I`m just getting back into water fowling again, like I said, when I was younger for two months I would just go crazy – I`d have to purchase a box of shotgun shells almost every day. Then there was the bird flu – so I kind of shut it off then, because I used to bring a lot of my ducks home and take them to the Elders, and I didn`t want the Elders getting sick. But just this past couple of years I`m getting back into it (Grant Lonechild, 2013).

Eldon Maxie also did his waterfowl hunting in the fall and would hunt sometimes 30 in a year. He would usually hunt on the north side:

There’s a road … we used to call it shotgun hill because all of the ducks used to go straight up the north side of the lake from the park. There wasn’t that much goose growing up here, you’d be lucky to see one or two of them, now they’re sitting along the beach (Eldon Maxie, 2013).

Chief Standingready outlined some of the birds they harvest:

We use to hunt ducks like mallards, teal and those kinds of things. Once in a while geese. The other things that we hunt are grouse, prairie chickens if we’re lucky; kind of small birds. We used to hunt a lot of rabbits, but they come in a cycle, and some years there’s lots, and some years there’s not.

I know the bird population is not what it used to be so, we used to do a lot of duck hunting and bring down a lot of birds. Now that there seems to be not as many as they use to be, we don’t really bother them anymore. But if we do, we usually take the male, the Mallards for example. Selective hunting. That’s a practice that I’ve been taught from my dad and my uncles. You don’t take everything that you see, you just select what you need (Chief Standingready, 2013).

Aaron McArthur begins his waterfowl harvesting in October “that’s when the snowgeese will start coming around”. He will harvest approximately 20 ducks and 10 geese a week until they are all gone “usually about a month. They’ll be all gone by November, December for sure” (Aaron McArthur, 2013). He hunts ducks and geese all over, but mainly at Chain Lake, Rango- Jango, and Kakakaway Slough. He also harvests turkeys and wild pigs:

These are pigs that have escaped from some farm from around here and they re-habitate around here. Wild pigs are along the edge of the Reserve on the east side, because it borders the wild life refuge … that’s where the wild pigs are hiding right now. They’re hard to find. There was a big kill-off in the park. These guys were just going out in groups and finding them in the park area … farmers and stuff. They just had a big slaughter of pigs. I don’t know what they did with them. For them, they’re just a nuisance … for the farmers and them. They’re destroying their crops. For us, it’s a delicacy to find one of those. It’s food. Turkeys, you’ll find them up around here in the northeast corner … you’ll see them in spring. Late fall you’ll see the odd one, but spring is a better time to catch them (Aaron McArthur, 2013).

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Traditional Bird Harvesting Methods and Equipment

Traditionally, wild fowl were killed in large numbers during the mating season when they could not quickly fly from the water. Men armed with digging-sticks20 waded into ponds and lakes to strike them down. Women, also armed with digging-sticks, were stationed on the shores to get any of the birds that headed for land (Mandelbaum, 1979, pg.69).

Plains Cree Digger. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Civilization. Image V-A-844.

During the early fur trade the introduction of firearms) both altered and eased all subsistence hunting for the Plains people, and allowed them to rely more on waterfowl as a seasonal staple food. (C.A.A.E., 1997).

Catching wild chickens was an activity usually performed by the women, and usually done with a snare made of arched willow sticks planted in the ground. A noose of horsehair was suspended within the arch. As the chicken passed through, it was caught (Mandelbaum, 1979).

Elder Nora Kakakaway told us there were lots of geese, partridges, ducks, mud hens, prairie chickens:

Geese, mud hens, there’s certain times that they gather eggs, there’s eggs that we gather. Prairie chickens too … Prairie chickens dance, and what we used to do is just get branches, put little snares, little wee snares underneath them, and the chickens would dance right into them.

20 In archaeology and anthropology, a digging stick is used by subsistence-cultures to dig out underground food such as roots, to hunt, and for other domestic tasks. They normally consist of little more than a sturdy stick which has been shaped or sharpened and perhaps hardened by being placed temporarily in a fire. It's a simple device, but is also tough and hardy in order not to break (Wikipedia definitions, 2010).

