubien Transaction Periodicals Con- sortium: Interview Senator Nancy Landon Kassebaum, Art Department Chairman, Senate Subcommittee on Africa 35 Richard J. Levins Judith Martin-Waterman IN THIS ISSUE Production Editors Agriculture Alex Fundock III The focus of many of our articles is upon George P. Bassett the challenges facing African agriculture. New Hope for the Sudan 37 All the writers also consider the implica- By Andrew Lycett tions of the topic for the United States. Africa Report, a nonpactisan David Norman has some criticism of policies followed in many countries and Zaire 1981 magazine of African afiairs. is 40 published bimonthly in July-Au- provides some suggestions for reform Recovery or Relapse? gust. September-October. No- while Lane E. Holdcroft adds some further By F.S.B. Kazadi vember-December, January- suggestions, with special reference to the February. March-April, and May- role of the Agency for International Devel- June, and is scheduled to appear opment. In Washington al the beginning of each date pe- Building an Africa Policy 44 The particular circumstances of farming riod at 833 United Nations Plaza. By Richard Deutsch New York. NY 10017 Editorial in Zimbabwe, the Sudan, and Nigeria are correspondence and letters to the examined in three further articles. Publisher should be sent lo this The new chairman of the Senate Sub- Interview address Correspondence re- committee on Africa is Nancy Landon garding subscriplions. distribu- Kassebaum. We publish her replies to Af- Dr. Nathan Shamuyarira, tion, advertising, and other busi- rica Report's questions on a wide range of Zimbabwe Minister of Information and ness matters should be sent to African issues. Tourism 48 Transaction Periodicals Consor- tium, Dept. AR. Rutgers Univer- The role of Nigeria in African-American Interviewed by Michael C Beaubien sity, New Brunswick, New Jersey relations is underlined in an article by Afri- 08903 Telephone (201) 932- can-American Institute president and 2280 Subscription rates — Indi former U.S. ambassador in Lagos, Donald Document viduals: US A. $15, Canada $18. B. Easum. Nigerian-American Relations 52 air rate overseas $29. Institu- We also carry an interview with the Zim- By Donald B. Easum tions: U.S.A. $18, Canada $21, babwean information minister on the air rale overseas $32 Second- takeover of newspapers in his country and class postage paid al New York. other press matters. The "In Washington" Books N.Y. and al additional mailing ol- 54 ftces. Telephones. Publisher column examines the Reagan administra- (212] 949-5717. Editor (212) tion's developing Africa policy, with spe- 949-5731- cial emphasis on the role of the assistant Photo Credit: secretary of state for African affairs, The cover photo ot rice harvesting in Senegal was taken by i The African-American Chester Crocker. Ray Witlm for World Bank. Institute. Inc . 1961 AGRICULTURE

Progress or Castastrophe in Africa?

BY DAVID NORMAN

frica is a continent of harsh con- ities. Also, in West Africa tradition it- A trasts. Great diversity exists not self shows us that "the farmers and the only among its people but also in its ranchers should be friends." For gen- climate and soils. Neither of the latter is erations the Fulani cattle herders and particularly favorable to agricul- crop cultivators have benefited from a ture. Climatically, over half of tropical complementary relationship with the Africa has too little rainfall while at the animals producing manure for the har- other extreme some areas are dense rain vested fields in exchange for crop re- forests. Apart from a few regions such sidues that provided sustenance for the as the Kenya Highlands, soils are of cattle. poor quality, and in much of Africa rate Certain changes, however, have among the world's poorest. upset the traditional symbiotic relation- The potential productivity of much ships between farmers and the natural of the land — given the present state of environment — especially land — knowledge — is limited. Agricultural creating an agricultural crisis. productivity is further determined by the actions of man. Traditionally Afri- CHANGES IN AFRICAN can farming systems were well adapted AGRICULTURE to the low population densities that formerly prevailed. Self-sufficiency Improvements in communications characterized two vital aspects of tradi- and infrastructure such as roads, rail- Nigerian millet crop: More funds must ways, health, and educational facilities tional farming systems: first, providing be allocated to agriculture compared for family food needs and, second, per- with other sectors are crucially linked to economic devel- petuation of the farming system year opment. Such changes together with rapidly increasing population growth rates, averaging about 1.6 percent per after year without dependency on annum between 1970 and 1979, are commercial inputs of any type. Com- however having profound and disturb- David Norman, who is British, is professor mon traditional practices included ing effects on the farming systems of agricultural economics at Kansas State shifting cultivation involving farming practiced by farmers in Africa. University. His current involvement in farming systems research in various land for short periods with regeneration During colonial days the production countries stems from 11 years experience of natural soil fertility through long- of export: cash crops such as coffee, of working on small farmer problems as a term fallowing, and mixed cropping, rubber, cocoa, groundnuts, and cotton staff member of the Institute lor Agricul- tural Researcn at Ahmadu Bello Univer- which involved planting various crops was stimulated through newly con- sity, Nigeria. simultaneously on fields to counter ag- structed railways and roads. Post-inde- ricultural constraints such as limited pendence needs for foreign exchange growing seasons and poor soil qual- encouraged continuation of export cash

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1961 crop production. In tad, in 1974 ag- Improved communications and a riculture contributed an average of 57 high population density are important percent of the total value of exports in influencing the distribution of in- from 32 African countries. Such an come and welfare at the village level. emphasis, together with other ramifi- Studies have shown, for example in cations of improved communications, Sierra Leone, that in low-density, land has had profound effects on food pro- surplus areas income differences be- duction at the local level and on re- tween families are relatively small, and lationships within villages and the number of workers in the family is families. The traditional concept of the major factor accounting for these shared poverty at the village level, a differences. However, with higher community-based type of social secu- population densities, the amount of rity, is increasingly breaking down and land and its productivity are important being replaced by individualized pov- in accounting for the differences in erty. Also, the extended family system family incomes. The resulting trend has in the past been a cushion against towards increasingly unequal income individualized poverty, with married distributions at the level of the village:, sons continuing to live in the household obviously needs to be viewed with con- of the parents, and with many relatives cern, especially since breaking up of claiming a share in any family's wealth. community and family solidarity means Increasingly, married sons are estab- Angolan coffee: Export cash crops are that the traditional social security sys- lishing independent households, and often produced at the expense of tem is no longer so effective. The re- domestic food crops relatives' claims for shared wealth are lationship between production and the more frequently being rejected. Factors distribution of that production is im- encouraging these trends, and de- portant in assessing the linked problems of poverty and hunger. However, al- creasing Africa's food self-sufficiency. cash crop production at the expense of though this trend should be viewed with are many but certainly include the in- domestic food crop production. concern it is obvious that, at this stage troduction of cash crops, increases in Increasing population densities have in many parts of Africa, attention needs off-farm employment opportunities, another important influence, in that to be devoted to arresting the tendency migration of family members to work in they place progressively greater pres- for overall incomes to decline in den- mines, urban areas, etc., and improve- sure on farming systems that tradition- sely populated areas, rather than to ments in educational facilities. Al- ally were designed for abundant land. simply attacking the issue of income in- though there are other factors that may Perhaps more important than popula- equality. In poor countries little can be slow down the disintegration of close- tion density per se is the population done about decreasing the income in- knit agricultural communities and density in relation to the carrying ca- equalities without concurrently im- families, the trend is already such that pacity of the land. Because of the poor proving the overall per capita income the need for government intervention quality of much of the land on the con- level. during periods of acute food shortage is tinent, a crisis is being reached in that becoming increasingly crucial. the land-extensive traditional farming FOOD SHORTAGES Rapidly growing population den- practices are not being adapted suffi- sities are also having a profound effect ciently quickly to methods that are Apart from the oil-rich Near East, the on farming systems. Initially farmers more iand-intensive in nature. Fallow steepest decline in food self-sufficiency responded to governmental incentives periods in shifting cultivation are now during the last 20 years has occurred in to increase export cash crop production often not long enough to permit regen- Africa. The Food and Agriculture Or- through expanding the area cultivated. eration of soil productivity, while ma- ganization has estimated that for the However, in many areas rising popula- nure applications, where livestock and continent as a whole the food self-suffi- tion densities eventually placed a limit crops interact, are not sufficient to ciency index dropped from 104 in 1963 on this strategy. Consequently research offset the decreases in the area that is to about 95 in 1975. Estimates from a institutions throughout Africa concen- fallowed. As a result, in many areas recent study by the U.S. Department of trated on developing land-intensive im- such as the Sahel, it is apparent that Agriculture and the Agency for Inter- proved technologies for export cash soil productivity is being undermined national Development shows that there crops. Thus, a trend was started, which at the present time to provide survival will be by 1990 in sub-Saharan Africa, to some extent continues until today, in for current farming families. In the an import gap of 11.5 million metric which improved technologies and sup- long run such strategies could well re- tons (cereal equivalent) if 1975 real per port systems — that is, input distribu- sult in an irreversible decline of the capita incomes and producer price pat- tion systems, extension and institu- ecological base, which will eliminate terns continue. Bringing diets up to tional credit services, and product- the opportunity for future generations minimum caloric consumption levels of marketing programs — favored export to derive their living from agriculture. about 2,300 calories per person per day

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 would require about 12.4 million tons. productivity of food crops. Increases in WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE? If real per capita incomes increase, then production particularly by small far- the import gap will be larger. Unfortu- mers still continue to be primarily Alleviation of agricultural problems nately, however, real per capita in- achieved through increases in acreage. in Africa will require that critical deci- comes decreased between 1975 and Governments have become con- sions be made regarding the allocation 1979. Thus, continuation of the 1979 cerned about the food shortages and es- of funds to agriculture compared with income and price pattern levels would calating food import bills. Although other sectors, to export cash crops and reduce the import gap, but increase the food aid has on occasion helped stave livestock compared with food crops. unmet food needs. Because of consid- off disaster in the short run it has usu- and regarding their actual utilization erable regional disparities in incomes, ally done little to solve the long-term within the selected commodity groups. results from the study indicate that problem of chronic shortages. Con- Awareness is growing that greater em- unmet food needs are likely to be most sequently, several countries have tried phasis has to be placed on rural devel- severe in the Sahel. central Africa, and to increase food production dramati- opment. Countries as diverse as East Africa. cally through specific programs such as Cameroon, Guinea. Congo, Somalia, irrigation projects in the Sahel, state Sudan, Tanzania, and Malawi are al- Why then are the food shortages so farms in Mozambique and Guinea, and locating larger amounts of their devel- severe, especially when in 1977 more large commercial farms, such as in opment expenditures to agriculture. than 67 percent of the economically Zambia where less than one percent of Historically, allocations within ag- active population still derived a liveli- the farmers account for a very high per- riculture have heavily favored export hood from agriculture? Problems are centage of the production that is mar- cash crop production. A number of related to both demand and supply. keted. However, large-scale, highly World Bank studies on West African Urban dwellers, and the growing capitalized mechanized systems of countries have indicated that export numbers of migrants from rural areas, farming, although sometimes better cash crops appear to have been more often create problems on the demand geared to using technologies transfer- efficient in converting domestic re- side through preferring particular red from other regions, have often not sources into foreign exchange than food foods, such as wheat and rice. Ecologi- been very successful. In any case, such crops — such as millet, sorghum, rice, cal constraints confine the production production, which is predicated on and maize — in saving foreign ex- of these crops to fairly limited areas, cheap and readily available fossil change. This implies that it could be ra- and therefore the demand for them can energy, has usually come at a high cost tional for countries to export cash crops often only be satisfied through impor- in terms of imported equipment, and in and use the foreign exchange to import tation. Consequently, reduction of the benefiting a few people at the expense food. However, this comparative ad- import gap may mean shifting dietary of the vast majority of farmers who vantage that many countries appear to preferences to domestically produced have small farms. This is particularly possess in producing export cash crops products. For example, in Senegal at- regrettable since history has shown that has probably been artificially induced. tempts are being made to make the these same small farmers often did re- For example, the poor competitive traditional millet and sorghum food spond well to incentives for producing position ot food crops is due in part to a crops more attractive to the urban con- export cash crops, as in the case of lack of relevant improved technology sumer by processing them into cous- groundnuts in Nigeria. and support systems. Readjustment of cous and bread. the balance between export cash ag- Given the right conditions, the same riculture and production for local con- However, the supply side also con- response should be possible with food sumption is overdue, especially in an tributes greatly to the lack of food self- crops. Large farms will not by them- era when global food shortages are sufficiency. As indicated earlier, gov- selves be able to solve the problems of likely to increase. ernmental policies, research, and sup- continuing food shortages. The answer port programs have historically em- in the long run lies with the small The timing and coordination of pro- phasized export cash crop production, farmer. Hunger is determined by pov- duction, marketing, and trade policies, usually at the expense of food crop pro- erty because people who do not produce with the emphasis on serving small duction. Indeed, in spite of ample evi- do not consume. Studies in East Africa farmers, will be critically important in dence, showing that small as well as have shown that if the welfare of people any program to transform domestic large farmers are responsive to price in rural areas — in this case small far- food production. changes, governments in some coun- mers — is not improved, there will be Since small farmers in Africa have tries have tried to reduce producer an acceleration of rural-urban migra- usually proved to be responsive to prices for food in order to keep prices tion creating further problems in the prices, increases in food production in down for the potentially politically cities, more unemployment, and even the short term should be possible troublesome consumer. Thus, it is not greater hunger. In addition it is doubtful through combining a more attractive surprising that such producer disincen- that large-scale fanning would provide pricing policy with appropriate mar- tives, combined with a lack of other employment opportunities in sufficient keting — including, where necessary, support systems and relevant improved numbers and attractiveness to signifi- improvement in transportation systems technologies, have perpetuated low cantly alleviate this problem. — and storage programs. However,

6 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 Improved technologies for food crops should be tailored to the needs of the small farmer

there are two problems with this ap- to come from structural changes in the the main staple food crops of many Af- proach in the long run. First, attractive productivity of food crops, requiring a rican countries, namely millet, sor- support prices for food crops together number of interlocking programs. ghum, pulses, and root crops. There- with the necessary governmental stor- Two of the most important pre-con- fore, research urgently needs to be di- age facilities will involve substantial ditions for improving food crop pro- rected towards emphasizing improved commitments of scarce governmental ductivity are the distribution of land and technologies for food crops and espe- resources that have many alternative the development of relevant improved cially for tailoring them to the realities uses, thereby detracting from develop- technology. Fortunately, apart from a faced by the mass of small farmers, ment of the economy as a whole and the few countries, such as Ethiopia and such as fluctuating levels of water av- nonagricultural sector in particular. parts of Kenya and Zimbabwe, land te- ailability, seasonal labor bottlenecks, Second, there is a definite limit to the nure has not been a major issue in Af- and, sometimes, inadequate support degree to which food production can be rica especially where population densi- systems. To try to ensure a closer con- increased without improved technolo- ties are still relatively low. Much more gruence between the needs of farmers gies. A point will soon be reached critical at this stage is the lack of im- and experiment-station based research, where, because of competition for land proved food crop technology. Technol- an approach called farming systems re- and labor, greater production of one ogies transferred from elsewhere have search is being implemented in many commodity, for example a food crop, generally been suitable only for large African countries. This research ap- can come only at the expense of de- farms or for situations where climate, proach . which consists of four stages — creased production elsewhere, for ex- land, water supplies, and support sys- namely, descriptive/diagnostic, de- ample, an export cash crop. Because of tems are all favorable. Such conditions sign, testing, and extension — explic- the continuing need in many countries are rarely met in Africa. Green itly includes the farming family in the for foreign exchange earnings contrib- Revolution-type technologies, relying research process. The emphasis is on uted by export cash crops, long-term on these favorable conditions, do exist developing improvements in the cur- increases in food production will have for wheat, rice, and maize but not for rently practiced fanning systems, im-

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 provements based on the existing con- pean usage figures were I It) lbs. per in Africa. First, there is the need for straints and evaluated in terms that are capita and 447 lbs. per arable acre, substantial levels of funding to develop relevant to the customers, the farming while corresponding figures for Africa and implement improvements relevant families. Such an approach also permits were only 7 lbs. and 13 lbs., respec- to small farmers which promote devel- building on the strengths that already tively. The inadequacy of current fer- opment with equity. For example, most exist in current agricultural practices. tilizer levels as improved food crop countries are still not adequately fund- However, in concentrating research technologies are developed is further ing food crop research. In Nigeria prior programs on the existing problems of emphasized by the fact that at present to 1970, food crop research was not farmers, care must be taken to ensure most of it is applied on export cash specifically provided for, although in that the strategies developed do not crops. Recent emphasis in some areas the 1975-80 period 40 percent of the come at a long-run societal cost, for on integrated agricultural development planned federal allocations to agricul- example, in an irreversible decline in projects, with both export cash crops tural research was devoted to food crop the ecological base. Little is known and food crops, may provide a good research. Secondly, there are substan- about many tropical soils and how they starting point for the development and tial amounts of technical expertise in should be managed under more land coordination of support systems for U.S. public and private institutions that intensive farming practices. Work of both types. can be called upon lo help create re- this nature, some now being undertaken search programs, national policies, and in Nigeria and Senegal, is essential to WHAT ABOUT U.S. INVOLVEMENT? support programs that will eventually the long-run preservation of the fragile result in high levels of food crop pro- duction and productivity. Some of this environments that prevail in much of The recent Presidential Commission help can be given through international Africa. The challenge lies in designing on World Hunger has argued on moral, organizations such as the Consultative strategies that will bring about a con- economic self-interest, and security Group of International Agricultural Re- vergence between the short-run private grounds that the high-income countries search Institutes, the World Bank, and interests of current farmers and the need to give more help to low-income United Nations agencies. Finally, there long-run natural interests of increased countries such as are found in Africa. and sustained food production from a is a continuing need for higher educa- The question is what can the high- stable ecological base. tion training programs both in Africa income countries, including the United and the United States lo promote indi- Adoption of improved technologies States, do to help solve the problems of genous capacities lor policymaking, for food production will require the food shortages in Africa? The type of planning, administration, and for de- continued development of support sys- strategies suggested above require, on veloping relevant improved technolo- tems, not only on the marketing side but the part of donor agencies, a longer gies and support systems. The United also on the input side in areas such as term perspective than has been politi- States, along with other donor agen- extension, improved input distribution cally acceptable in the past. There are at cies, is providing support in these systems, and perhaps institutional least three specific areas in which the areas. For example, farming systems credit programs. The need for these is United States can make meaningful research projects, financed largely by exemplified by the case of inorganic contributions that in the long run should donor agencies, are being implemented fertilizer. In 1977-78, Western Euro- reap benefits in reducing food shortages or are being planned in at least 20 Afri- can countries. Helping African countries to feed themselves is a critical component in efforts to bring about their economic development. Are the countries and donor agencies doing too little too late? Will African agriculture during the next decade progress or result in catas- trophe? Substantial progress can be made if the appropriate foundations are laid now. However, there must be a realization on the part of countries in Africa that the gestation period in terms of results may be long. Greater and continuous support on the pail of coun- tries such as the United States is re- quired if Africans are not to seek short-run solutions that delay or exacerbate the long-run problem of Road building in Tanzania: Infrastructure is vital to economic development chronic food shortages and hunger. D

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 AGRICULTURE

Rural Reform in Zimbabwe

BY FRANK C. BALLANCE

he Nyafaru Farm Community lies resettlement, and rural development. vitalize the region by rationalizing eco- T al the end of a muddy, rulted road, Robert Mugabe hid at Nyafaru the night nomic development and improving re- perched on a hillside and overlooking a before fleeing ahead o\' the Rhodesian gional transportation and communica- deep valley and the distant blue moun- security forces into the sanctuary of tion systems. tains in Mozambique. It is a cluster of Mozambique. Both Mutasa and The Lancaster House negotiations unprepossessing buildings, including Mahache were imprisoned by the pre- that ended the war in Zimbabwe set an the old school assembly hall with a vious Rhodesian government. Nyafaru example for southern Africa with far- gaping hole in its roof. With modern, was closed when the border area was reaching implications. It was an ac- American-style farms on the outskirts declared a "no go" /one during the complishment few thought possible. It of Salisbury, what is the attraction of mid-1970s. But the idea endured, and created the conditions for peace and this remote farm? so did Nyafaru. The idea and this stability under a moderate, popularly Nyafaru was one of a handful of example have a powerful grip on the elected government in Zimbabwe, one communal farming experiments sup- minds of Zimbabwe's leaders. with credibility in Africa and the West, pressed by the government of Ian The outcome of Zimbabwe's ex- It provides an example for a future set- Smith, now reborn under the African periment in land resettlement and rural tlement in Namibia. Over lime. Zim- government of Robert Mugabe. One development is important for the babwe, if it remains peaceful and pros- previous chairman of Nyalaru's board United States. The arguments for Zim- perous, is proof to South Africans that of directors was Didymus Mutasa, now babwe's significance have been well accommodation with black nationalism speaker of the Zimbabwe Parliament rehearsed. Zimbabwe lies at the heart of is possible. He was followed by Moven Mahache. southern Africa. Crucial transportation Zimbabwe's diversified economy, the present deputy minister for lands. and communication lines from strategic location, multiracial charac- mineral-rich Zambia and Zaire pass ter, and influential leadership provide through Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe itself is important reasons for U.S. interest- But a rich and diverse source of minerals, it also is the case that the whole is more including gold. coal, chrome, asbestos. than the sum of the parts. Zimbabwe is Frank C. Ballance is senior associate, Carnegie Endowment for International nickel, iron, and copper. not just another poor African country, Peace. During the 60s he worked in sev- Zimbabwe's central location and lost in the American press and strug- eral countries of eastern Africa for a total dynamic economy make it a natural gling to maintain a precarious hold on of seven years Subsequently he served as economic assistant to former Senator growth pole in southern Africa, espe- economic and political survival. It is a Jacob Javits (R-N.Y.) and as staff director cially important as the countries in the test case, in a science without of the Foreign Assistance Subcommittee region attempt to reduce their economic laboratories, in transforming "radical" of the Senate Foreign Relations Commit- tee. He recently returned from a visit to dependence on South Africa. With the socialist rhetoric into meaningful eco- four African countries, including Zim- formation of the Southern Africa De- nomic progress and social stability babwe- He is currently working on a study \elopment Coordination Conference, using Western democratic institutions of Congress and the Third World, [he nine black-ruled countries of south- and African social norms. ern Africa have the opportunity to re- Zimbabwe's leaders constantly

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 9 stress that land was the key issue in the transport to cost black farmers 45f'/r of number of landless young men is in- independence struggle, and remains the price received for grain, creasing. TTLs became overcrowded the central economic issue for the new The previous white governments of labor reservoirs, incapable of support- government. Upon independence a Rhodesia reinforced the racial distinc- ing their populations without exporting year ago, Zimbabwe inherited a system tions through an array of laws and reg- adult male laborers. of land division that granted ownership ulations. The Mai/e Control Act of It is hardly surprising that the effects rights over half of the land to about 1934, various marketing regulations, are measurable in yields per acre or in- 6,000 white commercial farmers and and a \0% levy on African farmers dis- come differences. Estimates of TTL the remainder to the roughly four mil- criminated against African producers. corn yields are from 600 to 700 kilos lion rural Africans living in Tribal Trust The Master and Servants Act limited per acre, one-tenth of commercial farm Lands (TTLs) and African Purchase the rights of domestic and agricultural yields, and one-third of yields produced Areas. (The term "Tribal Trust Lands" workers. Extension and research ser- on African purchase farms. Further- is "repugnant to the present govern- vices catered to the white farmers; one more, TTL food production per capita ment," but is used in this paper to de- estimate is that the average recent gov- declined dramatically during the years scribe historical conditions and con- ernment expenditure on extension ser- following the 1965 Unilateral Declara- tinuing realities.) vices for a commercial farmer is $350. tion of Independence (UDI). Roger This gross inequity in land division, while the average for a TTL farmer is Riddell, a Zimbabwe economist, esti- legislated by the Land Apportionment about $12. The same inequities existed mates that TTLs produced an average Act of 1930 and the Land Tenure Act of in the provision of credit. In 1978 the of 352 pounds of corn per person in 1969, is the de facto reality of present- government provided $216 million to 1962. but only 231 pounds by 1977. day Zimbabwe, although these laws commercial farmers, but only $2.4 The intensification of the war in the were repealed just before indepen- million to black fanners. late 1970s made conditions in the TTLs even worse. The TTLs were recruiting grounds and places of refuge for Pat- riotic Front guerrillas, and were the targets for attack by the Rhodesian se- curity forces. Rural infrastructure was destroyed; the administrative and social structure broke down as well. Villagers were herded into protected villages re- miniscent of Vietnam. Veterinary and extension services were suspended; thousands o( dipping tanks were de- stroyed; and an estimated one million cattle were lost during the war. The 5,200 white commercial far- mers, down from the peak of 6,000, produce 90°f of marketed agricultural production. Zimbabwe achieved gen- eral self-sufficiency in food production during UDI. as farmers switched from export crops, such as tobacco, to food crops and cotton. Zimbabwe is nearly Trout breeding pools at Nyafaru Farm self-sufficient in wheat, and expects a bumper corn harvest of over 2 million Ions, with about 1.2 million tons avail- dence. Out of this system of land ap- The TTLs are overpopulated and able for reserves and exports. portion men t grew the pervasive overgrazed. TTLs are three times more The Zimbabwe government clearly black-white income differentials that densely populated than the white recognizes the importance of the com- enabled the Ack of the population who farming areas, despite the 1.5 million mercial farming sector and is well were white to receive 65££ of the in- African laborers and their families liv- aware of Africa's dismal record in per come. ing there. In I97H the government esti- capita food production. Prime Minister White-owned land is the better land mated that the TTLs were supporting Mugabe has emphasized his govern- in climate and soils, while 15c/c of the 2.5 times as many people as safe en- ment's determination to maintain and black land is in the two worst agro- vironmental limits permitted. improve on food self-sufficiency "so ecological /ones. White farms arc Shifting cultivation, the African re- that our political independence does not closer to road and rail links, and thus to sponse to soil exhaustion, is no longer become impaired by the scourge of collection depots. It is not unusual lor possible in the majority of TTLs. The starvation and food shortages." The

10 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 Cooking sadza for the school lunch at Nyafaru Farm

document prepared lor the Zimbabwe 1. Improved nutrition and health are ployed urban dwellers will be en- Conference on Reconstruction and De- linked closely to increased African couraged to renounce TTL land velopment (ZIMCORD), held at the production and rising rural incomes. claims to ease land pressures. end of March 1981, Mutes flatly: ""Land 2. Land resettlement on abandoned or Rising rural incomes offer perhaps in commercial areas that is being unutilized white farms is essential to the most dynamic market for local tanned productively will not be di- relieve the overcrowding and seri- manufacturers. As the white popu- verted from its present use and owner- ous environmental deterioration n\' lation declines and the artificially high UDI protective tariffs are re- ship." the TTLs. 3. Manufacturing and mining, though duced, local industry will need to Under these conditions of economic highly developed and diversified by reorient its production to meet new disparity, between white prosperity and African standards, cannot together demands for a different mix of black political power, no one in Zim- absorb the African labor force, goods and services. babwe would dispute the ZIMCORD which is increasing by 80,000 Small-scale rural industry can be document's assertion; "A satisfactory workers per year. developed in conjunction with ag- solution to the problem of fair distribu- 4. Zimbabwe has thus far avoided the ricultural growth. This is an espe- tion of land and rural development is rush to urbanization that has cially important source of job crea- the key to Zimbabwe's political and so- characterized many African coun- tion, as one estimate shows that the cial stability and to the future economic tries. Many of those who sought small-scale sector can generate one job for every $2,300 invested, while growth and development of the country refuge from the war in urban areas the comparable figure for the large- and even of the southern Africa subre- have returned home. Rural devel- opment is essential to slow migra- scale modern sector ranges from gion as a whole. It is central to the tion to the cities. $16,000 to $160,000 per job. country's policy of national reconcilia- 5. Zimbabwe is anxious to end the Af- The leadership of the Commercial tion." rican migratory labor .system that Farmers Union, the white semioffi- Land resettlement and rural devel- benefited white settlers, but sepa- cial farmers organization, is en- opment arc crucial to the solutions of a rated families for long periods and thusiastic in its support of land re- [lumber of interrelated economic prob- maintained TTL fanning practices settlement in easing tension over lems. at low levels of technology. Em- land, discouraging squatting, eon-

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 11 trolling disease, and reducing white elaborately documented, it largely suc- built around a core estate, is intended political vulnerability. ceeded in securing its target of $1.9 bil- lor use in large irrigation schemes and lion in donor pledges for a three-year has not been tried. The choice is be- Although there is unanimity in rec- period. The bulk of the funds. $1.2 bil- tween the first two models; the balance ognizing the central importance of land lion, is for land settlement and a rural and relationship bctwen the two is not resettlement, there is caution in pro- development project, detailed in Part II ye! clear. ceeding with implementation. A central of the document. The communal model has strong concern, according to the ZIMCORD With the shrinking o\ the white emotional appeal to some members of document, is "to ensure that the reset- community during the war. there is no the government. Guy Clutton-Brock. tlement program will not be a transfer lack of land available for resettlement. an English social worker, and Didymus or extension of the subsistence farming although a substantial portion of it may Mutasa fathered the communal fanning practices to new areas." be in the less desirable agro-ecological movement in the late 1950s. It was Christian in ideology, multiracial in character, nonviolent in approach, and dedicated to improving farming prac- tices among Africans. At about the time of UDI in 1965, Mutasa and Clutton-Brock collaborated to establish the Cold Comfort Harm So- ciety, a multiracial communal farm near Salisbury. It was a radical step in a conservative society, described by an African newspaper as a "Mecca for Africans who consider themselves the v ictims of injustice." In 1967. the Cold Comfort group of 12 Africans and two whites moved to a farm purchased from Lord Acton, where they stayed until 1970 when the Smith government banned the farm, arrested Mutasa. and deported Clutton-Brock. Some of the remaining members went to Nyafaru. with which Mutasa Children in the lunch line at Nyafaru Farm hail also been involved, until it too was closed in 1976. Those who had not been detained then retreated from the war zone to Boulders Farm near Salisbury, The Patriotic f-ronl and the British /ones. The government plans to acquire owned by John Deary, the chairman of government agreed during the Lancas- some two million hectares (about five the Catholic Commission on Peace and ter House negotiations that land trans- million acres) of abandoned or un- Justice, tint.' of the Smith government's fers from while to bkuA would be paid utilized commercial farming land over strongest critics. tor in cash or long-term bonds, for the next three years. A crash program ot' Widespread detention of politically which foreign exchange would be made distributing crop packs of seed, fer- aware Zimbabweans mereh insured the available. "It was a bargain." con- tilizer, pesticide, and simple tools ena- spread of the communal idea. Prison eludes one Zimbabwean observer. In bled refugees to return to their home proved the perfect classroom. Cold exchange lor the pledge of full compen- areas last year, but the much harder task Comfort and Nyafaru came alive after sation lor land used for resettlement, of land resettlement has barelv begun. independence, with newer efforts based the British government, joined by the Probably no more than 2,000 families on these examples. On a recent Sunday United States, agreed to assist Zim- had been settled as of March. morning Didymus Mutasa could be babwe in securing financial assistance There are three basic models for re- found at Cold Comfort, pruning the from the international donor commu- settlement: (1) individual arable allo- fruit trees. nitv Subsequently, the British gov- cations with communal grazing areas. Simba Youth Farm is another exam- ernment agreed to split the costs of the (2) communal living and cooperative ple of a communal farm. It is run by 55 initial land purchase with the Zim- farming, and (.!> individual arable allo- voting fonrer political detainees, men babwe government. The ZIMCORD cations with communal grazing in and women ranging in age from 15 to conference was the follow-through on conjunction with a core estate operated 35. They have spent the last few months this commitment. Well omani/ed and on a communal basis. The third model. planting crops and restoring an aban-

12 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 doned 1'arm provided bv the govern- will." Communal farms are thought of ZIMCORD budget will go for these ment. Their inexperience is evident, as demonstration projects, particularly items, which will also generate large hut their enthusiasm is engagingly suited to "young unmarried people and recurrent costs. captured by their charter: "We have displaced persons." Although most public attention has had [lie motivation to do our bit by es- The evidence to date is that potential focused on land settlement, it is only tablishing a place or places for carrying settlers want individual plot alloca- one — although the key — element in out commercial fanning and technical tions, but accept communal grazing be- the broader scheme of reducing popu- training in dressmaking, carpentry . and cause there are no realistic alternatives. lation pressures in the TTLs and in- building for the reconstruction of our Under this system, farmers share dif- creasing their productivity. Other ele- country of Zimbabwe both socially and ficult tasks at peak times, but the inputs ments include employment creation in economically." belong to the individual farmer and the small rural industry, ending TTL land Their wrecked farmhouse shows the return is his. The government accepted ties for city dwellers, and modern sec- ravages of war. The roof is a patchwork the near unanimous request by settlers tor employment creation. The govern- of scavanged metal sheets; the windows for individual plot allocations in a re- ment intends to implement an inte- are covered with plastic scraps; the settlement scheme at Soti Source, but grated rural development strategy, plumbing and wiring were looted. the existing infrastructure on the larger combining infrastructure and services, Their kitchen is an open shed with a farms may actually favor cooperative in the TTLs where the pressure on re- central log fire. Their com crop is evi- farming. sources is greatest. A less intensive de- dence that they can grow corn, but it Of the several possible constraints lo velopment program is planned for the will be difficult lo sustain their initial land resettlement, money to pay for the remaining TTLs. enthusiasm. land is among the least important. Of In effect, a rural revolution is pro- Down the road some two miles is the $1.2 billion capital costs of the jected, clothed in banker's language. It Camp Haven, a project run by Danish three-year rural development program is an exceptionally ambitious program, volunteers to provide a home and live- laid out in the ZIMCORD document. requiring large inputs of capital, man- lihood lor 2.500 refugee children, only about $160 million was earmarked power training, effective government main of them orphans, who had sought lor land purchase. Most of that is in administration, and widespread politi- refuge in Mozambique during the war. hand. The remainder was for various cal mobilization. On a recent Saturday, the minister of types of infrastructure, services, anil At the ZIMCORD Conference in education and culture. Mr. D/ingai rural facilities. Nor are foreign donors, March, the United Stales, in the person Nutunduka. joined a thousand volun- other than the British, being asked to of Agency for International Develop- teers to build four new classrooms for pay for actual land purchase. ment administrator Peter McPherson. the Camp Haven School. "Education The second constraint is more seri- pledged $75 million in economic as- with production" is the minister's de- ous: lack of expertise and trained man- sistance for fiscal year 1MK2. U.S. eco- scription of such efforts to recast edu- power. At the same time as a great ex- nomic assistance to Zimbabwe since cation in a self-reliant mold. In camps pansion of extension and other services independence has been $51 million, over dotted throughout Zimbabwe there are will be necessary to make these two U.S. fiscal years. Because aid ex-guerrillas and refugees waiting for schemes successful, there is a substan- funds are only appropriated one year at resettlement. Says one observer: tial loss of skilled white manpower. a time, the future year AID projections "They think ol ZANL-PF as their par- The gap cannot be tilled in the near term of S75 million each for fiscal years ents," and will act as a constant drag on am- 19S3 and I4K4 are indicative, not firm Nyafaru. Cold Comfort, Simba. and bitious development pans, A related figures. Camp Haven are all variants on a com- immediate bottleneck is the need for Money for Zimbabwe comes from mon theme — blending nationalism technical expertise in drawing up reset- the Economic Support Fund (ESF). not and a communal spirit in a new system tlement plans. The ZIMCORD docu- the development aid account. There are ol' effective agricultural production. ment admits that the task is beyond the at least two advantages to this arrange- Bui the conditions of adversity and po- capacity of the government agencies ment: the Economic Support Fund, the litical stress that welded these efforts concerned, and will require the em- overtlv political account that goes pri- together are unlikely to be replicated in ployment of outside consultants. marily to Israel and Egypt, is budgeted the future. The communal model seems The third constraint is the lack of lor a $500 million increase compared to lo require some ideological "glue." rural infrastructure and facilities. To a minimal increase in development aid; How much of that was supplied by the make the resettlement schemes viable a and ESF money can be disbursed poliiici/ation of the rural areas during range of infrastructure and service are rapidly without the time-consuming re- the war is a major question. essential: roads, collection depots. quirements of development assistance. In a recent interview. Moven storage facilities, training centers, irri- It has disadvantages, however. One Mahache stressed that the government gation, and such ancillary items as rural is that ESF is on the verge of becoming wants to encourage communal of forts. growth points, clinics, schools, the Reagan administration's answer to but "we don't want to force people into maintenance facilities, and credit Third World problems: throw them a communal arrangement against their mechanisms. Roughly $1 billion of the some political money without much

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 13 concern tor its development impact. stant race between infrastructure in all planning under SADCC, regional food The ESF budget for Africa is increasing its forms and resettlement. If settlers imbalances, and political and security from $144 million to $231 million in are merely dumped in areas without concerns over Namibia and South Af- one year, a 59% increase. It is only a adequate preparation, the whole chain rica. Aid to Zimbabwe is no substitute matter of time before this generates a of expectations is in danger. Both the for sensible policies toward Namibia, political reaction in Congress. Further, political and economic consequences Angola, and Mozambique. No amount funds are authorized and appropriated would be extremely serious. of aid can correct for a major tilt by the by region or even country, which tends Third, Zimbabwe's infrastructure United States towards South Africa. to increase the political visibility of this and services, highly developed for Af- Sixth, Zimbabwe's agricultural and type of aid. For all the congressional rica, are deceiving. Designed to serve manufacturing output can supply her interest Zimbabwe generated before in- large white farms, the system must be neighbors, if they can find the neces- dependence, its relatively smooth fundamentally restructured to deal with sary foreign exchange. U.S. law per- course since independence has dam- small-scale African farmers. As one mits AID recipients to purchase goods pened congressional passion. McPher- example, even the crop research em- and services in other developing coun- son's commitment from Salisbury has phasis needs to be changed. tries. Zimbabwe's farmers and busi- thus far stirred no political embers. Fourth, the great shortage is likely to nessmen are anxious to tap the sur- But U.S. aid to Zimbabwe must face be trained manpower, especially mid- rounding markets. A recent exchange certain issues if it hopes to be effective and upper-level technicians. While of Zimbabwean corn to Zambia for U.S economically and achieve a positive there will be a substantial need for ex- wheat to Zimbabwe under PL480 Title impact on the Zimbabwe government. patriate technicians to fill positions in II demonstrates the possibilities. Among them: the short run, Zimbabwe wants to Seventh, made in America ideologi- First, the issue of land reform ought maintain careful control over their use. cal views will not be accepted in Zim- to be the centerpiece of the U.S. pro- One U.S. advisor will cost at least babwe. Extensive government in- gram, as it is for Zimbabwe. The $120,000 per year, including salary, volvement through agricultural mar- United States should not shy away from housing, expenses, and related costs. A keting is a British legacy that benefited this normally sensitive topic, since in number of Zimbabweans can be trained white farmers greatly. The same system Zimbabwe the conditions for land re- for that amount. The Peace Corps could is about to be attempted in mineral mar- form are both feasible and suit all sides be very useful, especially in conjunc- keting. The United States ought to look politically. If the white Commercial tion with a Zimbabwe development with favor on a variety of economic Farmers Union is enthusiastic, who can corps, but it may be too sensitive politi- models, including communal farming be opposed? No one now, but the po- cally. experiments, so long as there is an hon- tential for discontent is great. Land re- Fifth, the regional context is impor- est evaluation of the results. form is urgent; change must be visible. tant in every way: transport through The Zimbabwe experience should Second, there is likely to be a con- Mozambique, regional cooperation and force the State Department and AID to examine the inadequacies of both the Economic Support Fund and develop- ment aid in dealing with countries of similar characteristics: intermediate- level per capita income, substantial de- velopment in certain sectors and groups, and large numbers in continu- ing poverty. Some middle ground is clearly needed, without the compli- -•*. cated, pervasive U.S. involvement of development assistance, or the political commitment of ESF. The Zimbabwe model is being used to describe possible negotiated settle- ments of intractable conflicts as diverse as Namibia and El Salvador. The model has particular appeal in the United States because revolutionary violence was arrested and supplanted by evolu- tionary change funded by foreign donors. The United States has, in ef- fect, bought itself a share in an ongoing revolution, one which we must hope The farmhouse at Slmba Youth Farm succeeds. •

14 AFRICA REPORT • July-Auguat 1981 AGRICULTURE The Role of External Aid

BY LANE E. HOLDCROFT

ub-Suhurun Africa is the only re- High as this is. there would still be large with IX.2 accounted for by West Af- S gion in the world where per capita unmet food needs. Bringing diets up to rica. Unmet food needs would persist, food production declined over the past minimal calorie consumption levels and 10.1 million tons would be required two decades. This decline exacts a high (about 2,300 calories per person per to eliminate them. The conclusion price in both human and economic day) would require an additional 12.4 seems clear. If growth in incomes fol- terms. The human price is inadequate million tons. lows historical patterns, there will be nutrition. In most sub-Saharan coun- Ordinarily, the assumption that per dramatic increases in the paying de- tries, per capita calorie intake tails capita income remained at I975 levels mand for imports by 1990, yet very lit- below minimal nutritional standards. would be considered a pessimistic one. tle increase in the domestic production The economic price of inadequate food designed to show primarily the growth of food available to respond to unmet production is an increasing demand for in import demand associated with food needs. food imports at a time when grain prices population growth. Our study suggests. Why is sub-Saharan Africa's food are rising and many African govern- howe\er. that for many countries this balance so precarious? Much of the ments face acute balance-of-payments may be an optimistic assumption. Real problem lies on the supply side. Pro- and foreign exchange problems. per capita income declined in all re- ductivity has been low, and growth in Our recent USDA-AID study finds gions of Africa between 1975 and production has depended primarily on that the implications of this pattern are I979. If real 1979 per capita income increases in acreage. To some extent, severe. Using a series of equations that levels and producer price patterns pre- this reflects the structure of food pro- capture the dynamics underlying pro- vailed in 1990, the import gap would duction. Although land tenure patterns duction and consumption between 1965 fall to 9.5 million tons, while unmet vary from region to region, most food and 1979, we estimated import demand food needs would rise. An additional 13 production occurs in the subsistence and unmet food needs in 1990 if histori- million tons would be required to attain sector. There is little use of commercial eal trends continue. The picture is a minimal calorie consumption levels. inputs that might improve yields, and stark one. It 1975 real per capita in- liven if we assume that there is most of the labor for cultivation is pro- come levels and producer price patterns growth in real per capita income and vided by people working with relatively prevailed in 1990, sub-Saharan Africa thai growth follows 1965-79 patterns simple hand tools. Labor requirements, would have an import gap of 11.5 mil- (essentially smoothing out the effects of and labor bottlenecks equally, put con- lion metric Ions (cereal equivalent). recent economic problems), the picture straints on the additional acreage that is disturbing. The import gap rises to can be cultivated. IS,5 million tons — some 11.9 million In addition, however, the natural en- tons being accounted for by West Af- vironment plays an important role. rica alone. Because income growth is Wide variations in yield occur, re- so skewed across regions, diets reach Lane E, Holdcroft, an agricultural econo- flecting adverse weather, pest infesta- mist, is chief of the Agriculture and Rural adequate levels in West Africa, while tion, and crop diseases. Many tropical Development Division of the Bureau for major unmet food needs persist in the soils are fragile, losing organic matter Africa at the U.S. Agency for International Development. This paper was presented Sahel and in central and East Africa. and nutrients quickly if they are ex- at a symposium entitled "Food Problems Meeting these needs would require an posed or cultivated intensively. Crop- in Africa" in April 1981, sponsored by the additional 9.1 million metric tons of ping patterns and fallowing systems African Studies Program, the Office of Women in International Development, and cereals. If growth followed more recent have been the major vehicles for man- the International Colloquium of the Uni- 1974-79 trends, the regional skewing aging soil fertility. Yet, if African food versity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. would become even more extreme. production is to increase, ways must be Under these conditions, the 1990 im- found to make a transition both to a port gap would be 21.1 million tons — more commercial system of production

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 15 and marketing and to viable methods pulses, roots, and tubers. In some 1965-79 period suggests that produc- for more intensive cultivation with areas, attempting to reduce the import tion is responsive to price in all regions higher yields. gap may mean shifting dietary prefer- except central Africa. Pricing policy Knowledge of African food produc- ences. In others — especially West and can, therefore, be an instrument for in- tion systems is spotty and has not led to East Africa — it may depend more on creasing food production. Changing the development of viable packages of developing ways of processing local pricing policy will not, in and of itself, inputs based on improved technology, foods to make them more convenient to solve the problem, however. Pricing as has occurred in Asia and elsewhere. urban consumers who still have taste policies are ineffective unless the trans- The environmental obstacles of such preferences for them. portation system is adequate. In addi- new technology are enormous. In addi- Historical orientations and policies tion, storage facilities may be necessary tion, the conditions of labor scarcity have also contributed to creating exist- to support an announced pricing policy. and labor bottlenecks in which food ing conditions. Agriculture and its sup- In the short term, the right mix of production takes place in Africa make port system have been, and to a great trade, marketing, price, and storage the search for viable technology dif- extent remain, geared toward produc- policies, put into effect by governments ficult. On the whole, better use of ex- tion of export crops. Cash crops are who have become conscious of the con- sequences of the food problem, may create an incentive for farmers to pro- duce more food. Unless there are structural changes in food production, however, there will be a point at which greater production of one commodity can come only at the expense of decreased production elsewhere. Under these conditions, the tradeoff between food crops and tradi- tional export crops rapidly assumes the character of direct competition for land and labor resources. Governments are able to influence the outcome of this competition through their pricing policies (inputs and outputs), but they are constantly pressured to influence it in favor of cash crops where the latter account for a heavy share of foreign ex- change earnings. In the longer perspective, therefore, the timing of implementation of ag- ricultural and other related policies be- comes critical. In the absence of incen- Planting groundnuts in Nigeria: Many tropical soils are fragile tives for farmers to adopt new farming practices and technology, government investments in agricultural research, isting technology to increase the effi- generally produced primarily for exter- extension services, and input delivery ciency of labor seems to offer, at the nal markets. Internal urban markets are systems will have only a small payoff, present time, a surer means of improv- often supplied through imports, some- quite inadequate to deal with the scope ing productivity until a redirected re- times because it is less expensive for of the food problem. On the other hand, search effort can come to grips with the countries to import food than to encour- the application in an ad hoc manner of real constraints facing African farmers. age domestic production and bear high policies creating incentives to farmers Part of the problem lies with the internal distribution costs. Changing produces unexpected and costly results structure of demand, however. In many this emphasis will require substantial if the physical foundation for higher countries there is a high demand, espe- investment in infrastructure and insti- productivity has not been laid. cially in urban areas, for wheat and tution building. It is probably unrealistic to expect rice. Wheat cannot be produced in The success of any move to trans- that the countries of sub-Saharan Africa many countries, and rice production is form domestic food production will be can find the resources and new technol- frequently more difficult and costly extremely dependent on the timing and ogy to eliminate the huge import gaps than production of other, less-preferred coordination of marketing, production, that characterize the economies of crops such as millet, sorghum, maize, and trade policies. Our analysis of the many of them today. They can narrow

16 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 these import gaps. Doing so requires a focusing external donor assistance on tion and distribution vis-a-vis other combination of workable policies and (1) the creation of a national policy and development needs. investments in productive infrastruc- program environment that provides • Assisting in creating national ture and an upgrading of human capital farmers with adequate incentives, in- policies and programs that give far- leading to a transformation of their sus- cluding access to production inputs, to mers incentives to expand output, especially of food. sistence sectors from present low levels increase their output (primarily of • Concurrently assisting over the long of productivity and quality of life to food); and (2) concurrently, the devel- term in building self-sustaining in- higher levels of productivity and qual- opment of self-sustaining institutions stitutions that provide inputs and ity of life. that adequately service national food services required for effective pro- production and distribution systems. duction and distribution systms. THE EXTERNAL DONOR RESPONSE The "Food Sector Assistance • Recognizing the need for concur- TO Sl'B-SAHARAN AFRICA'S Strategy" paper, now being formulated rent, linked actions among policies DETERIORATING I-OOI) in detail for use by AID's Africa Bureau and programs; for example, incen- SITUATION and for discussion with other major ex- tives for farmers may be meaningless ternal donors, is intended to provide a without providing supporting tech- On the basis of the analyses con- clear statement of the framework within nology, inputs, marketing systems, and transport. tained in the USDA/AID Food Prob- which AID and possibly other donors • Providing for continuing participa- lems and Prospects study and the AID can prepare their country-specific as- tion by Africans at all levels, in- Africa Bureau's analysis of AID in- sistance strategies and select appropri- vestments in Africa, 1976-82, acentral cluding farmers, in the development ate projects in collaboration with host processes so as to build popular sup- theme for a "Food Sector Assistance country governments. port and to increase chances for Strategy for the 1980s for Africa" has This evolving "Food Sector Assis- self-sustaining growth. emerged over the past several months. tance Strategy" will focus on: This theme, which is being well re- This "strategy" will require that exter- ceived by host country governments • Encouraging high priority (in fund- nal donors increase and focus their as- and other major donors, calls for ing and manpower) on food produc- sistance in the following areas:

Nigerian corn crop: National policies should give farmers incentives to expand food output