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Children often snared small birds and animals and made their own snares:

I used to snare rabbits, and to make that snare round, I would use a chair leg. So it must have had chairs already. It was like, my snares went off a path, and everybody used that path, but they kind of knew that that’s where I set my snares, so they would even kind of tell me ‘Hey you better check your snare over there’, whether there was one in there or the snare was cut away (WBFNS member Bruce Standingready, 2012).

That’s what my grandfather used to give us, when we were little kids … that round snare wire. We used to set our own snares; we had our own bush road and set our snares. It was just a life (WBFNS Elder Yvonne Lonechild, 2012).

Bird Traditional Uses

Traditionally, after eggs were collected, they were placed in a shallow pit, covered with coals and allowed to bake. The meat was cooked and eaten as a main course, and often used in many soups and stews.

Mattresses were usually constructed with bundles of dried grass or rushes with a buffalo robe thrown over it. But pillows were rectangular sacks of rawhide filled with duck feathers (Mandlebaum, 1979).

In Plains culture, the tail feathers of the golden eagle were used to make headdresses, also known as warbonnets. This impressive head gear was only worn by the Chief. Each feather had to be earned through an act of bravery, and occasionally, individual feathers were painted with red dye to commemorate a particular deed.

Birds have always been an intricate part of White Bear’s culture, and with the introduction of various weapons, birds were harvested more frequently and in larger amounts. As with the other traditional harvests, however, the birds too have gone.

Eagle feathers adorned most Plains objects in ritualistic use – this lent them additional potency. Eagle wings were carried as badges of prestige by important men in ceremonies. They were used as fans in hot weather and also utilized as fire fans.

A man who needed eagle feathers for any purpose would make a pipe offering to Eagle spirit power. He would ask Eagle to allow itself to be taken. If he did manage to secure an eagle, a feast would be given in which pipe offerings were made and berries consecrated and eaten.

The feathers were plucked out and the eagle carcass was abandoned in a secluded place. When feathers were to be used on a war bonnet or on other martial regalia, the eagle was eaten. (Mandelbaum, 1979).

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Fish

“They did a lot of netting in the winter time … they used to bring my mother tons of them and they would just sort of throw them on the ground. Then they make a wood pile to smoke them, smoke the fish. It was always burning” (WBFNs Elder Almer Standingready, 2012).

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the Plains diet originally consisted mainly of bison meat. The Plains Cree and Plains Ojibwe added fish to the diet, but fish was unimportant elsewhere on the Plains. It was not until the arrival of the Europeans and the depletion of the bison, that they began to depend more on other foods, including fish, to supplement their diet (Mandelbaum, 1979).

Although the White Bear caught a variety of fish types, their harvests mainly consisted of burbot, goldeye, grayling, pike, suckers, trout, walleye, whitefish, and jackfish. Figure 23 provides the names of some of these fish species, along with their Plains Ojibwe translation. Dozens of White Bear people continue to harvest fish on the Reserve and within White Bear’s traditional territory today.

Figure 23: Fish Harvests

FISH OJIBWE TRANSLATION

Jackfish Ginoozhe+g

Perch Asaawe+g

Pike Bazhiba`igan+an

Pickerel Gidagaa-ganozhii+g

Sucker Giigaameg+wag

Walleye Pike Ogaa+wag

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Fish Harvesting Locations

A few of the Elders speak of the peoples’ favourite fishing areas:

Alameda Fort Qu’Appelle Pickerel Point Alameda Dam Fort Qu’Appelle system Pipestone Creek Basin Creek Good Birch Point Prince Albert Big Marsh Harmon Trail Rafferty Blue Heron Trail Heart Hill Redwood Boundary Hewitt Lake Round Lake Boundary Dam Kakakaway Slough Shoal Lake River System Broadview Kenosee Lake Skeleton Lake Codette Lake of the Prairies Souris River Cannington Lake Last Mound Lake Souris Valley Car-lar Lake Little Kenosee Lake South Saskatchewan River Carlyle Long Lake Southern Manor Chain Lake Leross Squaw Point Christopher Trail Moose Creek Stonebar Courval Moose Mountain Creek Stoney Lake area Cory’s Bay Moose Mountain Park Swift Creek Crooked Lake Moosimin Tobin Lake Cumberland Moosimin Creek White Bear Lake Dauphen Narrows Whitefoot Dumas Nipawin Yusakami EB Campbell Dam North Saskatchewan River Estevan Lake Oxbow

Elder George Sparvier explained how Swift Creek feeds into Carlyle, and Moose Mountain Creek feeds into the Souris River, which flows into North Dakota. These waterways were all fished, hunted and trapped upon. He explained that there is an old trail near Redwood where their ancestors came from the United States up to fish. They camped near the foot bridge – there are Sioux graves there (WBFNS Elder George Sparvier, 2012).