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 17 Planning and Policx Analysis • Increased efficiencies in marketing programs of the past decade have, for systems. the most part, been unsuccessful in • Assist the most food-deficient coun- • Identification and use of extension reaching stated objectives. Thus then tries in undertaking comprehensive systems suitable to Africa. receptivity to new approaches and ex- food sector strategy studies. • Development of technologies/inputs ternal donor assistance in relaxing the thai are applicable to the African ag- • Provide short-term assistance to host major constraints to increased food counties in the analysis of food/agri- ricultural, social, and political sys- production has increased. One indica- culture/rural sector policies (for tems, which include the conduct of example, pricing policies, policies innovative research that will utilize. tion of this receptivity is the large num- on access to resources). whenever possible, available indi- ber of African nations (19) that have re- • Initiate long-term projects to institu- genous resources. quested assistance in undertaking na- tionalize planning and policy analy- • Expanded analysis of consumer tional food sector strategy studies under sis capabilities, as well as to foster a preferences, integration of such in- the aegis of the World Food Council. sector or program approach, in con- formation with research on new var- Also, external donors have increased trast to a project approach, to devel- ieties, and work to develop process- their efforts to coordinate their assis- opment. ing technologies to expand utiliza- tance to African nations over the past tion of traditional staples. several years, particularly at the coun- Development and Diffusion of • Improvements in basic transport try level. New groupings of donors and Improved Production Technology networks in support of increased ag- ricultural production. host countries have emerged to under- • Agricultural research. take joint planning and program im- • Extension and training. This "strategy" suggests a signifi- plementation at the regional level. For cant shift towards assisting in the de- example, a number of the food sector Access to Production Inputs velopment of those basic institutions strategy studies noted above are being needed to sustain improvements in the undertaken jointly by external donors. • Production and distribution of physi- national food production and distribu- And major regional and country-spe- cal inputs (fertilizer, improved seed. tion systems and away from the mul- cific programs in agricultural research etc.) and appropriate equipment, in- tisector "area development" projects are being planned by the Concerted cluding hand tools. with a variety of disparate interventions Action for the Development of Africa directed at improving the "quality of (CADA) group of bilateral donors in Commodity Marketing Systems (to link life" of the targeted beneficiaries. Africa. farmer producers to rural ami urban There is ample evidence that these area consumers) Critical to this "strategy" is giving rural development schemes have had greatly increased attention to the train- • Storage, transport, rural roads, relatively limited success in reaching ing of African agriculturalists, econo- processing. their objectives and have had virtually mists, and administrators, particularly • Market structure (private/state orga- no impact on the production of food. at the college undergraduate and grad- nizations). Emphasis on building up those basic- uate levels. The paucity of technically • Food security. research, extension, and training insti- competent Africans to undertake na- • Consumer demand analysis (tradi- tutions should not be interpreted as a tional planning and policy analysts ef- tional foods). lessening of the concern with regard to forts, and. in general, manage and staff • Postharvest losses. the equity issue, because the focus of the institutions, both public and pri- these institutions must be on supporting vate, that service the agricultural sector Long-term institution-building proj- small-scale producers who with their of African nations is perhaps the major ects that adequately support food pro- families comprise the vast majority of constraint to overcoming the deterio- duction efforts and food distribution the population of African nations. And rating food situation. systems are critical to the above out- with regard to national planning and The role of external donors in assist- lined "strategy" for ameliorating the policy analysis efforts, the focus must ing African nations to revise the current African food problem, particularly in- be on formulating and implementing trends in food production and con- stitutions for research, extension, and plans and policies that will provide sumption is becoming increasingly manpower training. Attention must be adequate incentives for small-scale clear, and the "strategy" discussed given developing institutions, public producers to increase their production above is intended to be responsive to and private, that overtime will contrib- of food commodities. the challenge. Yet it must be recog- ute to the following: While the commitment of African nized that this effort will require sus- national leaders to improving food pro- tained and increased levels of external • Hxpanded production and distribu- duction and marketing systems varies donor assistance over the next decade tion of physical inputs (hand tools, equipment for animal traction use. considerably, there is increasingly and probably beyond. Nothing less than fertilizer, etc.). among them the recognition that food a long-term commitment to overcom- • Hxpanded attention to crop storage crops for domestic consumption require ing Africa's food problem will suf- and crop protection. more attention and that policies and fice, n

18 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 AGRICULTURE DOCUMENT

Nigeria's Green Revolution

BYALHAJI IBRAHIM GUSAU

he Green Revolution policy of the Revolution which will bring about an 1. Population drift from rural to urban T federal government is u matter to improvement in the whole farming areas, leaving an aging farm labor which we attach the highest priority. system, and lead the country to self- force. The Green Revolution is not a new sufficiency in agricultural production, 2. Disruption caused by the civil war concept. It was enunciated in the 1950s better nutrition for all, improvement in and drought. hy a group of scientists working at the rural incomes, and adequate raw mate- 3. Inadequate and ineffective exten- sion services, inadequate supply International Institute for the improve- rials for industrial development. Put and erratic availability of inputs and ment of maize and wheat in Mexico. differently and more succinctly, the other farm support services. The workers, through scientific re- objectives of the Green Revolution 4. Inadequate infrastructure. search, succeeded in breeding im- policy of the present administration are 5. Inadequate public expenditure on proved seeds which revolutionized the as follows: agriculture. production of maize and wheat in Latin America and Asia. The seeds were then 1. To provide adequate, reliable, safe, called "miracle" seeds because of the and stable food supplies for the In order to attack the food problem in country's rapidly rising population tremendous yield increases achieved. A a systematic manner, my Ministry at prices average people can afford. similar technology has also been commissioned a combined team of Ni- 2. To become self-reliant in basic food applied to dramatically increase the gerian and World Bank experts in production o\' rice in the Philippines. requirements and thereby minimize the potential threats to national January 1980, to examine in depth the However, although the original con- sovereignty from excessive depen- food situation in Nigeria and to identify cept of the Green Revolution was based dence on others for basic food needs broad programs and strategies that will on the use of improved seeds, it was as soon as possible. lead to an early achievement of self- soon recognized that an> realistic 3. To raise and stabilize the nutritional sufficiency. The team in its report put strategy aimed at increasing agricul- standards of all Nigerians with par- the food production deficit for 1979-80 tural productivity must include other ticular stress on increasing the share at 2.6 million tons of grain equivalents, development packages such as the use of animal protein in total protein. and estimated that at the present rate of of fertilizer, pesticides, extension aids, 4. To ensure stability in food com- increase in food production, the deficit modity and input markets and provision of credit, marketing, storage, will increase to 5.3 million tons of grain thereby avoid economic, social, etc. This administration is concerned and, possibly, political disasters. equivalents by 1985. In order to com- with this broader concept of the Green 5. To ensure fair and reasonable levels pletely eliminate the food deficit by and distribution of incomes among 1985. domestic production of crops food producers. will need to increase by about 6.6'/( an- nually between 1980 and 1985. For Alha)i Ibrahim Gusau is the Nigerian minister fisheries and livestock, an annual in- ol agriculture. This article is based on a paper What is responsible for the problems he delivered to a senior executive course at facing the agricultural sector? The an- crease of about 11.39t will have to be the National Institute of Policy and Strategy swers to this question, which has been achieved over the same period. To Studies, Kuru. Nigeria on November 12, achieve all this, required public expen- 1980. asked many times before, are well known and briefly summarized as fol- ditures alone were estimated at $2.64 lows: billion over a five-year period.

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 19 However, indications are that ag- grated agricultural development pro- portant ingredient of the Green Revo- ricultural growth rates in excess of 4% grams during the third National Devel- lution in Asia and Latin America. We per annum are extremely difficult to opment Plan (1975-1980) was only plan to expand therefore the natural achieve and sustain over a 5-year $29.4 million, during the 1980 finan- seed program to enable it to achieve the period. Given Ihe huge agricultural cial year alone, the present administra- production of at least 75% of the total potential which exists in Nigeria, it is seed required in Nigeria during the plan nevertheless clear that while Nigeria period instead of the present 18%. may have to continue for sometime yet Fertilizer. Next to seeds, the use of to import wheat and milk products if we fertilizer is the most important in en- do not change or modify our food suring high productivity. This is why habits, it is possible for us to achieve we are increasing fertilizer supplies to self-sufficiency in the production of the about 1 million for the 1981 cropping main food staples such as rice, maize, season. A land resources department sorghum, millet, and groundnuts. with a special unit for soil testing and The team of experts drew up a Food provision of advisory services on types Production Plan for Nigeria to cover the and levels of fertilizer to be used on period 1981-85. The plan contained various soils has been established in far-reaching recommendations on all order to improve fertilizer use. aspects of food production, including Agricultural Mechanization. Human crops, livestock, and fisheries. It also labor as a source of energy on the farm recommended a number of institutional has become not only scarce and expen- and policy reforms to improve the ex- sive, but unattractive. Human labor tension services, input delivery, input must therefore be replaced systemati- subsidies, marketing, storage, and Nigeria's minister of agriculture, cally through the introduction of farm credit. In the rest of this paper I will try Alhajt Ibrahim Gusau machinery. In the last four years the to show how the federal government. federal government has spent $10.26 working in very close collaboration million as direct assistance to state gov- with state governments, plans to trans- ernments for land clearing. By the end late these and other recommendations lion allocated $21.84 million to the of this year 350 Cooperative Societies into additional agricultural production programs. Total allocation for the and fanner associations would have re- both in terms of more food for all Nige- fourth plan is projected to be about ceived a farm tractor at 50% subsidy as rians and abundant raw materials for the $348.0 million which is additional to part of our tractorization program. expanding agro-based industries. 1 will the $480.0 million which will be loaned Finally, other programs aimed at in- examine these issues under five main to the rural development program over creasing crop production include the headings: rural integrated projects, the same period by the World Bank. establishment of three oil palm compa- crops, livestock, fisheries, and fores- It is now well known that the pro- nies for the development of oil palm try. duction of food and cash crops suffered estates; the establishment of large-scale The federal government is impressed considerable decline in the recent past. farms by the National Grains Produc- by the success of the integrated Ag- In one or two cases the decline com- tion Company in all states of the Feder- ricultural Development Projects (ADP) pounded by excessive demand has ation; World Bank assisted projects in which were started on a pilot phase in reached crisis proportion. Rice and rice, oil palm, cocoa, and rubber; proj- Funtua, Gombo, and Gusau during the maize are typical examples. The pro- ects aimed at the rehabilitation of third Development Plan period. The duction of cocoa also fell from 214,000 groundnut and cotton; and the National federal government therefore plans to tons in 1974-75 to 145,000 tons in Accelerated Food Production Project establish similar projects in all states of 197S-79. while purchases by the which is aimed at teaching farmers the the Federation by 1983. The ADP proj- Groundnut Board dropped from over I latest agricultural technology, soil ero- ects will not only contain components million tons in 1966-67 to 82,000 tons sion control, etc. that will lead to an increase in the pro- in 1975-76. Efforts to raise crop production will ductivity and incomes of the farmers, A number of bold programs have be matched with efforts to raise the pro- but will also lead to development of thus been articulated to exploit the huge duction of meat, milk, and eggs. The rural infrastructures such as feeder potential which exists in order to rap- aim is to raise the per capita consump- roads, bore-holes, wells, and dams for idly increase grain and tuber production tion of protein which is about 50c/c of rural water supply, staff housing, and during the National Development Plan dietary requirement. Meat supply is limited health facilities. period. Summarized, the main ele- contributed by 50% from cattle, 35% In this connection, it is pertinent to ments of this program are as follows: from sheep and goats. 7% from poultry, point out thai while the federal govern- Seed Production. As mentioned ear- and the rest from other domestic ani- ment's financial allocation for the inte- lier, improved seed was the most im- mals.

20 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 The main elements in the livestock Animal Health. All livestock pro- do not have the necessary financial development program are as follows: grams will be supported by a vigorous resources to transform their largely Cattle. Expansion of the World Bank animal health program, which will in- subsistent fishing into profitable in- assisted project involves the provision volve a massive vaccination program dustrial fisheries. of credit, and technical assistance to and the provision of vaccines and 2. Lack of infrastructure, especially fishing terminals. private ranchers and small holder fat- drugs. 3. Shortage of trained manpower— teners, and development of grazing re- Ranches. The establishment of this problem has been made more serves lor tsetse eradication. The favor- ranches and commercial poultry and acute because none of the Nigerian able climate of the plateau areas of dairy will be undertaken by the Nige- institutions of higher learning offers Mambilla and Jos will be exploited for rian Livestock Poultry Company and its full courses in fisheries science at dairy and beef production. subsidiaries. present. Sheep and Goats. Improved sheep Fisheries Development. Since fish is 4. Inadequacy of modern fishing in- and goat production units will be ex- one of the best and cheapest protein- puts; e.g., boats, engines, nets, and tablished to provide breeding stock to rich foods, it has a crucial role to play in accessories. farmers. the Green Revolution program. The 5. Poor communication network in the fish production centers. Piggery. Pig development centers fisheries subsector also has the addi- 6. Lack of effective fishermen will be established to provide services tional advantage of quick returns to in- cooperatives. and inputs to pig producers. Coopera- vestment. tive processing and marketing units will The major constraints facing the also be encouraged. rapid development of fisheries in Nige- During the third National Develop- Poultry. The major objective will be ria arc well known and may be sum- ment Plan, policy measures were intro- to provide steady and adequate source marized as follows: duced to alleviate some of the critical of parent stock and commercial day-old constraints. Because the majority of our chicks as well as low-cost good quality I. Inadequacy of capital for fisheries indigenous fishermen use old-style feed. development—the local fishermen techniques, particular emphasis was

fc?*<*v»V^ Fertilizing a corn field at a demonstration farm in Gusau, Nigeria

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 21 placed on the modernization of the tra- the successful operation of the boats. It ricultural sector and the efforts being ditional fishing crafts, gear, and meth- is government policy to hand over these made to solve them and to bring about ods through the supply of outboard trawlers to viable fishermen coopera- the much-needed agricultural revolu- motors and other fishing requisites. tives at subsidized costs. tion. Of course, these plans will not While the implementation of the Na- On the development offish farming, come to fruition unless the right institu- tional Accelerated Fish Production my Ministry has embarked upon the tions exist to implement them. Ag- Projects, for instance, has yielded en- construction of model fresh-water fish riculture, being a multidimensional ac- couraging results, it has also become farms at six locations in different parts tivity, requires the close collaboration apparent that greater financial alloca- of the country. The fish farms will dem- of many institutions scattered in many tion has to be made by ihe government onstrate the economics and techniques ministries. This is why at the federal for the project to make sufficient impact of modern fish farming in Nigeria. level a Green Revolution committee in the ever growing fish-consuming To most Nigerians, the role of fores- and council were established. They will population. What is more, if the tradi- try in the Green Revolution may not be coordinate and give general direction to tional canoe fisherman has to be up- easily apparent. Yet forestry is impor- the organizations whose activities have graded, the vast technological gap be- tant not only because it improves the relevance for agricultural development. tween the old-style and industrial fish- micro-climate in places where it has Collaboration between the federal gov- eries subsectors has to be gradually been used extensively to prevent desert ernment and state governments, an im- closed. This is why the present admin- encroachment, but also because it can portant prerequisite, since agriculture is istration has attached high priority to serve as a source of fodder and as shade on the concurrent legislative list, is the development of mechanized fishing for both men and animals. The main achieved through the National Council through the introduction of appropriate thrust of the federal program is the af- on Agriculture, which comprises all fishing technology to the local fisher- forestation of the arid zone, a program ministries and commissioners of agri- men. Furthermore, in order to ensure to which the federal government at- culture. The Agricultural Bank and the the optimum utilization of inland fish- taches the greatest importance. A gen- commercial banks under the agricul- ery resources, necessary encourage- eral program of increasing the tree tural credit guarantee scheme will be ment is being given to the development population over the whole country is made to ensure a greater flow of credit of aquaculture or fish farming. also being mounted through a variety of to agriculture during the fourth Na- Under the mechanized fishing pro- programs in order to halt the present tional Development Plan so that private gram an order was placed for 45 medi- unfortunate trend which could lead to sector investment in agriculture can be um-size fishing trawlers from Polish massive importation of wood in the increased significantly. shipyards. This contract also provides near future. The past year has been spent in for the training of Nigerian fisheries What 1 have done in the preceeding making a detailed assessment of the officers and technicians in Poland as paragraphs is to provide a very brief in- agricultural sector and in carrying out well as the supply of Polish experts for sight into the problems facing the ag- necessary studies to enable the gov- ernment to embark on a major expan- sion of agricultural production. In this connection it is significant to note that the federal government is improving re- source allocation to the sector substan- tially. Under the third National Devel- opment Plan, financial allocation to the sector was between 69c and 7%. In 1980 the allocation was about 11%. We expect not less than 15% during the fourth national development period. If these programs are supported fi- nancially and the private sector plays a more significant role than has been the case in the past and the state govern- ments demonstrate the same level of enthusiasm, I am quite optimistic that [he overall object of self-sufficiency in food by 1985 will be attained, although items such as wheat and sugar, meat, and fish products may still have to be imported in reduced quantities. We should also be able to meet our target Mechanized land preparation is more efficient with respect to cash crops. D

22 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 cflFRICflN Monitoring economic and political developments around the Continent

(UPDATE July-August 1981

U.S. uses 'constructive engagement' policy with South Africa The Reagan administration has dorsed the U.S. proposal for white that the UN military transition force announced that its policy toward minority guarantees in advance of agreed upon by all sides in 1978 was South Africa will be "constructive elections. now unacceptable to his govern- engagement" in expectation of ment. Botha was reportedly told "reciprocity" from Pretoria. Coop- The U.S. framework is also said to include other measures which an that the UN force was a "central eration from Pretoria, a State De- element" of 435 and that eliminat- partment official said, "could lay official characterized as "strength- ening" UN Security Council reso- ing it "would be difficult." the basis for a more constructive bi- A further wrinkle in the plan is the lateral relationship." lution 435: no deadline for the Namibia negotiations (which Preto- concern by both the U.S. and South The announcement came after ria reportedly indicated could take Africa over the 20,000 Cuban troops talks between Roclof Botha, the up to two years!, and a U.S. pledge in Angola. A U.S. official said the South African Foreign Minister, not to pressure South Africa to ac- administration wants a formula to and Secretary of State Alexander cept solutions it believes are link the phase-out of South African Haig and other officials, after which counter to its interests. troops in Namibia with a reduction Botha said there was "a very real of Cuban troops in neighboring An- possibility" that Pretoria would re- Having won these concessions, gola. (Washington Post, May I. 17 sume negotiations on independence Botha then complicated the negoti- and 18, 1981; Washington Star, for Namibia. Botha said he en- ations by reportedly informing Haig May 14, 15 and 17, 1981.) • After year's independence, Zimbabweans urged to work hard With the first year of Zimbabwe's weather. This year it is expected to million people may eventually have independence over. Prime Minister be 8 percent. Major problems are to be resettled. (Africa, May 1981.) Robert Mugabe urged a nationwide the lack of skilled labor—artisans, Mugabe's overall aim, according radio audience to work hard in or- mechanics, engineers, computer to one of his aides, "is to create der to make the country more pro- technicians—low transport capac- wealth through existing capitalistic ductive. He said there must be ity and land resettlement. This last structures on the grounds that the "continual planning for expan- is one of Mugabe's priorities but it is larger the cake, the larger the slices sion." (Salisbury Radio, April 17. proceeding very slowly. About that can be cut from it. He may 1981.) 1.400 families have been settled and change those structures in time, but Economic problems have sur- this year's target is 6,000. but the for the moment he needs them." faced just as the political and mili- government maintains that up to a (Wall Street Journal, April 16. tary tensions were easing. Re- 1981.) cently, ministers from both Muga- Mugabe visited China in May. full be's Zanu-PF and Joshua Nko- OAU's June summit of praise for the role China played in mo's Zapu party have shared some convenes in Nairobi supplying weapons during the inde- political platforms, demonstrating The 18th OAU summit of heads pendence war. "The Chinese made greater unity. Nkomo worked hard of state and government convenes our struggle their own struggle, our to persuade his guerrillas to give up in Nairobi from June 24 to 26 under sufferings were their sufferings," their weapons and by May 20 all the the chairmanship of Kenyan Presi- he said. "Our victory was your vic- guerrillas had been disarmed. How- dent Daniel arap Moi, who is suc- tory as well. We congratulate you ever, integration of the guerrillas ceeding President Siaka Stevens of on ajob well done." into the national army will probably Sierra Leone. The summit will be But Mugabe left China disap- take until the end of the year. The preceded by the 37th ministerial pointed, having received promises cost of maintaining the guerrillas council meeting, from June 15to23. of less aid than he had hoped for. and the army consumes about 20 The resolutions and recommenda- However, Zimbabweans will be percent of Zimbabwe's budget. tions which come out of the twice- sent to China to learn collective (Economist, May 16, 1981.) yearly ministerial meetings form the farming as a prelude to the introduc- Last year, the country's growth basis for the agenda of the heads of tion of cooperative farms in Zim- rate was about 9 percent, buoyed by state summit. babwe. (London Guardian, May 14 the lifting of sanctions and good Continued on next page and 18,1981.) •

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 23 Tutu: church must speak for oppressed Seized arms in Texas Bishop Desmond Tutu told the Meanwhile in what was seen as a were 'meant for Unita' national conference of the South move to identify with blacks, the The 1,476 military weapons and African Council of Churches in May Roman Catholic church chose a ammo, worth $1.2 million, seized at that the church must fight oppres- black priest for its top national ex- Houston Intercontinental Airport sion and be prepared "to suffer and ecutive post. Not only is Father earlier this month were paid for by perhaps die" if it was going to iden- Smangaliso Mkhatshwa the first Armscor. the South African wea- tify with the poor. black to hold the post, he is also a pons-buying agency, and destined Tutu, the SACC general secre- former detainee now restricted un- for Unita, the anti-government guer- tary, condemned the government's der a government banning order. rillas in Angola, according to a Lon- continuing policy of forced re- Bishop Tutu, whose passport was don Observer report. movals—the uprooting of blacks withdrawn by the government in from "white" areas and transport- April for the second time in a year, The Observer report says the two ing them to the impoverished home- said the church was still prepared to British arms dealers arrested in the lands. He said the church must talk with Prime Minister Pieter Bo- Houston raid by U.S. Customs speak up for "the hungry, the tha "on the dismantling of apart- agents had a genuine $1.5 million homeless, the unemployed, the heid," but would not participate in letter of credit from Armscor drawn voteless. the uprooted and dumped an exercise' "designed to perpetuate on a Dallas bank. A Customs agent ones, the disqualified ones and white supremacy however it may be in Houston said that though the those who are endorsed out of described." {Sowetan, May 6,8 and arms were to be flown to Johannes- cities." 13,1981.) • burg, they could have gone any- where after that. "The Unita forces in Angola are the obvious place for Sahara, Chad head OAU agenda continued the final destination," he said. The 36th council of ministers summit, for it will be difficult to Unita, led by Dr. Jonas Savimbi, meeting, held in Addis Ababa in postpone the SADR's admission is backed by Pretoria and was as- February, was occupied primarily again, if it still has the requisite sup- sisted by the CIA in Angola's 1975 with the situations in the Western port. civil war. Following that covert aid. Sahara, Chad and Namibia, topics Morocco opened formal diplo- Congress cut off any future assist- likely to dominate the June ses- matic relations with Kenya in May ance through the Clark amendment, sions. On the conflict in the West- by sending an ambassador, Saad which the Reagan administration ern Sahara, no decision was Eddine Taieb, and setting up an em- has said it wants repealed and which reached on whether the Saharan bassy. Observers indicated the is currently under congressional Arab Democratic Republic (SA- move was calculated to gain influ- consideration. DR), represented by Polisario, will ence with the Kenyan government, be admitted to the OAU as the 51st since Moi is to be the OAU chair- The captured arms were: 796 M- member state. Instead, the question man for one year, in order to have 16 assault rifles, 350 short-barreled was postponed until the Nairobi an effect on the debate at the sum- M-16 carbines. 100 grenade launch- summit. mit. ers, 230 assorted handguns and a At the 1980 OAU summit in Libya's involvement in the Chad million rounds of ammunition. Freetown, Sierra Leone, the West- civil war is expected to be another Since the South African army uses ern Sahara issue dominated the de- divisive topic, as there was no una- standard rifles of a different caliber, liberations of the heads of state, as nimity of opinion expressed on it at the NATO-pattern FN assault rifle, 26 member states, the simple major- the Addis Ababa meetings. A meet- the M-16s would* be of little use to ity required for admission to the or- ing called by the OAU committee them. ganization, recognized the SADR. on Chad, scheduled for April in Unfortunately for the men ar- Several countries threatened to Lagos was canceled when Libyan rested in the raid—who are charged walk out of the OAU if the SADR leader Muammar Qaddafy refused with violating the Neutrality Act gained admission. Therefore, a to attend. The talks were to have and conspiracy—they tipped off au- compromise was worked out, under dealt with the OAU peacekeeping thorities to the plan by applying for which Morocco agreed to meet for force to be sent to replace the Lib- an export license using a fraudulent discussions with all parties to the yan troops in Chad. The matter will "end-user" certificate showing the dispute—Algeria, Mauritania, and be discussed at the summit. arms were destined for Sudan. A le- Polisario, under the auspices of the The Namibian problem was the gitimate firearms dealer contacted OAU ad hoc committee on the only topic in Addis Ababa on which by the Britons also notified the au- Western Sahara. there appeared to be majority agree- thorities and from that point on, The meeting did take place in ment. South African intransigence their every movement was shad- September 1980, but Morocco re- in the Geneva negotiations was con- owed by law enforcement officers. fused to accept the proposed peace demned as the cause of the talks' Customs agents set up a fictitious plan, which included a ceasefire and collapse. The new plan proposed by arms dealing company and received referendum. The Western Sahara the U.S. government for Namibia's the South African money in pay- issue, therefore, is expected to be independence is likely to come up ment for the weapons. (London Ob- an explosive one at the Nairobi on the Nairobi agenda. D server, May 17, 1981.) •

24 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1961 In response to Woddeye's re- development with Prime Minister WESTERN AFRICA quest, the Libyan troops stationed Margaret Thatcher and leading in the capital. Ndjamena, had pulled businessmen. The Ghanaian gov- Benin out in late April and moved to a base ernment is seeking increased for- at Dougia. 40 miles away. Woddeye eign investment as one means of • President Mathicu Kerekou paid paid a visit to Cameroon in April to alleviating its severe economic diffi- a state visit to Nigeria in April, dur- gain President Ahmadou Ahidjo's culties. A liberal investment code, ing which talks were held with Pres- assistance in expediting the OAU- which would allow foreign inves- ident Shehu Shagari on a number of sponsored plan for elections and tors a majority stake and guarantee issues, including an alleged border withdrawal of Libyan troops. them management control. has incident in March. A meeting of the OAU committee been presented to the Ghanaian par- As a result of the meeting, the Ni- on Chad scheduled for early April in liament for approval, where it was geria-Benin jount boundary com- Lagos, Nigeria was canceled when being debated in May. mission is to be reactivated. Re- Qaddafy refused to attend. The Limann told businessmen at the ports in March indicated that troops meeting was to have discussed new London Chamber of Commerce from Benin had occupied some Ni- arrangements for the peacekeeping that the priority sectors of the econ- gerian villages in Sokoto stale and force to be sent to Chad. At the omy are agriculture and infrastruc- taxes were being collected by the OAU council of ministers meeting ture—roads, ports and railways. soldiers. in Addis Ababa in March, it was One measure which should facili- Benin's ambassador to Nigeria. agreed that troops from Nigeria, Al- tate Britain-Ghana trade was the ex- Eustache Prudencio. denied that geria. Cameroon and Libya would pected approval by the British the army had been involved and that compose the force, in contrast to government's Export Credits Guar- the "invasion" was carried out by the 1980 Lagos Accord, never im- antee Department (ECGD) of an in- cattlemen and peasants who had ig- plemented, which called for a force crease on ceilings for short- and nored border regulations. of soldiers from Congo. Benin. medium-term credits on exports to The Nigerian Defense Minister. Togo and Guinea. the country. The ECGD had been Alhaji Akanbi Oniyangi, said in Qaddafy was said to have pre- providing only limited cover for ex- April that his government was in- ferred the old arrangement, which, ports to Ghana since the coup by vestigating the alleged incursion although it did not permit some Lib- Flight Lieut. Jerry Rawlings in into Sokoto. {West Africa. March yan troops to remain in Chad, pro- 1979. British exports to Ghana have 30 and April 20. 1981; Lagos Radio. vided for a peacekeeping force of remained stable at about $194 mil- April 13 and 16. 1981.) troops from smaller countries not lion in 1979 and 1980. bordering on Chad. No new meet- The Ghanaian government is also Chad ings on the conflict were immedi- ately scheduled. Nigeria's Foreign seeking foreign investment to ex- • According to reports in May, Affairs Minister, Ishaya Audu, ploit its substantial reserves of gold, Libya took sides against President said. "We would like to watch the diamonds, bauxite and timber. One Goukouni Woddeye in fighting be- developments there for a while." provision of the new code is the es- tween his troops and those of tablishment of an Investments Cen- Chad's Foreign Minister Ahmat However, in mid-May, Qaddafy ter, to be headed by the Vice Acyl, a longtime Libyan loyalist. told visiting Sierra Leone President President and including most minis- Renewed fighting at Abcchc. near Siaka Stevens, chairman of the tries involved in deciding on new in- the Chad border with Sudan, be- OAU, that he had begun withdraw- vestment. tween troops loyal to the two mem- ing his troops from Chad. The Lib- yan leader said, "The Libyan forces While the investment code has its bers of the ruling transitional critics in Ghana, such as Takyiwaa government was said to have bro- that have maintained peace and sta- bility in Chad have begun to with- Manu, a lecturer at the University ken out in April after a meeting be- of Ghana, who called it a "scan- tween Woddeye and Libyan leader draw and are ready to be replaced gradually by Chadian military dalous document" by which the Muammar Qaddafy, in which the government is "bending over back- Chad president requested a scaling units." No date was announced for the completion of the withdrawal. wards to satisfy the multinational down of the Libyan troop presence, corporations which are out to plun- estimated at 12,000. Libyan military (Washington Post, May 18, 1981; Financial Times, May 12, 1981; der our resources," some observers assistance had enabled Woddeye's believe that increased investment is forces to defeat rebel Hissene Ha- West Africa, April 13 and 27 and May li. 1981; Washington Star, the only way for Ghana to remedy bre's Armed Forces of the North in its shortage of foreign exchange. December 1980. May 10. m\\JeuneAfrique, April 22, 1981; Kenya Weekly Review, The foreign exchange crisis is but Observers indicated that Libya April 17, 1981.) one symptom of Ghana's ailing may be shifting support to Acyl with economy. The high cost of living the aim of installing him as Chad's prompted the Ghana Trades Union next head of state. Acyl's troops Council to threaten a nationwide have been armed and trained by the Ghana strike in April. The strike was called Libyans, whereas Woddeye is said • President Hilla Limann paid an off after a meeting between the to command only a small number of official visit to London in May to dis- TUC, government and manufac- Toubou nomad troops. cuss Ghana's plans for economic turers* representatives- As a result

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 25 of the meeting, the Prices and In- colonial rule, sold consumer goods the meeting's end expressed the comes Board will be dissolved, and and bought peasant harvests for dis- Ivory Coast's regrets over the the distribution of 15 essential com- tribution and export through a na- deaths, which included four chil- modities, including milk, sugar, tionwide network. dren between the ages often and 16, rice, maize and flour will be made Guinea-Bissau has been suffering and Ghana's condemnation of the directly to workers' cooperatives from severe food shortages during students' attack on the Ivorian em- and other organizations. (Financial the past year, and observers believe bassy. Times, May 18, 1981; London the state of the economy was behind Following the reconciliation, the Guardian, May 16, 1981; West Af- the coup which overthrew Cabral. staff of the Ivory Coast embassy rica,Apn\ 13,20andMay4, 1981.) According to Agence France- was planning to return to Accra. Presse reports, Guinea-Bissau is {Africa, May 1981; West Africa, Guinea expected to lose between 70 and 80 April6, 13and2O, \9%\\Economist, • Guinea's recent discovery of percent of its 1981 harvest, resulting April 11,1981.) eight uranium deposits was the sub- in a 70,000 ton food deficit, because ject of a March meeting in Conakry of drought and a shorter rainy sea- Liberia son. The World Food Program is of international mining interests. • On the first anniversary of the Representatives from Nigeria and sending 5.000 tons of maize as emergency food aid to be distrib- military government's takeover in of companies from eight other coun- April, the Liberian head of state. tries including the U.S., France and uted in the hardest hit areas, in south and central Guinea-Bissau. Master Sgt. Samuel Doe, an- West Germany, attended the meet- nounced that a commission was be- ing to discuss the mineral's poten- {West Africa, March 30, April 6 and 13,1981.) ing formed to draft a constitution to tial exploitation. return the country to civilian rule, Nigeria's Mines and Energy Min- Doe did not specify when military ister, Mohamed Hassan, expressed Ivory Coast rule would end and said that strict his government's interest in playing • Tensions between the Ivory security measures would remain in an important role in the develop- Coast and Ghana over an incident in effect until that time. When asked ment of Guinea's mining industry, March in which 46 Ghanaians died by reporters about his role in a civil- including iron ore and uranium. of asphyxiation in an overcrowded ian government. Doe said, "I am In May, U.S. Steel agreed to take Abidjan police ceil reportedly were not interested in anything but to go part in the Mifergui-Nimba iron ore eased after a meeting between the back on a farm and work, or do any- mining project along with the Nige- two countries' presidents in Lome, thing anybody can do to live." rian government, which has a $7.7 Togo, in early April. The old constitution was sus- million share in the venture. Nigeria Three weeks after the deaths, and pended after the coup against the is expected to buy about one million following the Ghanaian Interior late President, William Tolbert. The tons of the ore per year and will also Minister's report that he was 25-member commission to draft a take a 10 percent equity participa- snubbed by Ivorian President Felix new one is headed by Dr. Amos tion in a planned bauxite project in Houphouet-Boigny when he went Sawyer, dean of the political sci- Guinea. Bauxite has been exploited to Abidjan to investigate the inci- ence department at the University for several years and accounts for dent, Ghanaian students in Accra of Liberia. Doe said members of the over 90 percent of Guinea's ex- attacked the Ivory Coast embassy. commission were chosen on the ports. (West Africa, April 6 and The Ivory Coast evacuated its dip- basis of "regional balance, techni- May 11, 1981.) lomatic personnel and closed the cal competence and commitment to embassy after accusing the Ghana- the course of change in the interest Guinea-Bissau ian government of "culpable negli- of the Liberian masses." • The director and deputy director gence." Another measure announced in of Guinea-Bissau's state-run Peo- The students had demanded an Doe's coup anniversary speech to ple's Stores were arrested in "unqualified apology from the Ivor- the nation was the release from jail March, along with Armando Ra- ian government and compensation of 19 political prisoners, including mos, former Minister for Com- to the families" of the victims from two former defense ministers, Allen merce and Industry, as part of a the Ivorian charge d'affaires in William and James Gbarbea. government crackdown on corrup- Accra. They subsequently marched Twenty-four others, including tion. on the Ghana Passport Office and Adolphus Tolbert, son of the late Francisco Coutinho, the stores' attacked its director, Yaw Adu, President, remain in jail. director, is the brother-in-law of blaming him for denials of passports Doe also used the anniversary oc- overthrown President Luis Cabral, to citizens who then leave the coun- casion to pay tribute to the U .S gov- and was accused of mismanage- try without proper documents. ernment, Liberia's largest aid do- ment and embezzlement. Ramos, President Gnassingbe Eyadema nor. The U.S. provided $23.85 mil- who was the government minister of Togo called the meeting of Presi- lion in 1980 and approved $33 mil- responsible for the stores, was dents Hilla Limann of Ghana and lion thus far in 1981 in assistance to charged with negligence and im- Houphouet-Boigny in Lome in Doe's government. The strength of proper use of funds. early April in an effort to defuse U.S.-Liberia ties was evidenced by The People's Stores, established what was becoming an explosive the presence of 100 U.S. Green Be- during the war against Portuguese situation. A communique issued at rets in Monrovia, who arrived in

26 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 mid-April for 30 days' training with cause of the evolution of conflicts in glut. "We just couldn't justify the the Liberian army. the Western Sahara, from which price," a company official said. And in May, the Liberian govern- Mauritania has withdrawn." (West "We've got a lot of oil piling up. ment announced that the Libyan Africa, May 4, 1981; Kenya Weekly With our reduced refinery runs, we embassy in Monrovia has been or- Review, May 1, 1981.) just don't need all that high-grade dered to close and the Soviet Union crude," he added. Nigeria charges has been asked to reduce its em- Niger between $40.40 and $41 per barrel bassy staff there from 15 to six. • According to an April report in for its high-grade oil, making it one (New York Times, May 13, 1981; the Washington Star, President of the most expensive in the world. Kenya Weekly Review, April 17, Seyni Kountche recently disclosed Unless Nigeria finds another 1981; Monrovia Radio, April 12 and that Niger has sold about 450 metric buyer for the oil, Arco's cancel- 14, 1981; London Times, April 14, tons of unenriched uranium to Lib- lation of the contracts was expected 1981.) yan leader Muammar Qaddafy and to cost the country approximately may sell him more in the future. $900 million a year, or about 3 per- Mauritania Western sources indicated that cent of Nigeria's estimated annual Niger's uranium could be processed oil revenue. A spokesman for the • Mauritania's head of state, Lieut. state-owned Nigerian National Pe- Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould to make nuclear weapons, but it would be difficult. They also said troleum Corp. said, however, that Heydalla, put an end to the coun- Nigeria was not worried by Arco's try's brief experiment with a civilian that while they were not certain what Libya was doing with the ura- decision and would not cut its prices government in April by replacing from the current level. He added Prime Minister Sidi Ahmed Ould nium, they believed the Tripoli gov- ernment was probably supplying it that he did not foresee any shortage Bneijara with acareer soldier, Lieut. ofbuyersfortheoil. Col. Maaouya Ould Sidi Ahmed to Arab nations and Pakistan. Taya, who will also be Minister of Niger is the world's fourth largest In May, Gulf Oil Corp. said it was Defense. uranium producer. It banned ship- opening discussions with Nigeria on reducing the price of its oil. Nigeria A new 14-member cabinet was ments to Tripoli in January when Niamey suspended diplomatic rela- is Gulfs single largest foreign oil also appointed, which includes five supplier and Gulf produced about military men. Bneijara and a 17- tions because of Libya's involve- ment in neighboring Chad. 112,000 barrels per day in the coun- member cabinet with only one rep- try in 1980. Gulf also bought an ad- resentative from the military had Kountche said, however, that he did not rule out resuming the sales. ditional 117,500 barrels under taken office last December, as part long-term arrangements. of Heydalla's aim to establish World uranium prices have fallen "democratic institutions'" in Mauri- recently and since Niger is in des- The company's president, James tania. A new constitution was to perate need of funds, Kountche Lee, said if a price cut were not ob- have been drawn up and presented said, "If the devil asks to sell him tained. Gulf would be forced to con- to the people in a referendum. uranium today, I'll sell it to him." sider reducing the volume of oil it However, in a speech on the sev- gets from Nigeria. (Wall Street However, since the civilian gov- Journal, April 14 and May 13, 1981; ernment had been in place, two enth anniversary of military rule in Niger in April, Kountche urged fur- New York Times, April 24, 1981; events which observers said threat- Financial Times, April 15, 1981.) ened Heydalla's rule took place, ap- ther vigilance against Libya, noting parently prompting the return to that while the Tripoli government • Nigeria's National Labor Con- military government. In mid- may not overtly intervene in its gress (NLC) called a nationwide March, a coup attempt launched by neighboring countries, "other general strike in mid-May to press two exiled Mauritanian military forms of direct or indirect subver- its demands for a tripling of the min- leaders, allegedly with Morocco's sive action may appear through the imum wage to $550 per month. Al- complicity, was foiled. infiltration of agents, corruption, in- though the response to the strike In April, Libya's leader, Muam- citing tribal antagonism or subver- call was said to be spotty, Lagos mar Qaddafy, paid an official visit sive propaganda on radios." was disrupted for the two-day dura- to Nouakchott where he reportedly He added "Unknown to you or tion of the protest when civil ser- discussed a proposed merger be- not, the enemy is trying to turn you vice, railways, retail trade and some tween Mauritania and the Western into agents working for his cause, bank workers walked off their jobs. Sahara, as well as an alliance be- which is the disruption of Niger." In addition, the NLC was calling tween Mauritania, Libya and Alge- (West Africa, April 27, 1981; for larger housing and travel allow- ria. Mauritanian opposition sources Washington Star, April 14, 1981.) ances, improved pensions, and the alleged that Bneijara had probably abrogation of restrictive legislation agreed to Qaddafy's proposals. Nigeria limiting the rights of some workers The ruling Military Committee of • Atlantic Richfield (Arco), the sev- to go on strike. President Shehu National Salvation justified the enth largest U.S. oil company, noti- Shagari had urged the congress to change in government by saying it fied the Nigerian government in cancel plans for the strike, and said took place"'. . . to avoid the peril of April that it is ending two oil supply the minimum wage demand was un- destabilization and plans of hege- contracts involving 60,000 barrels realistic and would have serious monist forces. The tension has been of crude a day. Arco said it based its consequences on the public and pri- increasing in the northern region be- decision on the current world oil vate sectors if implemented.

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 27 Labor leaders agreed to call off ence in January had recommended achievement of understanding be- the strike after two days in return the withdrawal of the notices. tween the various peoples of the for pledges of a higher minimum And on the economic front, Diouf region." (Sudanese News Agency, wage and improved fringe benefits. announced that the government has April 20 and 21, 1981; Aden Radio, Agreement was reached between canceled farmers' debts to the state April 8, 1981.) the NLC, a federation grouping 42 totaling $88,000 for seeds and fertil- unions, and a team of government izer, and said that prices paid for Ethiopia officials and legislators led by the their crops would soon be raised. Vice President, Alex Ekwueme. (West Africa, April 20, May 4 and • In April, Foreign Minister Emilio The national assembly was to be di- 11, 1981; Jeune Afriaue, May 6, Colombo of Italy became the first rected to pass a law setting a new 1981.) Western foreign minister to visit minimum wage within 30 days. Ethiopia since the 1974 revolution. (London Times, May 13, 1981; Fi- Sierra Leone Colombo met the Ethiopian nancial Times, May 13, 1981; West leader, Col. Mengistu Haile Ma- Africa, May 11,1981.) • General elections are to be held in riam, and agreed to provide the Sierra Leone some time in 1981, al- same level of aid that Italy gave to though as of May, the date had not Somalia in 1980. Since Ethiopia's Senegal been announced. The elections will revolution, Italy, which has histori- be the first held since the country cal links with Ethiopia, has given • Senegal's new President, Abdou became a one-party state in 1977. Diouf, has embarked on a series of Somalia much aid and training. liberalizations since taking office in Vice President S.I. Koroma an- Colombo's three-day visit was at January, which observers believe nounced that the previous system of Ethiopia's invitation. There have are designed to strengthen his politi- "unopposed candidates" will be been indications that some of the cal base and undercut the opposi- eliminated—meaning voters will be Derg, the ruling military council, tion. allowed to choose among candi- are unhappy at the increasing mili- dates running for particular offices. tary and economic dependence on A constitutional amendment was All candidates for office must, how- adopted by the national assembly in the Soviet Union. For its part, the ever, be members of the All Peoples USSR is unhappy with Ethiopia's April lifting the restrictions limiting Congress, the ruling party. the number of political parties in slow progress toward establishing a Senegal to four. The only require- Observers indicated that the gov- Communist Party. ment for new parties is that they not ernment's probable reason for call- Another visitor in April was Gen. identify themselves with any race, ing elections at this time is to divert Yepishev. chief of the political di- ethnic group, sex, religion, sect or attention away from the "Vou- rectorate of the Soviet army and language. chergate" scandal and to restore navy, member of the central com- trust in the government. Three cabi- mittee and presidium. (Financial In April, the legislature also ap- net ministers were arrested in the proved an amnesty for political and Times, April 22 and May 7, 1981; wake of the scandal, in which thou- Addis Ababa Radio, April 7, 1981.) press offenses committed between sands of dollars from the Bank of 1976and 1980andfor which the sen- Sierra Leone were being paid out on Kenya tences were less than one year or false vouchers to fictitious com- two years suspended. Exit visas for panies. {West Africa, April 13 and • The Kenyan government de- Senegalese citizens have also been May 11, 1981 ;Africa, May 1981.) tained three editors and two re- abolished, with the purpose of facil- porters from the Daily Nation on itating those who wish to leave the May 22, for "misleading the pub- country to seek employment else- EASTERN AFRICA lic" over the doctors' strike, which where. began two weeks before. In a speech to the nation on Sene- Afterwards, President Daniel gal's 21st anniversary of indepen- Djibouti arap Moi threatened to ban the dence from France in April, Diouf • President Hassan Gouled paid of- newspaper, its weekly sister, Sun- also announced plans for a reform in ficial visits to Sudan and Southern day Nation, and the Swahili-lan- the educational system. A mass lit- Yemen in April, following visits to guage Taifa Leo. The editor-in- eracy campaign will be launched, Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia. chief of all three papers, Joseph Ro- and attempts will be made to make The Djibouti leader said the drigues, was among the five de- education more universal. National March-April tour of Horn of Africa tained. languages are to be used in schools, states was intended to find "com- The Daily Nation had also ap- as opposed to French, which was mon ground" among the countries' pealed to Moi to let Oginga Odinga utilized under President Leopold leaders, not to mediate, in disputes (see following story) run for parlia- Senghor. between Somalia and Ethiopia, ment, incurring the government's In May, the government with- Ethiopia and Eritrea province, and wrath. drew dismissal and suspension no- Somalia and Kenya. The strike by doctors working for tices sent to 59 members of the Sole Gouled praised efforts by Su- the government also prompted a and Democratic Union of Senega- dan's President Gaafar al-Nimeiry demonstration and protest march lese Teachers, aftera 24-hour strike "for the creation of circumstances by hundreds of Nairobi University in May 1980. A government-spon- conducive to the establishment of students. Riot police broke up the sored national educational confer- security and stability and the demonstrations by firing into the

28 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1961 air. The doctors were seeking Seychelles ness of the economic difficulties higher pay and better working con- was the suspension in April of pas- ditions. (New York Times, May 23, • The government of Seychelles senger service on the Tazara rail- 1981; London Times, May 17, hopes to increase its exports offish, way, jointly owned by Tanzania and 1981.) raising the present yearly catch Zambia, because of "circum- from 4,400 tons to at least 10,000 stances beyond Tazara's control," tons using traditional methods. i.e., lack of money to run the line • Oginga Odinga, the Luo politi- The UN Food and Agricultural cian who was Kenya's first Vice properly. Organization, which is advising the One drain on the country's re- President, seemed poised to make a government, said the Seychelles big political comeback in March but sources will end by June 30—the had a potential of 4?,000 tons of cost of keeping 10,000 soldiers in was back in political limbo after tuna alone from its 200-mile zone some ill-chosen remarks. Uganda at $5 million a month. over offshore waters. In 1979, the Uganda's various governments Odinga, all set to be elected to a government began licensing foreign seat to parliament especially vaca- since the overthrow of Idi Amin boats for fishing. Fees amounted to have never paid the promised up- ted so he could make the comeback, $1 million that year and are ex- made a speech in which he dis- keep for the troops. The first batch pected to exceed $1.5 million in of returning troops in May received closed he once clashed with the leg- 1981. endary Jomo Kenyatta. Kenyatta a very low-key welcome from Tan- France has provided the islands zanians. The war is estimated to "wanted to grab some land," with four 105-foot tuna vessels and Odinga said, "and he asked me to have cost Tanzania about $500 mil- is training the crews. Britain has lion. (London Guardian, April 29, do the same and I refused." After built a 350-foot concrete pier and that gaffe, President Daniel arap 1981; Dares Salaam Radio, April 13 cold storage facilities for 1,000 tons and 27, 1981.) Moi attacked Odinga for disturbing offish. (Africa, April 1981.) "peace and unity." Then, Kanu. the only party, re- Somalia Uganda fused to clear Odinga for the parlia- • In late April, President Mohamed • The 10,000 Tanzanian soldiers left mentary by-election. Odinga had in Uganda, who with 30,000 others also been barred from all elections Siad Barre dismissed ten members of the Supreme Revolutionary Coun- and Ugandan dissidents, toppled Idi since he was detained (under Ken- Amin two years ago were being yatta) for nearly two years in 1969. cil from their cabinet jobs, including the Defense Minister, the national withdrawn in May and June at a Instead, Odinga's political foe, time when President Milton Obote Odongo Omamo, was cleared to run security chief and the chairman of parliament. had serious internal security prob- for the seat unopposed after the lems. nomination papers of Jalango An- The ruling military body had been revived last October, replacing a ci- Obote's government appealed to yango. an Odinga ally who would Tanzania in vain to keep the troops have won in a walk, were rejected vilian government, in order "to cor- rect errors that had crept into state in Uganda. As the troops were by the high court. (Kenya Weekly- pulled back, the anti-Obote forces, Review. April 17, 24, and May 24, machinery." A state of emergency was also declared. which have been waging guerrilla 1981; Sunday Nation, April 19. war for several months, threatened 1981; Nairobi Radio, April II, According to a late April London a major drive to oust Obote by force 1981.) Guardian report, Siad Barre's pop- of arms. It was uncertain whether ularity is at an all-time low because Uganda's poorly trained 6,000- of the country's economic collapse strong army could cope with the Madagascar and the continuing Somalia-sup- guerrillas. ported guerrilla war with Ethiopia • A dissident left-wing opposition which has created an enormous ref- "We shall sweep Obote away if group has rejoined Madagascar's ugee problem. he doesn't agree to a political com- National Front, the country's only promise," said Yoweri Museveni, political party. On May 15, Siad Barre reportedly made an unexpected trip to the U.S. the former Defense Minister who The reconciliation of Madagas- for what was called "strengthening leads the biggest guerrilla faction, car's National Independence Move- Somali-American ties" and "medi- the People's Revolutionary Army. ment occurred after its 80-year- cal reasons." (New York Times, In May, the several guerrilla groups old leader, Monja Jaona, who had May 18, 1981; Mogadishu Radio, said they had merged into one or- been under house arrest for three April 29 and May 6, 1981; London ganization, the National Resistance months, talked with President Di- Guardian, April 24, 1981.) Council. dier Ratsiraka in March. Jaona was Obote has been preaching recon- arrested last November in the capi- ciliation but at the same time his tal, Antananarivo, after organizing Tanzania government has become more re- demonstrations in Toliary on the • Tanzania's economic problems pressive in trying to consolidate southwest coast. His arrival in the are so severe it has canceled plans power. Hundreds of people have capital coincided with an outbreak for the December celebrations of been killed in the crackdown on op- of strikes by students and university the 20th anniversary of indepen- position. teachers. (Africa Research Bulle- dence from Britain. There was also speculation that tin, April 15, 1981.) Another indication of the serious- Obote may be overthrown by his