They came there to do their fishing because that is where the waterways connected, right down to the Big Marsh. George explained that the hunting, fishing, and gathering were exceptional in this area:

Because of the valleys and the water – most of it is situated in through here and you had your wooded area more so than the plain. Well, like they call it bald headed prairie. Because the water ways, I imagine that’s what drew them here to hunt and fish around this region. Because we had Sioux Assiniboine come up from, from the states and camp here in our region (WBFNs Elder George Sparvier, 2012).

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Elder Darlene Standingready said that everyone in the White Bear community used to travel to Little Kenosee Lake to fish. Elder Victor White Bear recalls many fishing trips with his father:

When I was a kid they used to take me into this Little Kenosee … And they used to fish there. My mom and dad told me; they said that Little Kenosee used to belong to White Bear (WBFNs Elder Victor White Bear, 2012).

Elder Eldon Lonechild and his family also fished for Pickerel and Jackfish at Kenosee Lake – Cannington Lake was a favourite too “I don’t know if there are any fish there now. I just think there is perch in there now” (WBFNs Elder Eldon Lonechild, 2012). Elder Almer Standingready fished in the Moose Mountain Provincial Park at Pickerel Point, but mostly fished close to home.

Elders Lucile Littlechief and Irene Standingready said their families mostly fished in White Bear Lake, Cannington Lake, Broadview, Round Lake, Oxbow, Lake Estavan, and mostly Moosimin. Elder Victor White Bear used to fish at Fort Qu’Appelle:

White Bear Elders said that Round Lake, White Bear Lake and Kenosee Lake are best for Jackfish. Kenosee and White Bear Lakes are good for pickerel as well. Perch is more plentiful in Cannington Lake. Moosimin was good fishing for all species, even Suckers “We used to boil them. We used to have suckerhead soup” (WBFNs Elder Phyllis Standingready, 2012).

Elder George Sparvier explained how their Reserve lake, White Bear Lake, is no longer a favoured fishing spot, likely due to past over fishing by non-Reserve members:

See, at one time our lake had perch, pickerel, jackfish. That’s what they used to fish and in about the 1950s, starting from the 1950s, they had American people coming up to fish and they brought with them what they call shiners (bait fish). After they were done, fishing, they dumped them into the lake … the live ones. So all these fish that used to lay eggs here and spawn and everything else, well those little shiners eat the eggs.

That’s why we don’t have perch, that’s why we don’t have jackfish, perch anymore. They cleaned them right out. As soon as they laid the eggs, well the shiners ate the eggs. That’s what happened to our fish that used to spawn. Jackfish, perch, pickerel. That’s what happened.

Now what we get out of there –is what the forestry comes over with a plane and drops a load of fish. Now they seed it. But they got rid of most of the shiners and now it is back to where it was for pickerel, jackfish, and perch back in there ... spawn (WBFNs Elder George Sparvier, 2012).

Grant Lonechild is an all-seasons fisherman, and harvests fish in many areas throughout this region: We go down here into this system here - that`s the Alameda Dam. I like to catch pike, and there`s perch and there`s suckers. There`s about 4 species of fish in there, probably other things to in there that we don`t chase. Alameda is our summertime place.

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Then we go north into the valley to White Foot. We fish the system here – Round Lake, Crooked Lake. We used to go to Crooked Lake in the morning to do a perch bite, then we`d go back to Round Lake. This is our wintertime ice fishing spot. With my friends we go to Last Mound Lake. Last Mound Lake– great for big walleye. The bite`s not so great, but the big ones still have to eat. Stone Bar - There`s just about 5 different places we go. Mainly, when I jump into the boat with my partner we go where he goes.

Up here, in the Fort Qu’Appelle system – we were just up here a couple of weeks ago. I think we left at about 6 o’clock in the morning and we were on the ice by around 9 o’clock. We mostly target walleye, and you end up getting perch and pike and everything else that comes around your hook. Tulapi or white fish. There`s just south, there`s Alameda Dam … we fish this system up north in the Cumberland area – there`s fish up in Tobin Lake, that would be straight east of Prince Albert … that would be the north Saskatchewan – where the north Saskatchewan and the south Saskatchewan meet, and everything flows north from there, and it goes through a couple sets of dams, EB Campbell Dam which is what created Tobin Lake. At Tobin Lake we fish the mouth, the river system is all the way from Codette all the way to the mouth of Tobin lake. Mostly the river system we fish.

Across from the Lake into Lake of the Prairies, there’s a nice little fishery in there. Same thing, everything that comes out of the Shoal Lake River system - we used to bushwack them down by the dam. We used to go up to Dauphen and fish every year.

It takes you all over you know, even down to the south here. There`s a lot of guys down in the Estevan area, they fish boundary which I`m pretty sure is Bass. The only place in all of Saskatchewan you could find bass would be Boundary Saskatchewan just because of the warm water discharge there – warmer temperatures. I`m not much of a bass fisherman, but we`ve been known to throw a line or two in there. And there`s other lakes when you look at the map – that`s mainly the areas that we do fish. So, every year we`ll hit each and every one of these lakes at least a couple of times (Grant Lonechild, 2013).

Ken Lonechild also fishes at Round Lake and Crooked Lake in the Qu’Appelle Valley:

That’s where I do all my winter fishing. Earlier on when I was growing up I fished in Long Lake, that’s when we went to residential school because the school was nearby. We fished here all winter and some of the summer, and we turned our attention in early spring after the spawn to Rafferty and Oxbow … Boundary Dam and Alameda. We fished quite a bit there because that’s where they all spawn (Ken Lonechild, 2013).

Nadine Shepherd prefers to fish in the Prince Albert area, and Estevan at the Dam, although her father and brother have caught large pickerel right in White Bear Lake. Grant Lonechild explained that they used to stock this lake:

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At one time, it was all connected, we had perch, we had pike, we had suckers, we had pickerel, we had the whole big shebang here … with the water levels dropping and the snowfalls not being so heavy, those things – the little connections - fish stopped running up them. They continue to stock it, so I know for myself there`s a pretty healthy walleye species inside this lake right now, but they`re so hard to catch (Grant Lonechild, 2013).

Ken Lonechild fishes regularly, but has not fished on White Bear for decades:

Actually, I haven’t fished on White Bear since my early 20s. But I do remember when we had our boat, we would launch it here and fish here – Cory’s Bay. It’s kind of an old childhood memory, we lived right here as kids and would cut right through the pasture to Corys Bay and would fish for Perch all along there. And this was called the Narrows, that’s a natural spawning ground … we focused all our fishing right along here (Narrows) it seemed to be the deepest part. Walleye was fished in the summertime by boat. (Ken Lonechild, 2013).

Chief Standingready used to go fishing south around Alameda, and also around Estevan:

That takes in the Souris Valley water - that whole river area there. Also, the Moose Creek area which is further north yet, southern Courval, and Southern Manor … the last couple of years the water’s been quite high and the fish are coming up there. There’s a lot of fishing going on there. The other place we go fishing is the Basin Creek which is south of Number 1. Moosimin area, and the other area that they do fish is along the Qu’Appelle Valley along those lakes.

Chief Standingready catches mostly Jackfish and trout, but throws many of the fish he catches back: Not the large ones but mostly the medium size and the small. The smaller fish of jack and pickerel we just through back. The bigger fish, there is not that many, but we use them to keep and also share with others. I can’t put a number on it, it depends on how good a fisherman you are. There’s a few suckers – we usually release them.

There used to be a lot of perch but not so much as there used to be. Also pickerel, walleye. But a lot of pickerel and a lot of jack – they are mainly the best eating fish. And perch, but a lot of bones. And bass, but mostly in Estevan – it’s not a domestic fish I don’t think, at least not in this area anyway (Chief Standingready, 2013).