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 29 Vice President, Paulo Muwanga, Bozanga, a former cabinet member However, observers indicated who is also Defense Minister and in the government of Emperor Jean- that the Kremlin regards the treaty who has been steadily strengthen- Bedel Bokassa. Dacko retained the as a diplomatic success, despite the ing his influence in the army and ex- defense portfolio himself. (Afrique- fact that no military clauses are in- panding the secret police force. Asie, April 27, 1981: West Africa, cluded in it. (Le Monde, May 14 and Observers said that even some April 13 and 20, 1981.) 18, 1981.) members of Obote's party, the Uganda People's Congress, con- • In late March, the Minister of Equatorial Guinea sider Obote to be Muwanga's pup- Health ordered the dissolution of pet. Muwanga, or other factions in the national council of the Central • In early April, an attempted coup the ruling party, could, it was be- African Red Cross, alleging that its against President Teodoro Obiang lieved, strike a deal with the guer- statutes had not been submitted to Mbasogo was foiled by the security rillas. (Economist, May 9, 1981; the authorities for approval. Ruth forces in Molabo, the capital. Sev- London Observer, May 3, 1981; Rolland, former president of the enteen people were reported killed Kenya Weekly Review, May I, Red Cross in the Central African in the fighting, including two mem- 1981; London times. May 1, 1981.) Republic, said her dismissal was a bers of the presidential guard, com- "coup de force" by President posed of Moroccan troops, and David Dacko, who was not even several Equatorial Guinean sol- empowered to dissolve the Red diers. CENTRAL AFRICA Cross executive. More than ten people were ar- Rolland had publicly stated that rested, including several former Central African Republic she had not received "any donation ministers in the previous regime led by Macias Nguema, who was over- • David Dacko was sworn in as from the President of France." con- trary to what Valery Giscard thrown by Mbasogo in 1979. The president for a six-year-term in early prisoners include: Pedro Ekong, April, although four opposition can- d'Estaing had claimed on French television during his losing bid for former Minister of Health; Angel didates continued to contest the Masie, former Interior Minister; controversial March election. They re-election in March. Giscard had finally admitted re- Esteban Ngoma, former ambassa- are seeking its annulment from the dor to Spain; Carmelo Modu, a Supreme Court. ceiving large gifts of diamonds from former Emperor Jean-Bedel Bo- businessman; and Ricardo Nvum- In his inaugural address. Dacko ba, a prominent executive. said the opposition leaders should kassa, but said they were sold and "forgive and forget" and called for the proceeds given to Central Afri- Madrid newspapers reported that an end to all "hostile, partisan and can charities, including the Red a wealthy businessman who re- sterile actions." Dacko also ended Cross. Dacko confirmed that he had turned to Equatorial Guinea from the state of siege which he had im- received the check from Giscard exile in late 1979 was the suspected posed after rioting in Bangui when and it would be "handed over to the backer of the abortive coup. How- his 50.2 percent victory in the polls new Red Cross council as soon as it ever, one of the man's partners was announced. Bangui University is elected." claimed in Madrid that the conspir- was also re-opened. Rolland said it was highly unusual acy was fabricated by Equatorial procedure for money to be donated Guinea authorities. He alleged the The legislative elections sched- coup attempt was prepared by them uled for June 15 were expected to be to the President and not directly to her. Observers believed that Rol- to undermine the prestige of Mba- hotly contested by the opposition. sogo* s political opponents. (West The four candidates who ran against land's support for one of the opposi- tion candidates in the Central Africa, May 4, T981; London Dacko united to form a provisional Times, April 29, 1981.) political council. African presidential election may have been the reason for her re- Ange Patasse, who came in sec- moval from the Red Cross execu- Rwanda ond in the presidential race and tive. (West Africa, April 13, 1981.) chairs the Movement for the Liber- • President Juvenal Habyarimana ation of the Central African People reshuffled his cabinet in March, re- (MPLC), accused Dacko in April of Congo taining the posts of Prime Minister launching a program to eliminate • President Denis Sassou-Nguesso and Defense Minister, and sacking political leaders, with French collu- signed a treaty of cooperation and three other ministers. sion. Patasse alleged that Dacko friendship with Soviet President The Ministers of Finance, Educa- had recruited mercenaries to sub- Leonid Brezhnev in mid-May, tion, and Social Affairs and Cooper- due the northern and eastern prov- while on an official visit to Moscow. atives were replaced in the inces and said the MPLC would not The trip by the Congolese head of shake-up. The Education Ministry participate in the government un- state had been planned for more was divided into two: the Ministry less an inquiry determined that than two years, but had been post- of Primary and Secondary Educa- there were no irregularities in the poned because of differences be- tion, and the Ministry of Higher Ed- presidential election. tween the two countries. The Soviet ucation and Scientific Research. In the meantime, Dacko formed a Union has requested a naval base at Two of the 18 posts that had been 17-member cabinet and appointed Pointe-Noire, but Brazzaville has vacant were filled: Minister of Pub- four secretaries of state. The new been reluctant to agree to the pro- lic Works and Equipment, and Min- Prime Minister is Simon Narcisse posal. ister of Civil Service and Em-

30 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 ployment. (Africa Research Bulle- lum in Belgium, nor was he inter- In a related event. Zambia's Cen- tin, April 15, 1981.) ested in joining any opposition tral Bank suspended commercial groups there, he could not have re- banks' authority to approve appli- Zaire signed in Kinshasa because to do so cations for payments of imported would have been the "equivalent of goods, in an effort to conserve for- • In April. Zaire Prime Minister asking for the key to my old cell." eign exchange. All applications for Nguza Karl-I-Bond submitted his He expressed hope that Mobutu letters of credit or other import pay- resignation in a letter to President would hold to an earlier promise for ment instruments must go through Mobutu Sese Seko from Brussels, "the democratization of institutions the Central Bank. (Economist, May Belgium, where he was on a private and free elections in a peaceful, le- 16, 1981; Financial Times, April 23 visit. He cited "personal reasons" gal and democratic framework." and May 7, 1981.) for his departure from the govern- (Le Monde, May 18. 1981.) ment. Nguza was previously Zaire's NORTHERN AFRICA Foreign Minister at the time of the Zambia first Shaba invasion in 1977 and was • After the leaders of the Zambian dismissed, arrested for "high trea- Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) Algeria son" and condemned to death. The boycotted a meeting scheduled for • Three American gas-pipeline com- sentence was commuted to life im- April with the Minister of Labor and panies—Consolidated Natural Gas prisonment, and he was released Social Services, Basil Kabwe. a Co.. Columbia Gas System Inc.. and from jail in 1978 after serving ten move expected to worsen the al- Southern Natural Resources Inc.— months. In March 1979, Nguza was ready tense relations between the announced plans to reopen negotia- re-appointed Foreign Minister and ZCTU and the government, all 17 tions with Algeria in late May on the then in 1980. named Prime Minister. labor leaders expelled from the rul- resumption of shipments of lique- The official Zaire news agency, ing party in January were re-admit- fied natural gas (LNG> to the U.S. AZAP, characterized Nguza's res- ted to the organization in late April. Algeria had been selling the LNG ignation as "'an act of gross coward- The 17 men had been expelled to El Paso Natural Gas Co., the larg- ice," and implied that Nguza had from the United National Indepen- est U.S. importer of the gas, which chosen Brussels as a haven in order dence Party (UNIP) because the in turn distributed it to the three to join Mobutu's opponents, many ZCTU had opposed legislation de- companies. Talks between Algerian of whom are based there. centralizing government authority and U.S. Energy Department offi- According to a report in Jeune and extending party control to the cials over a new export price for the Afriqtte, however, Nguza's depar- local governments. The expulsions LNG ended in a stalemate in Febru- ture was due to Mobutu's appoint- sparked a spate of strikes in Zam- ary, causing El Paso to write off ment, in a February cabinet re- bia's copper and cobalt mining cen- $365 million against its 1980 profits shuffle, of Bomboko Lokumba as ters in January. "in view of the remote prospects" Foreign Minister and vice prime UNlP's secretary-general, Hum- of resumed gas shipments, which minister. Mobutu reportedly intro- phrey Mulemba, said that a ban were halted in April 1980. duced the new vice prime minister placed on the union leaders1 travel The three distributors have ex- position while Nguza was out of the abroad and the restriction of foreign pressed hope that a new agreement country, and appointed Lokumba, labor leaders from visiting Zambia with Algeria can be reached, and like Nguza, a popular figure in inter- was still in force. (Lusaka Radio, they engaged Warren Christopher, national circles, to neutralize Ngu- April 24 and 25, 1981.) U.S. chief negotiator for the release za's influence. Nguza reportedly of the American hostages from Iran, feared a repeat of Mobutu's 1977 • In mid-May, the International to represent them in the talks. machinations against him. Monetary Fund agreed to provide The Algerian government had He was replaced in late April by Zambia with a $1 billion loan over sought to achieve a parity price Nsinga Udjuu. a businessman and the next three years, the largest level for exports of both oil and former Interior Minister and minis- IMF loan ever granted to a sub-Sa- LNG of about $6 per 1,000 cubic ter to the presidency. {Jeune Afri- haran African country. Negotia- feet. The U.S. government resisted que. May 6. 1981: West Africa, tions had been going on for several the increase, arguing instead for a April 27 and May 4. 1981; Kenya months, and Zambia is expected to ceiling of about $4.50 per 1,000 cu- Weekly Review, April 24, 1981.) draw its first installment—$144 mil- bic feet. However, a 20-year con- According to a report in mid-May lion—almost immediately to stave tract signed by Algeria in April with in Le Monde, Nguza has declared off the worst foreign exchange crisis Distrigaz of Belgium under which himself a candidate to the presi- of its 17-year independence. LNG will be provided at $5.00 per dency when Mobutu's current term The loan is expected to provide a 1,000 cubic feet, the highest price expires in 1984. or before, if the cir- desperately needed boost to Zam- obtained from any customer, may cumstances permit. He said. "I re- bia's ailing economy, hit by low hinder agreement with the U.S. signed to be in peace with my copper and cobalt prices, rising fuel companies. conscience and to remain true to my costs, and the toll of having main- It is believed that the Reagan ad- principles." tained economic sanctions against ministration will veto any agree- Nguza also said that although he Zimbabwe priorto its independence ment to buy LNG at the Belgian did not wish to ask for political asy- in 1980. price. Any LNG deal must be ap-

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 31 proved by the U.S. Energy Depart- sion in Washington and remove its ism, which it opposes, and libera- ment's Economic Regulatory Ad- staff from the country in early May, tion movements, which it supports. ministration. (New York Times, citing "a wide range of Libyan Qaddafy also said, "I am sorry to April 15 and May 13, 1981; Business provocations and misconduct, in- see this childish behavior by the Week, April 27, 1981.) cluding support for international American government, which is not terrorism." The move was one step suitable for a big power." Egypt short of a severance of diplomatic He added that Libyan relations • In early May, President Anwar relations. with the Soviet Union were good Sadat introduced a new budget to- A State Department statement because Soviet arms sold to his taling $14 billion, which provides said the U.S. government was con- country helped it maintain its de- for large wage increases to offset cerned by "a general pattern of un- fenses against "enemies." Qaddafy the impact of inflation and places acceptable conduct" by Tripoli's paid an official visit to Moscow in high priority on continuing subsi- embassy in Washington, which late April, his first since 1976, dies on basic foods and necessities. Libya calls a "people's bureau." where he attended meetings with The package, which comes into ef- There have been reports within the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. A fect on July I, will cost the govern- past year of involvement by Libya's joint communique issued at the ment about $724 million per year. foreign missions in a campaign of trip's end stated the two govern- ments' common positions on inter- Subsidies on tea, rice, sugar, harassment, including murders, of opponents to Col. Muammar Qad- national issues—including attacks cooking oil and bread will be in- on the role of the U.S. in the Middle creased from $2.1 billion to $2.8 bil- dafy's regime. The Reagan adminis- tration has also expressed dis- East and Third World, and a rejec- lion, to maintain a lid on retail tion of "attempts by imperialist cir- prices. While Sadat has been criti- pleasure over Libya's activities in Chad, Sudan and Egypt. cles to equate international ter- cized by Western governments and rorism with the liberation struggles the IMF for maintaining the subsi- The U.S. withdrew most of its of people." (New York Times, dies, he has refused to eliminate diplomats from Libya in December April 30, May 7, 8, and 15. 1981; them, mindful of an attempt to do so 1979 after rioting crowds burned Wall Street Journal, May 7 and 14, in 1977 which sparked riots in which and looted the embassy in Tripoli. 1981; Washington Post, May 7 and several people were killed. More The embassy was officially closed 8, 1981.) than 60 percent of the real income of in May 1980, and since then U.S. the poor and about 40 percent of the interests there have been repre- Morocco middle class' income comes from sented by Belgium. the subsidies. • President Siaka Stevens of Sierra There are still about 2,000 Ameri- Leone, chairman of the OAU, and The lowest-paid workers will re- cans in Libya, mostly employees of Edem Kodjo, the organization's ceive the largest benefit from the the seven major U.S. oil com- secretary-general, arrived in Mo- wage increases. Those earning the panies. The U.S. receives approxi- rocco in mid-April for discussions minimum of $28.90 a month will mately 640.000 barrels of Libyan oil with King Hassan on the Western receive a 50 percent boost in sal- a day. about ten percent of total oil Sahara war. aries. The 3.5 million public sector imports. While Dr. Ali Houderi, workers and government employ- The two men were scheduled to the head of Libya's mission in present Hassan with the official text ees, who earn $144.90 a month, will Washington, reassured the U.S. receive a $30.40 monthly raise. of recommendations made in Sep- that its citizens would be safe in his tember 1980 by the OAU special Egypt's balance of payments po- country, the State Department ad- committee on the Western Sahara. sition has improved in recent vised the American oil companies Among the points of the OAU plan years—with a $700 million surplus to begin an "orderly drawdown of were a ceasefire by December 1980. in 1979, and a near $1 billion surplus their personnel." which did not take place, and a ref- for 1980—due mainly to Egypt's Prior to his return to Libya, erendum supervised by the OAU expanding oil production. In late Houderi suggested that Libya might and UN allowing the people of the April, Mobil Corp. announced the Sahara to decide their future. discovery of natural gas and oil in an cut off oil exports to the U.S. in re- offshore test well 28 miles from the taliation for the closure of the mis- The Moroccan government has Nile delta. The results of the drilling sion, but that action was only one of repeatedly rejected the OAU rec- at el-Temsah no. 2 well, undertaken a range of measures the Tripoli gov- ommendations for a settlement of in a production-sharing contract ernment could take. In mid-May, the dispute. Moroccan Foreign with Egypt's state-owned oil com- however. Qaddafy said his govern- Minister Mohamed Boucetta has pany, were said to be encouraging. ment would not use an oil embargo said in the past that Rabat would (World Business Weekly, May 18, as a weapon against the U.S. and never accept a ceasefire because "it 1981; Financial Times, May 12, said Americans living in Libya was never the first to open fire." 1981; New York Times, April 28 would be safe "unless the situation A major showdown on the Sahara and May 6, 1981.) deteriorates" because of further war is expected at the 18th OAU U.S. actions against his country. summit to be held in Nairobi in late In an official statement, the Lib- June. Morocco was able to forestall Libya yan government denied that it sup- the admission of the Saharan Arab • The U.S. government ordered ports international terrorists, say- Democratic Republic, represented Libya to close its diplomatic mis- ing it distinguishes between terror- by Polisario, to the OAU at the 1980

32 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 summit in Freetown, Sierra Leone, Mestiri, called for a "national con- House prevailed, retaining the ban. despite the fact that the SADR had ference" with representation of all Administration efforts to repeal gained the support of the requisite the political currents committed to the Clark amendment have come 26 member states. democracy to prepare for the new under heavy fire from those who see Rabat has launched a worldwide system. it as an indication of President diplomatic offensive to explain its The PSD congress also elected a Reagan's willingness to aid Unita, position on the Western Sahara, new 80-member central committee, which has been fighting a guerrilla prior to the OAU summit. Govern- which was seen as a vote of confi- war against the Angolan MPLA ment ministers, political leaders, dence in the liberalization policies government since independence in and advisers will visit about 90 undertaken by Prime Minister Mo- 1975. The administration is highly countries in North and Soulh Amer- hamed Mzali. Mzali succeeded critical of the presence of Cuban ica, Asia. Europe and Africa in Hedi Nouira in April 1980. troops in Angola, which the Luanda hopes of gaining more favorable in- The PSD meeting was followed in government maintains are in the ternational opinion. late April by a special two-day con- country to protect it from South Af- Meanwhile, on the ground, ten- ference of the General Union of Tu- rican attacks, as well as those from sions between Morocco and Algeria nisian Workers (UGTT), the first to Savimbi's forces, militarily assisted have increased after an incursion be held since the riots in January by Pretoria. into Algerian territory by Moroccan 1978, after which many labor Chester Crocker, the U.S. assist- troops pursuing Polisario fighters. leaders were arrested. More than ant secretary of state for African af- The Algiers government has put 500 delegates attended and elected a fairs, told the Angolan government army units on alert in the western 13-member executive bureau, of when he visited there in April as border region. (West Africa, May 4 whom 11 had been detained by the part of a 12-nation tour, that the and 18. 1981; London Times, April government during the 1978 unrest, withdrawal of the Cuban troops was 14, 1981.) including Taieb Baccouche. a pro- necessary for the resumption of in- fessor at Tunis University, who was ternational efforts to end South Af- elected secretary-general. rican control of Namibia. Angolan Tunisia The conference passed a motion President Jose Eduardo dos Santos • At a special congress of the ruling denying that the UGTT had played characterized his meeting with Socialist Destour Party (PSD) in any part in the 1978 riots, and called Crocker as a failure. (Washington April, President Habib Bourguiba for a presidential pardon for Habib Star, May 15, 1981; Washington announced his readiness to permit a Achour, the former secretary-gen- Post, May 14, 1981; New York multiparty system of government in eral. (Lc Monde, April 8 and May Times, May I and 14. 1981.) Tunisia. The PSD has been the 15. 1981; Economist, May 9, 1981; country's only party since Bour- Tunis Radio. May 4, 1981; London • In a cabinet reshuffle in late guiba founded it 25 years ago. Guardian, April 30, 1981; London March. President Jose Eduardo dos New parties will be required to Times, April 11 and 14, 1981.) Santos sacked three ministers and demonstrate that they arc repre- promoted the former Prime Minis- sentative, comply with the constitu- ter and current Minister of Foreign tion, preserve the nation's gains, SOUTHERN AFRICA Trade, Lopo do Nascimento, to and reject fanaticism, violence and head the Ministry of Planning. ideological or material dependence Augusto Lopes Teixeira replaced on foreign powers. It is believed Angola Ambrosio Lukoki as Minister of that Bourguiba's liberalization will • In May, the U.S. House of Rep- Education. Artur Vidal Gomes is to not be extended to include Moslem resentatives Foreign Affairs Com- head the Ministry of Agriculture, in fundamentalists or the Communist mittee voted to maintain the place of Manuel Pedro Pacavira. Party, which is banned. Francisco Gaspar Martins was congressional ban on military aid to named Minister of Home Trade. In view of the new provision for the Unita rebels in Angola, while the (Africa Research Bulletin, April 15, several parties, the national assem- corresponding committee in the 1981.) bly will be dissolved and elections Senate voted to repeal the ban, are slated for October. The current known as the Clark amendment. legislature was elected in 1979 for The Reagan administration had Malawi five years and at the end of the cur- asked Congress in mid-March to re- • The South African government rent session, in July, the deputies move the restrictions on covert or has formally apologized to the am- will be asked to submit their resig- overt U.S. aid to Unita, led by Dr. bassador from Malawi, one of the nations. Jonas Savimbi, which were adopted few African nations with which Pre- The opposition Movement of Dem- in 1976, characterizing the ban as toria has diplomatic relations, for an ocratic Socialists (MDS) seized the "an unusually all-encompassing re- incident of racial discrimination in- opportunity to announce that it is striction on U.S. policy options." volving the ambassador's 16-year- forming a political party and con- If the differing votes of the two old son. gratulated the government for "the congressional committees are up- Malawian ambassador McLean series of sincere measures" it has held by the full House and Senate, Machinjili's son was to have played undertaken toward the institution of the question will have to be re- on his school's rugby team against democratic process in Tunisia. The solved in conference. In 1980, the an Afrikaans school team. The Afri- MDS secretary-general. Ahmed same situation occurred, and the kaans school refused to play, saying

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1961 33 it would not take part in a mixed Masake had claimed that security Tutu charges that the government rugby match. Ambassador Machin- police tortured him into confessing is behind the "well-orchestrated jili said the incident was proof that to crimes he had not committed. campaign to vilify and denigrate some South African parents were (Sowetan, April 27 and May 7, both SACC and myself." He added, teaching their children racial dis- 1981.) "But having had the Info scandal, crimination. (London Guardian, you can't be surprised that a system May 5 and 7, 1981.) • An attempt was made in May on as evil as apartheid will use methods the life of David Thebehali, chair- such as represented by these pam- South Africa man of the Soweto Council, when a phlets." (Sowetan, April 22, May 5 • Three men alleged to have taken hand grenade was thrown under his and 7, 1981; Rand Daily Mail, April part in the sabotage of a Durban official car. Thebehali was unhurt 8, 1981.) power station in April have been ar- but his car was extensively da- rested by Lesotho police and were maged. • Sigma Motor Corp.—a subsidi- to be turned over to the South Afri- Thebehali is a controversial fig- ary of the Anglo American Corp. can security police. ure in Soweto because he heads the conglomerate and 25 percent- South African Police Minister government-set up council which owned by Chrysler Corp.—has rec- Louis le Grange announced that the was elected with only 6 percent of ognized the independent black and three were found in possession of the township's voters participating Coloured (mixed-race) National rifles, automatic pistols and gre- in a boycotted election. He has been Union of Motor Assembly and Rub- nades and were believed to be mem- the target of frequent verbal attacks ber Workers following April's bers of the banned African National by other black politicians. strike by virtually the entire black Congress. Thebehali blamed "hostile press and Coloured workforce of 4,000. Le Grange said the men fled to reports" for the assassination at- Negotiations were being held in Lesotho by car after sabotaging the tempt. He said the press was "re- May over higher wages and the is- power station and crossed the bor- sponsible for the atmosphere of sue of 18 workers who had acted as der on foot. Two of the alleged sab- hatred" against him and the coun- intermediaries during the strike and oteurs were also said to have been cil. One critic said Thebehali "must were subsequently fired. The un- involved in the June 1980 sabotage not expect sympathy from blacks ion, which won its battle to become of the Sasol oil-from-coal plant. because he is responsible for high the workers' sole bargaining agen- Security police have said re- rents and electricity bills." (Sowe- cy, replacing a management-set up cently, following the discovery of tan, May 8, 1981.) liaison committee, said reinstate- several caches of weapons in the Jo- ment of the 18 workers was funda- hannesburg region, that the ANC is • Bishop Desmond Tutu has lashed mental . "planning a more advanced and big- out at a "smear campaign" con- The Geneva-based International ger internal onslaught." (Sowetan. ducted against him when he was Metalworkers Federation, to which May 8, 1981; Johannesburg Radio, overseas in April and continuing in the South African union had ap- April 21, 1981.) May. pealed, said the Sigma dispute was a Thousands of pamphlets have challenge to Anglo American chair- • Two alleged black guerrillas been distributed in Soweto and man Harry Oppenheimer to prove charged with "furthering the aims other black townships attacking the liberalism he has been preach- of the African National Congress," Tutu, who is general secretary of ing. (Sowetan, May 7 and 13, 1981; a banned organization, were acquit- the South African Council of Johannesburg Star, April 25 and ted in April after the court found Churches. The various pamphlets, May 2, 1981.) "contradictions in the state's evi- which Tutu labeled "scurrilous," dence." have been signed by a fictitious • Ninety-six white South African Raphael Khumalo, 24, of So- body, the United Trade Unions' draftees went absent without leave weto, had also been charged with Council, and by the Young Chris- from a military base near Pretoria in possession of four AK.-47 rifles, two tian Workers and the National As- April. All but 17 returned soon after automatic pistols, hand grenades sociation for the Advancement of and those draftees were accused of and dynamite. His co-defendant, Coloured People of South Africa, "mutiny" by the army, which said Raymond Dludlu, had also been both of which have denied having they would be arrested. charged with transporting Khu- anything to do with the pamphlets. This is the second reported inci- malo, despite the fact that he was a Bishop Joe Joshua of the latter or- dent of draftees going AWOL in 18 "trained terrorist," from Swaziland ganization said he has hired private months. In October 1979, 300 to South Africa. All the charges investigators to find out who is be- draftees just returned from combat were dropped. hind the campaign. "If we find the in Namibia walked off another army And an ex-student from Soweto people responsible," he said, "we base. who had been convicted of receiv- are going to sue them heavily." The 96 national servicemen at ing military training from the ANC The pamphlets try to discredit Elandsfontein base all belonged to had his five-year sentence over- Tutu by praising him and then going the catering school of the ordinance turned in April. An appeals court on to claim that he lives in luxury survey corps and walked out report- said there was no adequate evi- and educates his children overseas edly after complaining about food dence that 19-year-old Adam Ma- while telling the world "we would and conditions. (Johannesburg Ra- sake had received the training. gladly suffer for our principles." dio, April 27, 1981.)