Ken Lonechild supplements his diet with a myriad of fish species, but walleye is preferred:

I only eat jack because I grew up on it. So, I fish here for largemouth bass and walleye mainly. Oxbow is walleye and there’s a lot of Jack there. Round lake we fished for jack, walleye and perch. Those are the three areas we mostly focus on, and then we go way up north to Nipawin. Once in a while to fish for pickerel. Nipawin is a town – the lake has kind of a river system, actually, the Saskatchewan River comes through that. Nipawin is right on that river. We fished the river, but it flows into the lake. We fished the lake - Tobin Lake (Ken Lonechild, 2013).

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Traditional Fishing Seasons, Methods and Equipment

The White Bear fished all year round. Ice fishing was a popular winter harvesting activity for the White Bear. For the most part, the White Bear used old fishing nets when fishing. The Plains had a variety of techniques and implements to catch fish. They were adept at angle fishing, and traditionally used barbless bone or spruce hooks, leisters21, weirs22, and gill nets made of willow fiber.

Ice fishing is still pursued to this day by White Bear members. When ice fishing, an ice coop served to clear the hole made for nets in the frozen water (C.A.A.E., 2010). After chopping the hole, they would drop the net in, and pull the net out. Some also snared fish.

Anishinaabe Fish Net. Photo courtesy of museum of civilization. Item V-F-95.

Ken Lonechild is a big fisherman, especially during the winter:

It’s all 100% fishing from the time the ice is thick enough until late March early April, we fish. Even that, there are years when we would come home with 30 some odd pickerel, but as soon as we get home, we take our share and we go for a drive. I usually go to my neighbours and flip down the tail gate and pull the pails out, and ask them what they want. Some of them will take all of them. It don’t matter, take as many as you want. And we go back out, with the goodness of our creator, and we always seem to come home with pails full of fish. But we never let them go to waste – if anything good’s wasted you’re headed for bad times. That’s the belief, you never waste anything.

Once the ice goes, we turn our attention to the open water and pull out our casting rods and stand on the shores. One time we bought a boat and decided to fish from a boat – it’s much more productive when you fish from a boat, but it’s much more fun to fish from the shore, when you can just go to any lake and jump out and put your rods in there. There’s always some fish in there – at least you hope to catch something. But that would usually take us again until the time of gathering again in the fall in September. So, kind of an annual cycle between fishing and hunting (Ken Lonechild, 2013).

21 A spear with three or more prongs used for spearing fish (wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn). 22 A fence built across a stream to catch or retain fish wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn 114

Elders Maria and Yvonne shared their fishing stories from when they were young:

The ladies always went fishing at, north of Ca-lar Lake. We’d all go in the wagon. It would be in the spring when the fish were spawning or whatever. They would go along … right through Chain Lake and right to Ca-lar Lake and go right around and go way at the end. There used to be a little branch off the lake. We’d camp on this side, then the ladies would put a net there. They would go way around and put a net, they’d have this net and fish all night. That’s when we were just kids. We used to be put to bed, but in the morning, we would have a job. We would clean the fish.

So, that’s where the women used to go fishing. I remember that part. It was only women who went over there. Then someone would bring the fish home after we cleaned them and my dad would be waiting. And then he’d be off to the farmers to go and trade. For eggs or whatever kind of food we could get from the farmers (WBFNs Elders Maria Shepherd and Yvonne Lonechild, 2012).

As with all other harvests conducted by White Bear, fish is also shared with the community:

There is never enough. I’ll tell you why. Just take a drive around the Reserve with a pale of fish – you’ll make it around to 2 houses and there will be ten more along the way that want it. In terms of fishing, 10-15 fish a day is a good start. You take your share out of that and give the rest away.

So in terms of harvesting amount, plus mother nature plays its regular cycles and the bite is on – the bite is off – so, it’s hard to put a number of the amount of fish a person actually needs or can catch. And we don’t fish by net, just one by one out of the water. So, it’s really difficult to tell you how much fish. But for myself, for my own family, on each outing I like to bring back a minimum of 10 good sized walleye home. A good walleye is about 2 to 3 pounds. My brother Mike likes the great big ones, like 4 or 5 pounds, but I find them a little strong. The old people like them too, but I prefer the 2 to 3 pounds. I’ll take 10 to 15 of them any day. Fillet them, put them in the fridge, I’m happy.