34 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 seem to me that we should seek ways to cooperate with the Organization of African Unity's efforts to maintain the sovereignty of African nations. AFRICA REPORT: Is it the business of the United States to promote change in South Africa—or to stand in the way of change? What principles and what interests should guide American policy toward that country? KASSEBAUM: The United States has a substantial inter- est in the business of fostering progressive change in South Africa—although we too often overestimate our ability to do more than influence events there. There is considerable truth in Dick Moose's statement last year that no amount of political action from overseas can overshadow the solution to be worked out by South Africa's own people. It seems to me that in encouraging a more just society in South Africa we are protecting our national interests as well as being true to our national ideals. Given the economic, political, and strategic importance of southern Africa, it would seem to me that a South Africa with whom we could have close re- Senator Nancy Landon Kassebaum: "The United States has a substantial interest in fostering progressive change in lations—which means a South Africa that is a democratic South Africa" and just society for all its people—would be a high priority for any administration. AFRICA REPORT: Would you back a democratic set- tlement in Namibia, even if that leads to a SWAPO victory? Africa should be a matter of concern to Africans and to their KASSEBAUM: A truly democratic and independent friends in the West. Namibia is certainly an essential objective of our African AFRICA REPORT: Senator, do you think the U.S. policy, and a democratic Namibia is by definition a country should do more to help African refugees? Would you con- in which its people have freely chosen their government. sider calling hearings on this? The choice of that government is for the Namibian people to KASSEBAUM: 1 believe the United States should engage make. with its allies in a more intensive .search for the political sol- AFRICA REPORT: What should be our attitude toward utions that will make it possible for the African refugees to the Savimbi insurgency and the MPLA government in An- return home and reconstruct their lives. We plan to hold gola? hearings this summer on the general subject of African refu- KASSEBAUM: Ideally, there will be a democratic elec- gees to determine what the United States should be doing in tion in Angola so that we can determine who are the legiti- addition to the already considerable aid we are providing. If mate leaders of the Angolan people. Since there has been no I am not mistaken, the United States is already providing 40 election, the debate in the United States about whether the percent of all African refugee aid. Perhaps we should be en- MPLA or UNITA movements represent the Angolan people couraging other nations to provide aid at a level more in line is only a matter of opinion among the international suppor- with their own economic status. ters of the movements. I would certainly expect that should AFRICA REPORT: Will you work for increased aid for the MPLA win in a free and fair election, the United States Africa? What criteria should govern our aid programs there? would recognize the choice of the Angolan people. KASSEBAUM: Foreign aid is one of the most politically AFRICA REPORT: Would you support a policy of con- unpopular and least understood programs in the United frontation in the Horn; forexample, by arming Somalia with States. As a member of the Budget Committee I have been offensive weapons, or by backing insurgents opposed to the forced to make difficult decisions about budgetary Mengistu regime in Ethiopia? priorities, one of which was to vote to reduce foreign aid. KASSEBAUM: It would seem to me that the United States The present economic climate is one in which our finite re- should encourage reconciliation between the various com- sources are outstripped by our humitarian impulses. Foreign peting factions in the Horn of Africa, and as part of en- aid had to be reduced along with domestic programs. At the couraging reconciliation we should work to give all parties same time. I believe it is important to complement our dip- in the disputes the confidence to work towards peace. The lomatic and military strengths with a positive foreign policy massive aid the Soviet Union is providing Ethiopia certainly that necessarily includes foreign assistance. undermines such an effort. The very important role the AFRICA REPORT: Should the United States help Afri- Sudan is willing to play in encouraging the Ethiopians to can states to counter Libya's active role? How? seek an end to their civil war should be encouraged. The KASSEBAUM: Although I have not yet come to a firm Sudanese experience gives them a voice of some authority conclusion on particular approaches to take in meeting the on the issues of effective political participation as a solution challenge of Col. Qaddafi's expansionist notions, it would to internal warfare. •

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 36 AGRICULTURE

New Hope for the Sudan

BY ANDREW LYCETT

SUDAN

Red Sea n March of this year Sudanese Presi- vast projects, such as ranching, towards I dent Jaafar Nimeiri finally inaugu- smaller, perhaps more manageable, in- rated the vast Kenana sugar factory, itiatives like poultry farming. At the situated between the White and Blue certed effort, spearheaded by the Inter- Niles near Rabak, about 150 miles national Monetary Fund (IMF) and the south of Khartoum. When full produc- World Bank, to realize Sudan's agri- tion is reached in 1982-83, Kenana, cultural potential through revitalization reputedly the largest sugar factory in Kenya of existing schemes rather than the the world, should be producing committal of scarce funds to huge new 333,000 tons of sugar for an economy developments. that last year imported 301.234 tons of time the fond hope was that cooperation Of that potential there is no doubt. the commodity at an unbearably high between Arab money (newly increased The Sudan is the largest country in Af- tree market price of S235 million. Al- by the fourfold rise in oil prices in rica — roughly the size of Western though some of Kenana's output will be 1973). Western technology, and local Europe, in fact— and only a very small for export, theoretically self-suffi- resources would turn the Sudan into the proportion of its 200-million-pIus acres ciency in sugar should be achieved breadbasket of the Arab world by the of cultivable land is currently under the within a couple of years. mid-1980s. plow. But the Sudan's hugeness has But the price has been great. The A $6 billion Arab Authority for Ag- always contributed to problems of original $125 million project envisaged ricultural Investment and Development communication, with the result that its in 1973 rocketed in price to $613 mil- (AAAID) was specially formed to help agricultural potential has never fully lion and was finally inaugurated three implement these plans. But perennial been realized. On the contrary, recently years behind schedule. At that. Kenana logistical and infrastructural problems farm projects begun in the middle years is one of only two of the really huge ag- in the Sudan, political uncertainty at of this century have suffered severe de- ricultural development projects envis- home and in the wider region, and the creases in output, mainly because they aged for the Sudan in the mid-1970s unwillingness of Arab governments have not been able to replace outdated that have actually been started. At that and individuals to commit funds to machinery and change outdated man- projects where returns were so long- agement practices. term and indeed unsure delayed the Particularly severely hit has been the start of AAAID's operations. huge Gezira scheme, situated, like Andrew Lycett is a British writer specializ- By the time the authority was on its Kenana. just south of Khartoum in the ing in Middle Eastern and northern African affairs. He recently returned from one of feet in 1978-79. the groundwork had fertile area between the two main his frequent visits to the Sudan and other changed. Kenana was already under branches of the Nile. Started by the countries in the region. construction, but all its attendant prob- British after the building of the Sennar lems were being experienced. AAAID Dam in 1925. the scheme has now began to veer away from its original grown to encompass over 2 million

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 37 INTERVIEW Senator Nancy Landon Kassebaum, Chairman, Senate Subcommittee on Africa

'Foreign aid is one of the most politically unpopular and least understood programs in the United States"

AFRICA REPORT: Senator, what led you to accept this opments in terms of U.S.-Soviet rivalry and those who see subcommittee assignment? What do you hope to achieve in that as one among many factors. this subcommittee chair? How does it affect your domestic KASSEBAUM: While there are those policymakers with a political functioning? cast of mind that emphasizes U.S.-Soviet rivalries, I do not KASSEBAUM: I've always had an interest in foreign re- believe that they are unmindful of more comprehensive con- lations; in fact my masters degree from the University of siderations . Obviously, the importance of U.S.-Soviet Michigan is in diplomatic history. Senator Charles Percy rivalries in a given situation would depend primarily on the [R-lll.], when he became chairman of the Foreign Relations particulars of that situation. A concern for Soviet and Soviet Committee, asked that I join the committee, and after some surrogate actions in Africa is a valid field of interest for deliberation I agreed. One of the things I would like to do on American policymakers. It would be foolhardy to minimize this committee is to enhance popular understanding regard- our concerns about Soviet expansionism and intervention in ing the domestic importance of a sound foreign policy. Africa. AFRICA REPORT: Senator, before asking you the more AFRICA REPORT: How do you see that issue affecting detailed questions, I would like to know what your position United States policy toward Africa? is on the difference within the foreign affairs community KASSEBAUM: The Soviet Union and the other Eastern between those who tend to interpret international devel- bloc nations have a right to engage in normal diplomatic and commercial relations with Africans states, and the United These written replies were provided by Senator Kassebaum States should not seek to prevent such relations, nor should in response to questions submitted by Africa Report editor we view them with particular concern. However, the de- Anthony J. Hughes. stabilizing presence of Soviet surrogates in a military role in

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 35 only if the Sudan took corrective mea- able in terms of foreign exchange for sures to raise local productivity and in- the country as a whole, at least brought crease exports of cash crops —• specifi- the best and most immediate returns on cally through concentration on output the open market for the individual. of cotton for foreign markets rather than But the outcome was that cotton, of wheat and fruit for domestic con- which in 1978-79 made up only 31 per- sumers. In the opinion of the IMF, Su- cent of the Gezira acreage, had to bear dan's climate was too hot for profitable all the expenses. The IMF suggested growing of wheat. changing this situation and charging for However, this formula led to consid- essential inputs such as water for other erable opposition both in Gezira, where crops as well as cotton. When this plan tenants were unhappy to change well- became known to Gezira tenants in established practices, and at the na- summer 1979, they staged a long and tional level, where apparent acquies- sometimes violent strike, which almost cence by the government in foreign- brought the Nimeiri government to its sponsored economic packages was knees. But after the Badreddin Sulei- President Gaafar al-Nimeiry inspects easily exploitable politically. But the man package of September, they be- cotton, one of Sudan's major foreign IMF together with the Sudanese au- came more adapted to the twin strategy exchange earners thorities stood its ground. Part of the of financial incentives for productivity IMF's strategy was introduced in Sep- and charges for seed, water, and ser- acres and, again like Kenana, is said to tember 1979, when newly appointed vices. be the largest unit of its kind — a farm Finance Minister Badreddin Suleiman Last year, the more theoretical con- under single management — in the devalued the Sudanese pound, thus re- siderations having been covered, the world. As such, it produces 75 percent ducing the price of Sudanese exports, second, more practical stage of the of the Sudan's cotton, which alone ac- and did away with onerous dues such as Gezira reviialization package was in- counts for about 60 percent of the the 10 percent export levy and the de- troduced. This time the World Bank country's foreign exchange earnings, velopment tax. The average Gezira ten- was involved in what has become a as well as substantial amounts of the ant' s income was increased by around 10-year program to modernize the vast Sudan's outputs of wheat and ground- 35 percent at a stroke. He was also of- project. Immediate emergency aid nuts. fered incentives to encourage better worth $32 million was provided to However, during the 1970s, the yields, particularly of cotton, where fi- allow the Gezira Board and tenants to Gezira began showing its age. Instead nancial rewards were promised for out- purchase equipment and spares that, of remaining an ambitious cooperative put above the average yield of four because of foreign currency con- venture between tenant farmers, the qintars a feddan. straints, have been beyond their re- government and the Gezira Board, the But there was a quid pro quo. The sources. High on the shopping list over scheme degenerated badly as a result of IMF considered one of the biggest the past year have been heavy machin- outmoded practices and equipment. drawbacks of the Gezira scheme what it ery to clear irrigation canals and ditches Tenants who were quite rich by called "the nature of productive re- Sudanese standards had become ab- lationships." Because of the history of sentee landlords. There was little in- the scheme, tenants were contracted to centive for them to produce more than the Sudan Gezira Board only for their the barest minimum. cotton crops and were free to dispose of Whereas a good yield of cotton was their other commodities as they wished. considered to be eight qintars a feddan, With cotton, however, they had to buy Gezira tenants were averaging only seed, water, and services from the four, and two seasons ago that figure board at specific prices, deliver their was down to three. With wheat, intro- produce back to it, and wait up to six duced in the scheme in the mid-1970s, months for what remained of the pro- annual yields had dropped from 1.39 ceeds once the government and board tons a hectare over the period 1973-77 had taken its share. to 1 ton in 1978 and 0.68 tons in 1979. The tenants were not particularly Three years ago, at a particularly bad happy with this arrangement, but they moment in Sudan's balance-of-pay- worked it to their best advantage. Inev- ments history, the IMF came up with a itably they used inputs bought for their novel suggestion to attempt to rectify cotton crop to nurture private wheat, Sugar plantation: Sudan should this situation. It would continue to pro- groundnut, and vegetable patches, achieve self-sufficiency in sugar in vide balance-of-payments support, but which, although not particularly valu- few years

38 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 that have become so clogged with weeds and silt that some parts of the scheme were not receiving water at all, deep plows and heavy-duty tractors, and spare parts for the scheme's 1,100 vehicles and plant (such as the vital Gezira Light Railway, which carries cotton to ginning factories). Now the World Bank, with assis- tance for the Kuwait Fund for Arab Ec- onomic Development, is financing a feasibility study to identify areas to be tackled in the first five-year phase of the new official 10-year Gezira rehabilita- tion program. Authorities in Khartoum talk insistently of their desire for mechanization, which is already pro- ving successful in nearby Rahad, the other vast agricultural scheme started in the mid-1970s. Possible strategy in- cludes widespread leveling of the land, Land reform in Kordufan: Small proportion of cultivable land is currently under which in turn allows greater mechani- the plow zation. All these plans should provide a con- siderable boost to Western and par- ticularly American agribusiness, not least because reduced wheat production Already in the last three years following to American and other Western export- in the Sudan will throw the country onto the establishment of the U.S.-Sudanese ers of agricultural machinery. Apart the world market for its supplies. Cur- Business Council, a number of Ameri- from Gezira, the World Bank"s IDA rently wheat demand in the Sudan is in- can companies have established agen- affiliate has also recently committed creasing at 15 pecent a year, and last cies in Khartoum. Last year, for exam- $67 million to the rehabilitation of agri- year the wheat deficit was 476,000 ple, the Sudanese-Egyptian Agricul- culture, mainly irrigation, in White and metric tons. Already the United States, tural Integration Company took deliv- Blue Nile agricultural schemes. the world's principal supplier of wheat, ery of two $58,000 mechanized cot- Indeed, one does not have to look far has begun to help cover that deficit, ton-picking machines supplied by In- for evidence of increasing American providing $20 million worth of PL 480 ternational Harvester, and the Chi- penetration of the Sudanese market. In grains under an agreement signed at the cago-based company followed this suc- Gezira the unhurried ways of the Brit- end of 1979. The Sudan was the first cess by announcing the investment of ish, who started the scheme before the country in Africa to receive this grant over $5,000,000 in the construction of Second World War, are on the way out, under Title 3 of the PL 480 agreement, three maintenance workshops in Khar- and Texas-style talk of leveling the land which allows the recipient country to toum, Port Sudan, and Sennar. and full mechanization are in. And at keep local currency generated by sales With the arrival of additional funds, Kenana the American concern Arkell for development purposes. mainly from the World Bank, the U.S. has taken over management of the sugar In addition the Sudan has been using Embassy in Khartoum sees "some real factory from Kenana. which conceived funds from large commodity import opportunities for U.S. exporters and and started the project. programs signed with the United States even investors," particularly in ag- Some Sudanese, of course, see this in 1979 and 1980 to import more grain. ricultural machinery, storage facilities, as all part of a great plot hatched with Now that the habit has been estab- and chemicals. It reported last year that the connivance of the IMF and the lished, and American bakeries are 1,200 tractors were being imported into World Bank. But others allow that Su- being built, U.S. imports of wheat to the Sudan and that "if financing were danese agriculture was not fulfilling its the Sudan are likely to grow substan- available" the market could easily ab- potential and that only vertical rather tially over the next few years. sorb 2.500 units each year, with com- than horizontal development, as pro- American companies are also likely parable advances in sales of other posed by these two agencies, will halt to gain from the provision by the World machinery. Since the Export-Import their country's growing food deficit and Bank and associate agencies of funds Bank has not yet accepted the Sudan as allow it to think once more in terms of for rehabilitation of the Gezira and a worthy credit risk, finance from becoming "the breadbasket of the other run-down agricultural schemes. World Bank and other sources is a boon Middle East." •

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 39 ZAIRE 1981

Recovery or Relapse?

BYF.S.B.KAZADI

"The Founding-President is not a magi- and his people. In earlier years, Presi- states in Africa, has one of the lowest cian. By Himself he can do nothing. With dent Mobutu had assumed a position of per capita income figures on the conti- the help of his people he am do anything.'' towering, almost deific omnipotence, nent. —President Mobutu .SV.sc Seko appearing nightly, for example, from The Zairian economy continues to the heavens on television. suffer from inflation, loss of productiv- The change in tone shows not only a ity, and monetary weaknesses. The aire's President Mobutu speaks the public recognition of Zaire's recent ill problems began in the early 1970s, above words daily on Zairian Z fortunes, but also the growing prag- when the price of copper— which sup- radio. He speaks them at all hours of the matism and frankness on the part of lies two-thirds of Zaire's foreign ex- day, between music programs and be- Zaire's leaders as they seek to spark ec- change and half of the government's fore the news. onomic recovery without disrupting the total revenues — rose to record levels To those familiar with Zaire and its political and social maturation of cen- on the world market. The Zairian gov- longest surviving leader, the words tral Africa's largest nation. ernment undertook a series of ambiti- contain a remarkable admission: an The Republic of Zaire, which bor- ous development projects and financed admission that all is not well in the ders nine other African nations and them through loans based on current country, an acknowledgement that spans two-thirds of the continent at the market values of its mineral wealth. even a chief whose very name signifies equator, has problems that demand When the price for copper fell in "the all conquering warrior" may need unique solutions. Unfortunately, the 1975 from Si. 50 per pound to less than help. search for those solutions has been $.50. the government fell behind in its In addition, when President Mobu- hampered by a legacy of plunder car- loan repayments. The nation's foreign tu's second-in-command. First Com- ried out virtually without interruption debt rose from $3 billion in the mid- missioner Nguza Karl-l-Bond, sud- from the eighteenth century until today. 1970s to almost $5 billion in 19K0. denly announced his resignation in The legacy means that today, Zaire. Creditors rescheduled the loans a num- Brussels last April, the Zairian News one of the six most richly endowed ber of times, but the government expe- Agency reported the anger and dismay rienced difficulty in paying even the of government leaders and, using terms interest on the massive debt. which could only have come from the ZAIRE As a result, the consortium of banks highest sources, characterized the res- Central African RepV-, Sudan and foreign governments with loans to ignation as "a cowardly desertion." Zaire — the Paris Club — balked at These are but two examples of what financing any new loans until Kinshasa amounts to a significant change in the implemented an economic stabilization relationship between Zaire's president agreement with the International Mon- etary Fund. The stabilization plan, like most IMF plans, called for cuts in gov- F.S.B. Kazadi is an American freelance ernment spending, stricter controls on writer with 20 years experience in Africa foreign exchange, and a number of who recently revisited Zaire. monetary devaluations. The Zairian government signed Zambia standby agreements with the IMF in

40 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 1978 and 1979 but failed to meet the re- most industrial productivity. As Zai- patriated. And this factor, along with a quirements of the agreements. In 1980. rians put it. there is ""no economy" in continued lack of confidence in the na- however, the government did meet the Kisangani, Mbandaka, Kananga, and tion's political structures, have made it requirements of a third agreement, and Bukavu. Gasoline is unavailable in difficult to attract any significant in- it is negotiating a fourth standby for these cities except on the black market, vestment. 1981. where it costs 10 zaires per liter (ap- Although the pragmatic philosophy Economists say thai the successful proximately $12 per gallon when com- of the Zairian government has failed to implementation of the third IMF puted at the official exchange rate). draw new private capital from abroad, agreement and Kinshasa's relatively Electricity and running water are turned the country continues to attract devel- prompt payment in 1980 of the interest on for a few hours a day, if at all. Roads opment projects sponsored by multilat- due on its national debt are indications have fallen into disrepair, and many eral lending institutions and foreign that the economy has ""bottomed out." buildings have been abandoned. In They characterize the Zairian govern- these cities, for example, a bottle of ment's effort to honor its obligations as beer costs more at a local pub than at '"heroic." Inflation, they say, has been Kinshasa's posh Intercontinental reduced from 100 percent per year in Hotel. the late 1970s to 50 percent in 1980. Despite Zaire's economic problems, And they conclude that the govern- a small group of businessmen has ment's foreign debt burden will begin grown extremely wealthy by importing to ease if productivity can be increased. products with foreign exchange pur- Unfortunately, economic productiv- chased from the government at the offi- ity in Zaire is about one-third of capac- cial rate (approximately 3 zaires to the ity according to IMF figures; and the dollar) and selling them locally at the prospects for its recovery in the im- black market rate (approximately 9 mediate future are not good. zaires to the dollar). As a result, this Copper production has remained group enjoys expensive cars, videotape constant in recent years at about one- machines, and digital watches, while half of the record level of 400,000 mel- the average Zairian worker struggles to ric tons set in the mid-1970s; and pro- feed his family. duction of cobalt, amounting to two- For example, a laborer in Kinshasa thirds of the Free World's supply, has earns an average of 300 zaires per remained at 15.000 tons per year. The month. From those wages, he must pay price for copper has risen in recent his rent (about 100 zaires) and buy food years to about $.90 per pound, but the (120 /aires for a two-week supply of price for cobalt has dropped to less than manioc). Professionals may earn 500- President Mobutu Sese Seko has $20.00 per pound. These price levels 1.000 zaires per month, and entrepre- publicly recognized Zaire's recent ill have made expansion of Zaire's mining neurs such as taxi drivers and market fortunes industry — a major project of the gov- vendors may earn considerably more, ernment in the early 1970s — econom- but the ever rising cost of living has re- ically unappealing. moved any pretensions they may have Diamonds and gold are produced in had of belonging to a "middle class." governments. Many of the larger proj- sizable quantities in Zaire, but the gov- Wages have been frozen for two ects suffer from problems in funding ernment receives only a fraction of the years; strikes are forbidden by law; and and manpower, but they continue to at- revenue from their sale because of the the pool of unskilled workers remains tract support from governments around high incidence of smuggling. large. Yet. Zaire has been unable to re- the world that wish to maintain a "pres- Nevertheless, Zaire is an extremely turn to pre-1975 levels of productivity. ence" in ihe equatorial giant. wealthy country. The mining centers of In order to spur production, eco- One such project is the bridge over Lubumbashi, Kolwezi and Mbuji-Mayi nomic advisers have been encouraging the Congo River. With financing from enjoy robust economies. And Kinshasa the Zairian government to limit gov- the governments of Zaire and Japan, shows all the signs of a boom town. In ernment expenditures, control the flow construction crews are building a sus- these cities, the markets and stores are of hard currency, and seek increased pension bridge over Africa's mightiest filled with manufactured goods im- foreign investment. river at Matadi. The two-level bridge, ported from Europe and Japan and with Zaire is in extreme need of foreign designed to carry rail and automobile food flown in from southern Africa. capital. And although the government traffic, will link Kinshasa and central However, these cities are excep- has considerably liberalized foreign in- Zaire with the ports and farms of the tions. For Zaire's interior is suffering vestment codes since the heyday of Bas-Zairc region, which to date has from a combination of high prices, in- nationalization in the mid-1970s, pro- been the breadbasket of western Zaire. adequate money supply, and loss of fits and investments still may not be re- Sixty kilometers upriver from

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 41 Matadi, a consortium of French, West provide the region with hoes, picks, German, and U.S. companies are and shovels, farm-to-market roads, and working on a giant hydroelectric plant. cooperative organizations for harvest- The Congo River drops 100 meters in a ing, storage, and marketing. few kilometers at Inga and generates Other less ambitious projects include 40,000 kilowatts of hydroelectric po- low-income housing construction. tential, more potential energy than at all fish-farming projects, and rice-growing of Africa's existing dams combined. schemes. The Zairian government has The first phase of the project is cur- been criticized for emphasizing large- rently in operation and provides power scale projects and high-technology im- to the Bas-Zaire and Kinshasa. The ports. The government, however, does second phase — Inga Two — is nearing appear to be focusing on smaller, rural completion. It will enable the govern- projects designed to benefit the poorest ment to electrify the railway linking of the poor. Matadi to Kinshasa, to power a 100 Zaire's citizens, however, are still percent increase in refining and copper waiting for the "revolution" promised production in Shaba, and to export to them shortly after an army colonel electricity to Zambia's mines as well as named Joseph-Desire Mobutu took to neighbors on the Atlantic coast. power on November 24, 1965, in a Another project underway with bloodless coup. French cooperation will link Zaire's At that time, Zaire (then called Nguza KarM-Bond's resignation was nine regional broadcasting stations to characterized as "a cowardly Congo Kinshasa) had undergone five the 20-story Voix du Zaire facilities in desertion" years of regional secessions, par- Kinshasa. Satellite stations are being liamentary crises, and intertribal built around the country; radio and tele- clashes. The methods used to bring a vision facilities are being refurbished; measure of stability were brutal, though and extensive training programs have financial assistance to increase ag- certainly no more brutal than those of been started. The aim is to provide Zai- ricultural productivity in northern Belgium's colonial administration in rians throughout the country with color Shaba. The project seeks to increase the twentieth century and King Leopold television, FM radio, and possibly tele- productivity not only through extension II's personal trading consortium in the phone connections. services and seed projects, but also by nineteenth. In the agricultural sector, the U.S. developing what specialists call "in- President Mobutu founded the government is providing technical and termediate technologies" in order to Popular Revolutionary Movement (MPR) and outlawed all other political parties. He put down the regional re- bellions and set about rebuilding the national army. By the early 1970s, he had made considerable progress toward the goal of uniting the country politi- cally and economically. However, reports of President Mo- butu's growing wealth and increasing incidents of officially sanctioned smuggling and bribe taking began to overshadow his government's achievements Today, the incidence of corruption has become so well en- trenched in Zaire that, according to one 25-year resident, "corruption has be- come correct." Consequently, 15 years after its proclamation by President Mobutu, Zaire has yet to experience a political or economic revolution. However, popu- lar apathy and the fear of a return to the chaos of the early years apparently have Gecamines copper mines supply Zaire with two-thirds of its foreign exchange and smothered any large-scale uprising one-half of total revenues against the government or torching of

42 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 the country's political structures. tences. However, President Mobutu harshly put down by government Nevertheless, there have been some decided to drop the matter, but he ban- forces. brush fires. ned the politicians from political life for Popular uprisings in Zaire, whether The most recent was Nguza's resig- five years. He explained his actions to for political or economic reasons, are nation. The wiley businessman- the media, saying a wise father knows severely punished. And all blame is as- politician left the Zairian government in when to punish his wayward children signed to military and political leaders April following a period of waning in- and when to forgive them. Diplomats in the area of unrest. As a result, the fluence. Although the average Zairian based in Zaire said the amnesty was an political system has tended to treat the tended to treat Nguza with the .same example of "reforms" being carried symptoms of political opposition, disgust with which he views most feed- out in the Zairian political and judicial rather than the causes. ers at the public trough, foreign gov- systems. Others said President Mobutu Despite these longstanding prob- ernments were impressed with Nguza's rather was following his own political lems, however, Zaire continues to lead eloquence and diplomacy. His leader- instincts by acquiescing to international most of the continent in promoting the ship was a great help in Zaire's numer- and domestic pressure for leniency. expression of Africa's rich cultural ous consultations with donor govern- Other Zairian dissidents have fared heritage. Groups of writers meet regu- ments and international lending institu- less well. In July 1979, some 200 citi- larly in Kinshasa and in the provincial tions. However, Nguza's influence, zens — primarily students — were al- cities. Theater and ballet groups per- which was highly touted in the Euro- legedly shot by Zairian soldiers in East form regularly, despite the economic pean media, tended to rankle the Kasai. According to parliamentary crunch, to packed houses. Artists, both president-for-life of the MPR and the representatives from the region, the within and without the established scores of aspirants who courted his students were digging illegally for workshops, produce some of the most favor. diamonds on the Lubilanji River near innovative art in the region. And Nguzu, who is from a powerful fam- Mbuji-Mayi and were attacked for Zaire's orchestra music continues to ily in Shaba, had already experienced a failing to pay the local military au- animate nightclubs and dance halls fall from grace. In 1977, President thorities for permission to prospect in throughout Africa as well as in Europe Mobutu accused the then foreign the area. and the Caribbean. minister of having prior knowledge of In 1980, students at the Kinshasa African leaders have acknowledged the invasion of Shaba by Katangesc campus of Zaire's national unversity President Mobutu as one of the pioneers exiles based in Angola. He was sen- rioted for higher scholarships, better of the African "authenticity move- tenced to death for treason but was food, and additional school supplies. ment." In the mid-1960s he called for eventually pardoned and reinstated. The government responded by closing a return to African traditions and Zairian observers who noted Nguza's the university for half a year. Other up- launched the movement by dropping waning influence viewed his departure risings, less well documented, in the the colonial names of Zaire's cities, as an act of personal survival, rather Kwilu and Kisangani areas in the late such as Leopoldville and Elizabeth- than one of political opposition to the 1970s, were also reported to have been ville, and reinstating their precolonial Mobutu government. names, Kinshasa and Lubumbashi. A Political opposition, however, con- few years later, the Democratic Repub- tinues to seethe beneath the surface in lic of the Congo became the Republic of Zaire. The most recent incident occur- Zaire, and Zairian citizens officially red in late 1980. On December 30, Zai- dropped their Christian names for Afri- rian officials arrested a group of par- can ones. The results of this campaign liamentarians at a house in Kinshasa. can be seen in fashion, religion, and the The parliamentarians had signed a 50- arts. And Zaire's influence can be seen page document that opened with the not only in Africa, but in Europe and in headline "Mobutu Must Resign." The the Americas as well. document went on to delineate in re- In conclusion, Zaire will continue to spectful but blunt tones the total failure exert considerable influence in African of the current government on the politi- affairs, for its problems are far less than cal, security, economic, cultural, and its geopolitical importance or its poten- even social levels. tial in natural and human resources. The chief of state was reportedly Moreover, the economic and political furious over the document. He ordered hardships have hardened Zairians' will a round of hearings on the matter, to survive. And the growing pragma- charging members of the group with tism and accompanying cynicism in the subversion and insulting the president. country mean that Zairians in the future In earlier times, such dissidence would will be less likely than in the past to Inga hydroelectric plant will provide have been punished by public hang- power for a 100% expansion of the follow a guide who appears to them ings, or at least by long prison sen- copper refining industry from the heavens. •

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 43 IN WASHINGTON Building an Africa Policy

BY RICHARD DEUTSCH

6 i fTihis administration will give Africa. . .: fostering basic human that the Reagan administration "is high priority to resolving con- liberties . . .; and cooperating with our committed to a leading role in meeting flicts in southern Africa, a region of Western allies and friends in Africa to Africa's humanitarian crises." This strategic, political, and economic im- deter aggression and subversion by our pledge would be backed up a few days portance to the United States and the adversaries," Crocker told the com- later in Geneva, when international Western world," Dr. Chester Crocker mittee. donors gathered to commit funds for told the Senate Foreign Relations Crocker pointed out, however, that African refugee relief. An American Committee. "our interests in Africa are increasingly contribution of close to $300 million Crocker, then assistant secretary of threatened by political instability, ex- would represent one-half of the world's state-designate for African affairs, ternal intervention, [and] economic response. outlined the Reagan administration's malaise." He added that the adminis- In his Senate testimony, Crocker said emerging policies toward Africa in the tration sees the causes of Africa's American interests require a U.S. mil- first of two confirmation hearings held problems as "both regional and exter- itary presence in the Horn of Africa. He this April. nal in their origins," and believes that said the United States intends to stand "the policies that we pursue must seek by the military facilities agreements The Senate committee scheduled the to address both sources." negotiated by the Carter administration hearings within days of a White House "Our political relations with Af- with Kenya and Somalia: "Africa is an announcement that Crocker would soon rica," Crocker said, "must be guided integral part of the global political set off on a fact-finding mission to Af- by our interests, both global and re- arena, and this administration has no rica, primarily southern Africa. U.S. gional. Day-to-day working relations intention of adopting a unilateral, self- officials said the Reagan administration require both patient diplomacy and a denying ordinance when Western had completed the first phase of its Af- deep comprehension of local power strategic interests are at stake. Nor do rica policy review; Crocker's mission realities." we believe these interests to be incom- signified the second phase: the former One major thrust of Reagan diplo- patible with African regional secu- Georgetown University professor and macy would be to support American rity .... There is no reason to apologize Africa scholar would consult with lead- friends on the continent: "This admin- for or downplay the agreements we ers in a dozen African capitals and ex- istration believes it is important to stand have signed." plain the direction of developing U.S. together with proven friends in Af- However, it was Crocker's outline of policies on southern African questions. rica. .. to work with our African Reagan administration policies on A few hours before climbing aboard friends to address the sources of Af- southern Africa that drew most atten- a U.S. jet that would take him to Lon- rica's instability," said Crocker. tion. He made clear the United States don and then on to Africa, Crocker U.S. aid to the continent would be intends to "remain engaged" in the re- briefed the Senate committee on the in- boosted, and assistance policies reor- gion: "The challenge this administra- itial conclusions of the administration's dered, beginning with more aid for tion accepts is to develop policies Africa policy review. America's friends. There would also be throughout southern Africa that en- "M consider it critical that this ad- an effort to create more African "win- hance our interests and impede oppor- ministration begin with a clear delinea- ners." tunities for our adversaries." tion of what U.S. interests in Africa "It is not Utopian to believe that Turning first to Namibia, Crocker are, namely: supporting regional secu- more African nations can, like Nigeria, said, "We support the objective of an rity, without which social and eco- become a practicing democracy that no early transition to an internationally nomic progress cannot take place; en- longer needs U.S. assistance. We are recognized independence for suring for the United States and our al- not ashamed to back winners. On the Namibia." lies fair commercial access to essential contrary, we are proud to do so," stres- What Crocker did not mention in his petroleum and non-fuel minerals; pro- sed Crocker. first Senate hearing is that the Reagan moting U.S. trade and investment in On the other hand, Crocker testified administration already had serious

44 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 doubts about the eventual success of the purposeful evolutionary change in lutely essential that this country walk UN plan for Namibia and would seek to South Africa toward a nonracial so- that tightrope. Many of the most im- modify it. Only a few days before. ciety, capitalizing on the current fluid- portant things in foreign policy, as you President Reagan had intimated this in ity there .... At a time when some im- well know, are not the easiest," said an interview with the Washington Post: portant movement away from legally Crocker. "We have interests in inde- "We want to see a peaceful solution to entrenched apartheid is apparent, the pendent African states, in black Africa, the Namibian problem. We think it be- U.S. role is to actively encourage this that are significant and growing. We gins with an election. But I think an process. We intend to do so by sup- also have very important interests in election, just as in Zimbabwe, should porting those who seek to build a future South Africa. It is not going to be our follow the adoption of a constitution in which opportunity in all fields of position that we are going to let our- that guarantees equal rights to all peo- human activity is not determined on the selves be driven to choose between ple in that country . . . property rights, basis of race." those interests. What this means in minority rights.' said Reagan. Senator Nancy Kassebaum {R- practice is that we must acquire and Reagan's suggestion would be a Kans.), the head of the Africa Sub- maintain credibility across the divides major topic of discussion between Afri- committee, asked if the Reagan ad- that do exist in Africa and we must indi- can leaders and Crocker during the ministration's proposal fora substantial cate by our actions that we are, in fact, American envoy's visit to Africa. contribution to Zimbabwe's recon- capable of being a credible partner on Luanda was on the itinerary, and struction effort was meant as a signal to both sides of those lines." Crocker spelled out for the Senate South Africa. Crocker replied, "So But Crocker was soon to be reminded committee the Reagan administration's long as Zimbabwe demonstrates the that straddling the racial divisions of approach to relations with Angola: "It potential to be a winner in both political southern Africa is more difficult in will not be possible for the United and economic terms. 1 think we will practice than in theory. States to consider diplomatic relations stand by this policy .... It is a signal of Immediately after the hearings he left with that nation as long as there is a our interest in multiracial accommoda- for London, and over the course of the Cuban combat presence." tion inside Zimbabwe that could be of next two weeks Crocker stopped in the "The Cubans are there because they significant potential to the region. In six southern African Frontline capitals: came to help install a favored party. that sense it is a signal to all the parties Dar es Salaam, Maputo, Lusaka. Salis- They are there to keep a favored party in of southern Africa." bury, Gaborone, and Luanda. In addi- office," said Crocker in response to Senator S.I. Hayakawa (R-Calif.) tion, he consulted with leaders in close questioning by Senator Jesse asked a key question: "The fact that Nairobi, Pretoria, Kinshasha, Braz- Helms (R-N.C). there has been a change of policy to- zaville, and Lagos. "Should the United States support a wards South Africa with the coming in At the outset, U.S. officials made Marxist government propped up by of the Reagan administration gives me a clear that a major purpose of Crocker's Cuban troops or a liberation movement combination ol hope and additional journey would be to explore the pos- seeking a democratic alternative?" nervousness. In what way does the pre- sibilities of finding a formula for a set- asked Helms, referring to Jonas sent administration hope to influence tlement in Namibia. In Africa. Crocker Savimbi's UNITA movement in An- South Africa?" conducted consultations in private and gola. "We believe that there are many revealed little to the media. His few "1 think there are occasions. elements that must be brought to bear. public remarks in black Africa drew Senator, when one must decide what is of which pressure is one and support is acerbic rebuttals from leaders in Pre- the best means to achieve a market- another .... The key point I would like toria, then in the final days of a national oriented economy, the advancement of to leave you with is the notion that we election campaign. In Zimbabwe, for Western interests, and an opening of must not only believe in punitive mea- example, Crocker told reporters: the political system. Supporting out- sures, but also in supporting what we 'There is no question of a tilt or en- right one side or the other may not be believe in, not simply in distancing our- dorsement of apartheid, or a tilt towards the best way to get there." selves, but in being helpful. This is the South Africa." He also characterized Crocker repeated administration as- new tone and also the new substance of the South-West Africa People's Or- sertions that Reagan officials had not our new approach to our relations with ganization (SWAPO) as "supported by yet decided how to approach the An- South Africa." explained Crocker. the Soviets and their friends at present. golan conflict. And he reiterated claims Senator Alan Cranston (D-Calif.) But it would be an oversimplification to that such decisions had no bearing on probed deeper: "1 would be interested think that Soviet support by itself ac- the administration's request for a repeal in your description of how we are going counts for what SWAPO does or would of the Clark Amendment that bars U.S. to follow a balanced policy, seeking to do if it were to win an election." assistance to Mr. Savimbi. improve relations with South Africa . . . These remarks gave South African The U.S. official was more defini- but recognizing the danger of taking Prime Minister P.W. Botha a conve- tive, however, when presenting the steps that would alienate us from black nient opportunity to avoid a meeting, Reagan administration's approach to Africa. How are we going to walk that but Crocker met with other high- relations with South Africa: "It is the tightrope?" ranking South African officials. In task of the Western world to encourage "Senator, I believe that it is abso- Maputo, Mozambique's foreign

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 45 minister, Joachim Chissano, emerged five had "considered possibilities for panel. "It is our view that the formula- from a meeting with Crocker to pub- strengthening the existing UN plan" to tion of a fairly complete and com- licly condemn the Reagan administra- give "greater confidence to all the par- prehensive constitution prior to elec- tion's new approach to South Africa, ties in the future of an independent tions in Zimbabwe made a substantial saying, "We feel the changes in South Namibia." difference in enabling the parties to Africa are not significant at all. They Later, in Washington. U.S. officials look to the future with greater confi- are aimed at protecting apartheid." explained that the Reagan administra- dence than otherwise would have been While Crocker was in southern Af- tion considered the UN plan "dead in possible." rica, foreign ministers from more than the water," They said Crocker had He said his visit to Africa had pro- 30 nonaligned nations met in Algiers to conveyed this to the African leaders he duced "a sense, if you will, of the pa- discuss an imminent Security Council had visited and had expressed the rameters within which a settlement of meeting on Namibia. The foreign American desire to modify the plan to the Namibian problem can take place." ministers called on the United Nations give South Africa more confidence in And he said the Western contact group to impose mandatory economic sanc- the process. But they also said the foreign ministers would meet in late tions against South Africa because of United States would not let Pretoria May to formulate more specific pro- Pretoria's refusal to implement the UN determine the shape of a Namibian set- posals for "improving" the UN plan. plan for Namibia's independence. They tlement. Crocker's second confirmation also called for increased military assis- The officials told reporters that the hearing also focused on the Reagan tance to SWAPO. United States had been advancing one administration's plans for relations And in Luanda, the presidents of the specific idea for "improving" the UN with Angola. Senator Paul Tsongas re- six Frontline states gathered to criticize plan, and revealed that Crocker had called a recent Washington Post inter- the Reagan administration's policies. spoken with African leaders about the view with Angolan Foreign Minister They said they thought the administra- possibility of holding a constitutional Paulo Jorge. The Angolan official had tion's request for a repeal of the Clark convention before elections in stressed that his government would Amendment was the prelude to an at- Namibia, similar to the settlement send home the Cuban troops as soon as tempt to "destabilize" the government reached on Zimbabwe last year at Lan- the UN plan for Namibia was im- in Luanda. The African leaders con- caster House. plemented and South Africa ended at- demned warming relations between The officials said the African leaders tacks against SWAPO bases in Angola. Washington and Pretoria. And they had "raised no objection in the abstract Jorge called for implementation of the reaffirmed their support forthe UN plan sense" to this new approach. And they UN plan without modification, and he for Namibian independence, stressing announced that South African Foreign ruled out any possibility of reconcilia- "the urgent need to implement this plan Minister Roelof Botha would visit tion between the MPLA government in without delay, evasion, qualifications, Washington in mid-May for consulta- Luanda and Jonas Savimbi's UNITA or modifications." tions on Namibia. movement. "We do not accept recon- The Frontline communique, and Returning to Washington. Crocker ciliation with traitors and terrorists. news leaks of Crocker's conversations almost immediately faced a second Savimbi represents nothing in my with Frontline leaders, prompted the hearing before the Senate Foreign Re- country," said Jorge. American envoy to speak out publicly lations Committee, The hearing had Senator Tsongus asked what Crocker on Namibia during his last stop on the been called at the insistence of Senator thought of Jorge's statement. "We are continent. He told a press conference in Helms, who said he considered not convinced that it is quite as simple the Nigerian capital that he was skepti- Crocker's trip "dismal" and wanted to as the way the foreign minister put cal the UN plan would by itself bring question Crocker again. Helms, how- it.... Progress in the Angolan context independence to Namibia. ever, failed to show up for the hearing. towards national reconciliation and From Lagos. Crocker flew back to Most of the senators present expressed Cuban withdrawal would facilitate London for a two-day meeting with their support for Crocker, and made lit- progress towards a Namibian settle- Foreign Office officials of the Western tle attempt to hide their exasperation ment, while, at the .same time, the re- contact group on Namibia: the United over Helms' "dilatory tactics.'' The verse applies." said Crocker. States. Canada, Britain, France, and Foreign Relations Committee voted Later, in an interview with this corre- West Germany. The meeting ended overwhelmingly to recommend full spondent. Crocker explained that the with a joint communique in which the Senate confirmation of Crocker's Reagan administration .sees the Ango- Western contact group obliquely called nomination. lan situation as "a very interesting for a modification of the UN plan. In his second hearing. Crocker told proposition. It confirms our view that The five agreed that "it was of the the Senate committee that he had not there is a close relationship between the utmost importance to bring Namibia to gone to Africa with "an American conflicts in Angola and Namibia . . . independence at the earliest possible plan" for Namibia, but with "prelimi- but .something more precise needs to be date," and that the UN plan for nary ideas." said about that relationship. We're Namibia "continues to provide a solid "Among the questions at which we looking for some more specific indica- basis for transition to independence." are looking, of course, is the issue of a tion of how the resolution of these two The communique also noted that the constitution," Crocker told the Senate conflicts might work. We don't say that

46 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 as a threat or precondition that we are York to address the council. They Ironically, much of the script for the creating, it's simply reality on the called for passage of five draft resolu- Security Council action on Namibia ground." tions on sanctions that provided for the seemed to have been written and re- On Namibia, Crocker explained that severance of all diplomatic and trade hearsed in advance. Even before the the Reagan administration believes the relations with South Africa and an em- opening speeches, the Africans had UN plan by itself "is not going to lead bargo on oil deliveries. made clear a sanctions vote was un- to the essential decision that must be South Africa's director general of avoidable, while Washington and Lon- made, and that is a decision by South foreign affairs. Brand Fa uric, warned don had quietly stressed that vetoes Africa to implement the transition to the council not to impose sanctions: would be cast in response. Neither side independence. Some new ideas must be "Threats will accomplish nothing other gave ground, and the entire debate was given a chance. We need a realistic than to strengthen our determination streaked with bitterness. basis to proceed. It's a question of not to permit an unfair solution to be "Was it all just a diplomatic cha- finding common ground to move for- foisted on the territory .... South Af- rade?" Crocker was asked in an inter- ward. If we can, we have every inten- rica will not lake sanctions lying view. tion of leading the way." down," "No," said Crocker, "what we have Bui there was little common ground Fourie's words went not only un- at the UN is a situation in which the to be seen at the United Nations that heeded, but unheard. Delegates from Frontline states and other important week. As Crocker was completing his African, nonaligned. and Eastem-bloc African nations have made clear their mission to Africa, the Security Council nations walked out during his speech. concern. It is their belief that South Af- agreed to the request of the African U.S. Ambassador Kirkpatrick asked rica is the reason we haven't had a set- group, and began a 10-day debate on the council to consider "practical alter- tlement. They wanted to make clear Namibia. natives" to sanctions: "If we are their sense of urgency, . . . But they're The council's deliberations opened realistic — and if we are not we waste going to wait and see what we come up with an appeal, supported by Britain. our time and that of everyone else — with, and once we have specific pro- France, and the United Slates that the then we will understand that resolutions posals on the table, they'll consider Democratic Turnhalle Alliance of do not solve problems. Declarations do them. Once the dust settles, then we can Namibia be allowed to present its not secure independence." move forward." views. The DTA asked to be heard on Ugandan Ambassador Olara The same day as the Western vetoes an equal basis with SWAPO, on the Utunnu, leader of the African group in on Namibia were cast in the Security grounds that it is an interested party to the Security Council, countered: Council, white parliamentary election the Namibian issue. With the three "What would we say to the founding results were being tallied in Pretoria. Western members dissenting, the Se- fathers who issued that famous decla- Prime Minister Botha's party was re- curity Council refused to hear the DTA. ration of July 4, 1776? What shall we turned to power with a solid majority. This action was angrily denounced by say to peoples all over the world who But compared with previous elections. South Africa, which pointed to the vote draw inspiration from that monument Botha's national party took a beating in as evidence that even the Security of colonial resistance." he said, ex- the popular vote count, especially from Council was biased on the Namibian pressing the dismay and anger felt by white-supremist parties further to the issue. U.S. Ambassador Jeane Kirk- many African delegations in reaction to right. The opposition Progressive patrick agreed, saying the refusal to Kirkpatrick's position. party, a group that calls for fundamen- hear the DTA damages the capacity of Day after day, as the public debate tal reform of apartheid, also gained. the Security Council to act as a peace- continued. African and Western dele- It would be some time before the im- maker. gates met privately as well. The Afri- plications of South Africa's white elec- Formal council debate began with a cans pressed the West to spell out tions would become clear, although demand from the African members for explicitly how it planned to bring Botha immediately claimed that the mandatory economic sanctions against Namibia to independence. Western voters had shown support tor his so far South Africa. Speaking for the Organi- contact group members asked for more rhetorical stance that South Africa must zation of African Unity, Sierra Leone's time, saying they would draw up move away from apartheid. Most im- foreign minister. Abdulai Conteh. said specific proposals to break the impasse portant, perhaps, was the fact that the that all peaceful eflorts to resolve the on implementing the UN plan when elections were over, giving the Botha Namibian dispute had been exhausted, their foreign ministers met in May. But government room to maneuver on and that "now is the time for the l.'N to the Africans feared that another delay Namibia. act." Conteh admitted that some Afri- would -.imply strengthen South Af- And with the feverish UN showdown can economies would also suffer be- rica's position in Namibia, perhaps al- on sanctions over as well, the time cause of the trade bans, but he said the lowing time for an internal settlement to seemed ripe for the Western contact sanctions should be imposed as a matter take place in the territory. group — led by Washington — to of principle. Compromise plans were floated and move. Perhaps the last opportunity fora Several do/en foreign ministers and abandoned. A vote was called. The peaceful settlement on Namibia was at high-ranking officials from African and United States. Britain, and France ve- hand, and the Reagan administration's other nonaligncd nations flew into New toed the sanctions resolutions. credibility in Africa hunt: in balance. D

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 47 INTERVIEW Dr. Nathan Shamuyarira, Zimbabwe Minister of Information and Tourism

INTERVIEWED BY MICHAEL C. BEAUBIEN

On January 3 of this year. Minister of Information and publicity secretary for Joshua Nkotno's Patriotic Front Tourism Dr. Nathan Shamuyarira announced that the Zim- iZAPU). babwe Mass Media Trust had acquired a 429c share that the • Chronicle: Thomas Sithole, who has worked as a free- South African Argus Group had held in Zimbabwe's five lance journalist and a sports editor and chief reporter of major newspapers: the Herald and the Sunday Mail (Salis- the Tanzanian Daily News. bury), the Chronicle and the Sunday News (Bulawaxoi, and the Umlali Post Weekh. 77m $2.72 million purchase was facilitated by an $S million grant from Nigeria. Several months earlier the new Zimbabwe government had pur- AFRICA REPORT: How would you evaluate the cover- chased the Inter-African News Agency from the South Afri- age provided Zimbabwe by the Western media since inde- can Press Association. These measures effectively ended pendence? South Africa's control over the dissemination of news within SHAMl YARIRA: We have had a very bad press overseas Zimbabwe. Yet. these initiatives produced almost universal since independence. They have continued lo predict that criticism from the West and charges of a government there is going to he a civil war in the country and that the takeover of the press. coalition government is going to break up. None of this, ot Additional information not yet announced at the time of course, reflects the truth. the following interview with Dr. Nathan Shamuyarira in- During the war, there were 50 people killed each day. volved the composition of the Mass Media Trust and the new Since we came inlo power, the number has been reduced to African editors of the major newspapers. The first trustees zero. There are still isolated incidents of shooting here and of the Zimbabwe Mass Media Trust include Dr. Davidson there and incidents of guerrilla units opening fire on each Sadza. a private medical practitioner in Salisbury: John other, but they are isolated incidents. This does not mean Hillis. managing director of David Whitehead and Com- that civil war is imminent or that the government is aboul to pany: M. Nduhiwa, deputy town clerk ofBulawayo: Ebinath collapse. Mapondera, a well-known social worker and member of the The government will never collapse. It i.s very strong. Commission of Inquiry on Income. Prices, and Working Our party. Comrade Mugabe's party, can form the govern- Conditions: Hamish Mkushi. a lawyer with the firm of ment by itself without any other party. We have 57 seats in a Mkushi and Sawyer: Grace Todd, a retired schoolteacher parliament of 100. So there is no way the government can and wife of a member of the Senate: and Dr. Walter Kambe. fall. The bad press we have had, the exaggerations implying deputy principal of the University of Zimbabwe. that there is going to be a breakdown in law and order and a breakdown in the system, are totally untrue. The new editors for three of the five major newspapers AFRICA REPORT: What factors do you think have pre- include: • Herald: Fan Munyuki, who is a graduate in journalism vented foreign correspondents, particularly British and from Macalester College in Minnesota and has been a American reporters, from providing balanced and objective writer with the Zambia Daily Mail and the Times of reporting on Zimbabwe? Zambia, as well as editor in chief of a Lusaka magazine, SHAMUYARIRA: There are two reasons, we think. OIK- the Weekender. IS that most of the foreign correspondents from America and • Sunday Mail: Willie Musarurwa. who is currently vice- Britain who come here are based in South Africa. They chairman of the board of governors of Zimbabwe Broad- come here once a month to report on what they have seen. casting Company and was previously an editor with sev- Bui they live in South Africa, where they are conditioned by eral Zimbabwe newspapers before assuming the post of the Soulh African press to a position where they don't like

48 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 us and certainly distrust us. So they come here having read ate with foreign journalists and have a completely open the South African papers tor the whole monlh, and they press here. The one measure we have reintroduced from the come with the prejudices of the South African press. One previous regime is what we call the TEP. the temporary em- can see that from the questions they ask. They tend lo be ployment permit. Journalists are required to register at very hostile. That is one reason. Liquenda House, where they are issued a card that certifies Another reason is that the British and American press, the them as accredited journalists. We needed to know who was Western press generally, have been predicting all along thai in the country and what news organizations they repre- ihere would be a civil war. They predicted this during the sented. There is no other restriction. Smith period. This was one of (he reasons given by Smith AFRICA REPORT: Would there be any internal moni- for not granting independence- He said that if we grant in- toring of correspondents in the country? Are there any areas dependence, the Shona and Ndebele would be at each ot ihc country or any of the camps that you have placed other's throats and we would have civil war. During the off-limits at this point? Lancaster House conference, they continued to predict this. SHAMUYARIRA: No. they can go anywhere. The only Frankly. I think they doni like the fact that we have proved thing is that if they wish to go to a military camp they must them wrong on this. There will be no civil war. and we will gel permission from the military authorities. continue to work together with Nkomo's party. There are AFRICA REPORT: Could you explain why your gov- problems, and there ha\e been problems in the past, but ernment has decided to buy the shares ot" the South African these problems can and will be overcome. Argus Group and establish the Mass Media Trust? AFRICA REPORT: You seem to be suggesting that if SHAMUYARIRA: First, it must be remembered that the Western news agencies based their reporters in Salisbury newspapers of Rhodesia were an important instrument for (Harare) there would be a marked improvement in the the colonizers of this country from South Africa, notably coverage. Cecil John Rhodes. They were brought in by the colonizers SHAMUYARIRA: Yes. there would be a marked im- and used tor the purpose of advancing their interests in provement. mining, agriculture, and. later, industry. The papers never AFRICA REPORT: What about the possibility of the changed much from their South African origin. Up to now news agencies employing African nationals as stringers in all the editors were recruited from South Africa. Second, the countries where they don't have correspondents based'.' their primary concern was the politics of the new white SHAMUYARIRA: Yes. they should. There are Mime Af- settlers. However, while they claimed to speak for the while rican stringers who are here now. but not many. Certainlv settlers, in fact they spoke for big business, especially the we would want that, and that would also represent a marked Chamber of Mines in Johannesburg. When the interests of improvement. AFRICA REPORT: As you noted earlier, the recen) events in Bulawayo did provide the Western press with more ammunition, but could you explain the circumstances surrounding the seizure of film at Salisbury airport from correspondents returning from Bulawayo? SHAMUYARIRA: 1 cannot explain in any detail because it was done by the Criminal Investigation Department, which is a section of the police. I did not understand the rea- sons why they took such action. If they did not want report- ers to photograph certain situations, they could have kepi them out ol" the area instead of allowing them in and then seizing the film. But as soon as I heard about it. 1 called the minister responsible and [old him to release the film, and they did so. I really don't know the reasons for the initial action. AFRICA REPORT: Many foreign correspondents, nota- bly David Ottoway oi the Washington Post, have celebrated the kind of relationship the foreign press has enjoyed in Mozambique. Have you made any effort to note the specific kind of government measures that Mozambique has em- ployed in relating to foreign journalists? Will your govern- ment facilitate more such tours as this Ox fain- America press tour for foreign journalists? SHAMUYARIRA: Yes. we will do that. We will continue to facilitate tours of this kind. We will continue to have a very open relationship with the foreign press. We want lo emulate what the Mozambicans have done. We will cooper-

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 49 white settlers clashed with those of big business, the papers significant respects. The India Press Trust is owned by a backed the latter. Thirdly, the politics, culture, and history consortium of newspapers, whereas our trust is not a con- of the majority African population were never central to the sortium of newspapers. Our trust will be an autonomous operations of the newspapers. Consequently, the unity of body. the nationalist movement and the goals of national indepen- AFRICA REPORT: Although the Mass Media Trust dence that it sought for Zimbabweans were never a central board is supposed to be an independent agency, who will concern for the papers. Instead, they accentuated division provide the guidelines for the operation of the board? Will and distorted the national goals by simply equating them to the members travel to other countries to study the operation communism. At no time in the history of the struggle or at of various media trust boards, or will experts from other successive constitutional conferences did the papers support countries, particularly socialist countries, come to provide the African position. Papers with this kind of orientation guidance? could not be accommodated in a free, democratic, and inde- SHAMl'YARIRA: No. not really. I think the Mass Media pendent Zimbabwe. Trust board will have to learn from its own experiences, be- Soon alter coming to power we informed the Argus cause we are not copying any particular model, either from Company that the continued ownership of Zimbabwe the socialist countries or from India, although we were Newspapers by a foreign company -and one based in South heavily influenced by the India Press Trust. We studied Africa at that—was unacceptable to the Zimbabwe Gov- their constitution very carefully before we set up the trust. ernment. We cited a number of countries like Canada and But we are not copying any particular model. Australia that have legislation that prevents any foreign We have started something new and unique. I think the companies from buying or operating newspapers. As soon trust will grow as a Zimbabwean institution, with its roots in as it was known that the Argus Company was willing to sell this country and controlled by Zimbabweans. It should grow their shares in Zimbabwe newspapers, an interest was ex- to the extent that it becomes the main vehicle for the people pressed by one South African company and two British to express their wishes and desires and to express their criti- companies. We rejected them on the ground that we did not cism of the government where criticism is justified. The want control to shift from Johannesburg to London, but to trust will be the framework where the debate about the goals Salisbury, and to a broadly-based group of Zimbabwe na- of our society and our system of government can take place. tionals. A well-known multinational company acting on be- It must be an open debate where the government will be half of a Zimbabwean politician made a strong bid to buy criticized. We accept that. Zimbabwe Newspapers outright. We felt this deal would AFRICA REPORT: Could you amplify for me the re- return control to big business again. We wanted to move lationship between the board o\' trustees and the board of away from intrigue and emphasis on profit. We wanted to directors'.1 establish a chain of newspapers that are the mouthpiece of SHAMUYARIRA: The board of trustees are the trustees the Zimbabwean people as a whole, and not the Chamber of of the trust. The board o\' directors are directors of Zim- Mines in Johannesburg or anywhere else. babwe Newspapers. Some of them are appointed by the The imaginative solution was the creation of the Zim- trustees, and some are appointed by other financial inter- r babwe Mass Media Trust. This is an autonomous and inde- ests. The trust holds only 45<£ of the shares. The other 55^ pendent body of distinguished Zimbabweans. It will consist are held by seven different companies, with small amounts r/ r/ of a board of seven trustees; and a secretariat of five profes- each. One has 13 <. and another has 5 t. Seven different sionals. An agreed number of professionals will serve on the companies hold the other 55<#, and they appoint their own board of directors of Zimbabwe Newspapers and also on directors to the board as well. So when the board meets, that of the Zimbabwe News Agency (Z1ANA). The di- there will be representatives of the trustees and representa- rectors appointed by the trustees will serve alongside repre- tives of these other companies, which will constitute the sentatives of commercial companies, and the company will board of directors. The executive director of this board will continue to make its profits. But those profits accruing to be appointed by the trust. the trust will be plowed back into the business because the AFRICA REPORT: What are the other companies1' trust has no shareholders to pay. It is that aspect we have de- SHAML'YARIRA: They are local companies. There is an scribed as non-profit making. insurance company. Old Mutual, which is the largest single AFRICA REPORT: I understand that there are similiar holding with I Y'k . and an electric company, Electra. which mechanisms in Ghana and Nigeria. Has there been any ef- owns about \Wi. There is a building society that has about fort to learn from their experiences1.' W/t and other small interests. These companies have no SHAMLIYARIRA: Yes, 1 have been to Ghana and interest in newspaper work as such. For them it is just a Nigeria. We have also looked at many other similiar situa- form of investment. They have invested in Zimbabwe tions. We looked at India. Yugoslavia, and Romania. The newspapers for profit. Zimbabwe Mass Media Trust we have established seems to AFRICA REPORT: The latest reports concerning the be along the lines that best suit our own situation. Mass Media Trust provide for the appointment of new Afri- AFRICA REPORT: Is this similiar to the India Press can editors for the papers concerned. Is there going to be Trust? any effort to hire more African or Third World journalists? SHAMUYARIRA: No. the India Press Trust is different in SHAMl'YARIRA: No. not at the moment, because we

50 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 just haven't got the reporters. We have started an Institute of Mass Communications, which is opening on the first of April. However, we have been using the facilities of Rauneh House College for some emergency training. We have 40 Americans who are being trained there now in a six-month course, which will end in March. We will em- ploy some of them in the newspapers. But we are beginning a major training program on the first of April that will last for one year. When we have enough trained people, they will be absorbed into the newspapers. At the moment we just don't have the African manpower to fill all the vacan- cies. So what we are concentrating on is changing the editors so we can change the policies. AFRICA RKPORT: Would you be receptive to Third World journalists lrom other countries coming to Zimbabwe to work? SHAMl'YARIRA: Yes. we would be very much open to this. We would like them to come and help us. Dr. Nathan Shamuyarira. Zimbabwe's minister of AFRICA RKPORT: Is your objective a majority African. information and tourism or at least Third World, staff on your newspapers1.' SHAMIYARIRA: Yes AFRICA REPORT: Will the students in the planned In- stitute of Mass Communications be trained in the conven- tional Western philosophy of journalism, or will they be trained in the socialist model.' When I was appointed minister of information. I ad- SHAMl'YARIRA: They are going to be trained within the dressed the journalists' union and told them that we must socialist framework. The three areas we are going to train look to the north and not to the south. This will be our major journalists in are print journalism, broadcast journalism. effort. There are no correspondents from this country in Lu- and production techniques. We are going to give them such saka. Dar es Salaam, or Lagos. Even on the radio and the training as will fit them to serve a socialist Zimbabwe. television, we receive no news, commentaries, or docu- Within that pcrspecti\e. we are going to teach them to be mentaries on developments in black Africa. We must first productive and constructive—in other words, not criticizing show that we belong to black Africa. Our independence for the sake of criticizing. We want productive and con- represents a shift from belonging to the white south to the structive people. black north. This is what we will concentrate on in the mass AFRICA REPORT: Do you foresee any criticism from media. When we have succeeded in this, we will expand to the Western press for your decision to train future jour- the Third World generally. nalists under the socialist model? AFRICA RKPORT: Are there any plans for the launching SHAMtYARIRA: Yes. we have been criticized already. of a bilingual newspaper utilizing the native languages? and we will be criticized a great deal in the future. But 1 SHAMUYARIRA: Yes. However, there is already a paper think we can live with such criticism. called The People, which was utilized by the previous re- AFRICA RKPORT: Do you intend to cooperate with gime for propaganda. It was distributed free in the rural some of the new agencies of the New World Information areas and published biweekly. Our people never read it, be- Order, such as the Pan-African News Agency? cause it was full of propaganda: but it was useful for other SHAMUYARIRA: Yes. As a matter of fact. 1 recently re- things. Now we are producing a proper paper, which will be ceived a letter from the regional office of the Pan-African sold. It will be printed in Shona. Ndebele. and English. News Agency in Lusaka. 1 replied that the new Zimbabwe AFRICA RKPORT: Well, that concludes my questions. News Agency will link up with the Nonaligned Press Pool Is there anything else that you feel should be reflected in any in Belgrade. I have already attended their conferences and reports on the media developments in Zimbabwe? formed links with Prensa Latina of Cuba. We already have a SHAML'YARIRA: People should realize that the changes close relationship with AIM of Mozambique and will jointly we have made in the press are historic. These papers had establish links with Latin America and Asia. been run as a colonial enterprise since 1891. They had been However, what is more important for us here in this ini- part of the European establishment for 90 years. Therefore, tial period is links with the black states to the north of us. the changes we have made are very dramatic. We have Throughout the period of the Unilateral Declaration of In- made the changes much earlier than may have been ex- dependence (UD1). the links were with South Africa. South pected; but we have done so because we felt that it was im- Africa was the country that was considered an example of portant to represent Zimbabwe properly and not to endure good government, prosperity, and so forth. Everything to continued South African control over the dissemination of the north was considered chaos. news in our country. •

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 51 DOCUMENT Nigerian-American Relations

BY DONALD B. EASUM

In any examination of the opportunities for strengthening dicating intent to give military assistance to Jonas Savimbi U.S.-Nigerian business relations, one must first ask two key and his UNITA forces in southern Angola. The administra- questions. The first of these questions is: How does Nigeria tion's disclaimers of any such necessary intent have met view the Reagan administration's attitudes toward Africa with sharp skepticism from African leaders—skepticism not and what would be Nigeria's advice? The second question diminished by praise of Savimbis charm by administration is: Why should we care what Nigeria thinks about these spokespersons, things? Are U.S. interests likely to be in any serious way These three factors have contributed to the following affected by Nigerian views of U.S. policy toward Africa? fourth major Nigerian concern regarding U.S. attitudes With regard to the first question. I have used the term at- namely, that the United States is no longer serious about titudes rather than policies because there is an under- pushing South Africa to give up Namibia. Nigerians see cur- standable disinclination among Africans to make a distinc- rent U.S. reexamination of UN Resolution 435 as threaten- tion between the two. Africans are ready to give the U.S. ing the validity of the painstaking efforts of the past four administration time to formulate its African policies, but they years. These efforts created a framework for an interna- already see signs of attitudes that they believe presage tionally acceptable solution to South Africa's illegal control policies with which they differ. of that territory . On what do Nigerians base their judgments to date con- Nigerians are especially worried by the possibility that the cerning the attitudes of the Republican administration to- U.S. might make the departure of Cuban troops from An- ward Alrica? gola a precondition to continued efforts to produce a Nami- They base their views upon what our president says. bian settlement. Nigerians are not happy about the pres- Early in March in an interview with Walter Cronkite, Presi- ence of Cuban troops in Angola. But they share the view of dent Reagan said he though the United States should be Angolan Foreign Minister Paulo Jorge, expressed on sev- trying to be helpful to South Africa as long as a serious and eral occasions during his visit to the United States last honest effort was being made by South Africans to remove week, that a Namibian settlement will produce an Angolan apartheid. He asked whether the United States could aban- instruction to the Cubans to return home. don a country that had stood beside us in every war we had Nigerians maintain that the Cubans' principal role is to ever fought and a country whose minerals were strategi- protect Angola, not against Savimbi, but against South Afri- cally essential to the free world- can military forces operating from across the border in Nigerians—and Africans generally—have interpreted this Namibia. Savimbi's forces nonetheless benefit from a vari- statement as support for South Africa's continued refusal to ety of linkages with those South African forces. Any U.S face what Nigerians consider the basic issue in South assistance to him would be viewed in most of Africa as tan- Africa—an issue that goes beyond apartheid to power- tamount to an American alliance with South Alrica. It would sharing and full equality of all races. be certain to provoke immediate and sharp reactions from A second factor influencing Nigerian views of evolving most Africans and certainly from Nigerians. U.S. policy has been the administration's break with the Nigerians argue that U.S. aid 1O Savimbi will in any case past in receiving high-level South African military officials do the reverse of what they assume would be the U.S. in- for conversations in Washington and at the U.S. Mission to tention behind such aid—that is. it would bring an escala- the United Nations. Although somewhat mollified by Wash- tion, rather than a reduction, of Cuban and Soviet presence ington's subsequent reaffirmation of the no-visits policy, And it would destroy any chance of a Namibian settlement. Nigerians have found unsatisfactory our explanation of the In response to suggestions that the United States wishes to visas—and the conversations—which we said were honest preclude the Cubans from operating in "risk-free" environ- mistakes. ments. Nigerians would reply that the greatest risk Castro A third factor has been the administration's attitude to- faces in Angola is to be not needed. wards Angola and particularly the announced decision to Nigerians are asking whether U.S. concern for continued seek repeal of the Clark Amendment. This decision has access to South African mineral resources and for con- provoked widespread African criticism since it is seen as in- tinued "Western" control of the Cape sea route will have the effect of dissuading us from any actions that the South Afri- Donald B. Easum is president of the African-American Institute. can government might regard as hostile. They believe that From early 1974 to January 1975 he was assistant secretary of we equate stability with absence of Marxist activity. They state for African affairs, and from 1975 to late 1979 he was U.S. fear that we will accordingly support leaders or regimes thai ambassador to Nigeria. This article is based on testimony he de- profess anti-Marxist convinction whatever their approach to livered before a hearing of the House of Representatives Sub- human rights or to the question of equality of political and committee on Africa in Detroit. Michigan, on April 29, 1981. The title of Ihe hearing was Nigerian-American Business Relations." social opportunity may be. They suggest that our attach- ment to short-term stability has the effect of encouraging

52 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 South African government intransigence on power-sharing. ion. Nigerians take some of the credit for that Tory judgment They believe there will be an eventual breakdown of public and for the felicitous series of events that have followed in order and that this will jeopardize longer-term assurance of Zimbabwe. the strategic resources and assets that the U.S. administra- So back to the question. Do Nigerians care enough about tion believes are critically important to the U S. national U.S comportment in Angola, in Namibia, or in South Africa interest. to cut off our oil. which represents nearly 20 percent of U.S. Nigerians are worried about knee-jerk reactions by the U.S. imports, second only to purchases from Saudi Arabia? The to Soviet presence and activities in Africa. They would like quick answer is yes, they do. Under certain market cir- to be reassured that we are prepared to take into account cumstances, they might well take such action—even if it the historic roots of Soviet influence. Frelimo. the PAIGC. hurt. Under some other market circumstances, they might the MPLA. ZANU. ZAPU. the ANC, the PAC—where else, not. other than communist China, could these groups have gone But there are other unpleasant possible consequences to obtain military assistance in their nationalist struggles for U.S. interests as a result of Nigerian displeasure with against Portuguese rule, against an illegal Rhodesian mi- U.S. policies elsewhere in Africa. It is essential that we nority government, and against a South African regime that move from oil to these other questions as we assess this might be termed totalitarian by some, authoritarian by issue. others, oligarchic by still others, but is certainly considered The now promising U.S.-Nigerian collaboration in ag- by Nigerians as above all racist and therefore unaccept- ricultural development could be aborted. U.S. firms seeking able? contracts or joint ventures in construction, manufacturing, Let us look now at the second question. Why should engineering, planning, and communications would be drop- Nigerian views on these issues matter to the United States? ped in favor of competitors from Europe, Japan, or Brazil. Why should Nigerian attitudes concern us? So what, if The flow to the United States of Nigerian federal and state President Shagan threatened to use oil as a weapon legislators and their staffs would dry up, depriving both against the U.S. in the event our policies were seen to but- sides of the benefits of further exchange of views on two tress apartheid in South Africa or to discourage a demo- executive-presidency constitutional systems with remarka- cratic solution in Namibia? Are not Nigerians well known for ble similarities. their pragmatic approach, for their attachment to their own Even more serious might be our inability to enlist the kind self-interest? How could they be so shortsighted as to tinker of collaboration that made Nigerian understanding so useful with the sale of a commodity that represents 90 percent of an asset to the U.S. government during the past four years. their foreign exchange income—a commodity of which fully This kind of understanding produced Foreign Minister 50 percent is sold to U.S. buyers? Joseph Garba's valiant and energetic attempt to mediate First of all. we must understand that Nigerians feel more the Shaba problem between Zaire and Angola in the sum- deeply about these issues than about any other interna- mer of 1977. That attempt was rendered possible only be- tional question. For Nigerians, it is not El Salvador that cause Secretary Vance was able to assure Foreign Minister matters, not Southeast Asia, not Afghanistan, not the Horn Garba that the United States would not overreact to Ihe re- of Africa, not the Western Sahara, not Lebanon, not Israel. ported role of Cubans and East Germans in that affair. and not Iran—it is soulhern Africa that counts In somewhat analagous fashion Nigerian support of the The U.S. Embassy in Lagos was bombarded with rocks in Anglo-American plan for Zimbabwe grew out of Nigerian early January 1976. My house was mobbed by demon- conviction that the Carter administration was sincere in its strators. A letter from President Ford to the Nigerian head of attachment to full democracy in Zimbabwe and equal rights state was termed 'insulting" and •fatuous The CIA was in South Africa. The repeal of the Byrd Amendment, the accused of complicity in the assassination of that same diplomacy of the then U.S. ambassador to the UN. Andrew head of state a few weeks later, in February. And three Young, and the personal commitment of President Carter times over the following seven months our secretary of were seen by Nigerians as convincing demonstrations of a state was turned down when he asked to visit Lagos. Why? concern for the way in which Africans themselves defined Because of U.S. policies in Angola in 1975. when the U.S. their problems. It was a combination of these factors that aligned itself on the same side as South Africa in the inter- encouraged Nigerian support of the UN plan for Namibia, of nal struggle for power between the MPLA on the one hand which the United States was the prominent architect. With- and. on the other. UNITA of Savimbi and the FNLA of Hol- out Nigerian influence with SWAPO. SWAPO might never den Roberto. I would submit that this is a pretty clear dem- have accepted the plan's formula. onstration of how deeply Nigerians feel about southern Af- In conclusion, I have tried to suggest that, however posi- rica issues. tive may be the presentations of my colleagues regarding Let me remind you of another such indication of Nigerian the possibilities for useful and profitable endeavor in the views on this issue This example is much more recent. In Nigerian market—and I feel these possibilities are enor- the summer of 1979. fearful that the new Conservative gov- mous—they can be seriously jeopardized by U.S. actions ernment ot Mrs. Thatcher was going to recognize the so- elsewhere on the African continent. We need Nigerian un- called internal settlement regime of Ian Smith and Bishop derstanding. When we have had it. as evidenced in the sev- Muzorewa in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. Nigeria nationalized the eral examples I have cited, Nigerian support for U.S. dip- British Petroleum share of Shell-BP and then quietly began lomatic initiatives has been an important contributor to the disqualifying British companies seeking new contracts, progress of those initiatives Conversely. Nigerian opposi- licenses, and so forth in the lucrative Nigerian market. tion as illustrated in the Angolan case has been costly to Shortly thereafter, at the Commonwealth conference in U.S. interests. It is therefore of great importance that the Lusaka, Mrs. Thatcher announced, to the great satisfaction Reagan administration make all possible effort to seek out of Nigerians and most other Africans, that the internal set- and listen to the views of Nigeria as 'policies' begin to tlement did not represent a valid test of Zimbabwean opin- emerge from "attitudes." D

AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 53 Books

U.S. COMPANIES IN SOUTH AFRICA them and changed wording to make computers fiat make "influx control" them acceptable. Even in fulfilling the more efficient, to supplying crucial oil principles, the L'.S. corporations re- Elizabeth Schmidt. Decoding Corpo- and weaponry to the war machine. L'.S. main in compliance with the unequal rate Camouflage, Washington, DC.: corporations sustain the status quo in and repressive laws of apartheid. Institute tor Policy Studies. ]9S(). 127 South Africa. pages. Second, even though the principles In assessing U.S. corporate in- represent moderate reform, not the volvement in South Africa, the author transformation of labor relations, they does not ignore the South African peo- Decoding Corporate Camouflage is have not been implemented by the sig- ple. She documents their demand for an important contribution to the inten- natories. They remain principles, not the removal of L'.S. capital. The few sifying debale over the U.S. role in work codes, as the Reverend Sullivan who i\o support foreign corporate in- South Africa. With the independence himself admits. Using data reported by vestment are mainly dependent on the of Zimbabwe and the escalating war in the corporations themselves. Schmidt South African regime for their status Namibia, the white laager looms ever shows their nonimplementation o\ positions. The book concludes that the more isolated, except for its corporate basic civil rights. One example from code ol conduct is only the corpora- partners. many cited in the book is that General tions' plan to protect their public One hundred thirty-five U.S. cor- Motors (on whose board of directors image while retaining their high profits porations have agreed to the Sullivan Sullivan sits) "desegregated" its — profits based on cheap African Principles as a guide for a change of washroom facilities by changing the labor. the unequal work conditions of the "Europeans Only" signs to color Decoding Corporate Camouflage is African work force in their South Afri- codes: blue doors lor white-only lava- a necessity Mr any student of southern can subsidiaries. The corporations tories, orange tor blacks and coloredv Africa or of transnational corporate have pledged to implement boih non- Third, the history of U.S. corporate conduct. The book contains important segregation in the workplace and fair investment in South Africa is one of and useful documentation for policy employment practices, such as equal aiding apartheid, not transforming it. advisors. It is especially relevant as the pay and opportunities lor black work- U.S. corporations produce in key stra- new Republican administration is reas- ers, hli/abeih Schmidt outlines the tegic sectors in South Africa. Schmidt, sessing American policy toward South principles and then penetrates their with careful documentation, shows Africa. camouflage. how the motor vehicle, energy, and Hirst, the principles themselves do computer corporations contribute di- not challenge apartheid. The South rectly to the South African police and Carol B. Thompson African izovernmeni actuallv reviewed military apparatus. From providing University of Southern California

54 AFRICA REPORT • July-August 1981 CEUTA MELILLA

MAURITIUS

Port Louis The ancient Kingdom of Da- homey exchanged ambassadors with the court of Louis XIV.

Part of the fun of West Africa is bargaining. So here are three hints for successful bargaining: 1. Start at half of what you're willing to pay. 2. Never hurry. 3. Keep a sense of humor.

Handshaking is an important social grace in West Africa, so re- member to shake hands with ev- To see the "Venice of Africa" travel to In the 5th century A.D. eryone in the room when you're Benin (Dahomey) and the village of Gan- while the Roman Empire was being introduced. Also, always vie. Here over 10,000 people live in stilt falling in Europe, the Kingdom shake hands (pass food or gifts, houses, high and dry over a lagoon. Need- of Ghana was a full-fledged etc.) with your right hand. That's less to say, they're fabulous fishermen. political state in West Africa. important! NOTE: Elephants have the right of way The air is so clear in Mauritania that scientists gathered there to witness the solar eclipse in 1973.

Abidjan, Ivory Coast is often referred to as the "Manhattan of Africa". It has a "Central Park", skyscrapers, and the Hotel Ivoire is often com- pared to a glass-enclosed Rockefeller Center.

While you're on a photo-safari in Gabon, per- haps you'll get a pictur^^ the extremely rare situ- tongas. And perhaps w won't.

ferred to as the "Pari

NOTE: When driving through the national parks re- member that elephants have the right of way. They're bigger than you are.

Africa's "Macy's" and "Gimbels" are the open markets in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. They're not to be missed.

Air Afrique offers regularly scheduled, luxurious, non-stop jets from JFK to Dakar, Senegal, and then on to the rest of Africa. It's the only way to fly! JUR !g® AFRIQUE Now what are you waiting for? Isn't it time you discovered Africa begins with Air Afrique. West Africa? Just call your Travel Agent or your nearest Air And it's just seven hours to the New Sun Afrique/Air France office today. Hurry! West Africa.