One year in February, a guy pulled up from up north, I think he was from Montreal Lake, in a half-tonne, literally packed with cleaned fillets of Jack, whitefish, pickerel, He wanted 1500 for the whole thing because he had to go back, and there was lots, so we said okay, we’ll take them. So we put them all in the truck and went to every house and we still didn’t have enough and there was lots. Not only that, a fillet is about that thick (a few inches) and a box in about that big, and there was about 20, 30 fillets in a box – the size of a half tonne. Some people like jack, some people like whitefish, and some people prefer walleye, and we still didn’t have enough. So, it’s hard to put a number on it (Ken Lonechild, 2013).

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Fish Traditional Uses

Fish was an important aspect of the White Bear diet, and boiling was the usual method for preparing fresh fish. Traditionally, this was done over the fire using clay-covered woven spruce root kettles (C.A.A.E, 1997). Often however, fresh fish was split, cleaned, and simply set by the fire on a stake (Mandlebaum, 1979).

As noted in previous chapters, fish were also smoked, dried, and stored for later use. Dried fish was broken apart and eaten as is or placed in water to regain its consistency. It was also a way to have fresh fish soup throughout the year.

Elder Darlene Standingready recalls drying the fish they caught. Her grandmother would then crush it up and they would bring it back home in bags. Elders Josh and Nora Kakakaway fished with their family along Stoney Lake “Jackfish, a lot of jackfish in this area. A lot of pickerel and perch here and there were some perch in this area” (WBFNs Elder Josh Kakakaway, 2012).

HOW TO DRY or SMOKE FISH FOR STORAGE

Drying fish out with the air or wind is one of the first steps used to preserve fish after they have been caught, gutted and cleaned. The Natives would construct drying racks out of different types of wood which they would then peel, cut to size, and tie together with babiche. The next step would be to either air dry for a month, or to put the fish into a smokehouse.

A smokehouse was a structure generally made out of pine. Since some woods would create an unpleasant taste in the fish, they would light specific types of wood to smolder underneath. The smoke would then rise up penetrating the fish, which were hanging from poles from the ceiling. This process dried this fish and gave it a smoky flavour. The smokehouse was also equipped with an opening in the roof to let excess smoke escape (Portage Heritage Society, 2007).

DRYING FISH ON RACK (PA022456- NATIONAL ARCHIVES)

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Figure 24: Current Fishing Locations

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Farming, Ranching, Harvesting Wood etc.

The influx of settlement and the creation of Reserve boundaries caused White Bear members to partake in additional work to supplement their livelihood. While they continued to harvest plants and animals, they also collected pickets and firewood for the local lumber mill; began to garden, farm and raise cattle; and partook in seasonal haying activities as a community. Elder Wayne White Bear explained how his grandfather would “get wood and collect pickets,” and Elder Edward Little Chief Sr. told of his father’s small ranch where he raised cattle and horses. Others did and continue these kinds of pursuits today.

Phyllis’ family lived where the school is now on the Reserve and recalls her family gardens they had grown to supplement their gathering/food supply:

When we lived there we had two great big gardens, one on each side of the road … we had big gardens … we used to have about 20 bags of potatoes every year that we put down in the cellar … we had to. We depended on our own home grown stuff when we were kids. We raised our own cattle (WBFNs Elder Phyllis Standingready, 2012).

Elders Yvonne Lonechild and Maria Shepherd recall the horses, cattle, and fresh food from their grandparents’ gardens:

Grandma and grandpa had huge gardens, huge gardens they had. Not one, they had a big garden way down by the stable, and they had one right closer to the house by the gate … (Grandfather) always dressed really warm; he wore the big gauntlets up to here, plus a big buffalo coat, that’s how I remember him” (WBFNs Elder Maria Shepherd, 2012).

Elder Nora Kakakaway used to cut hay with her family on the right side of Stoney Lake around 1964: That’s where we used to cut hay. With horses and a mower. That was the last time, then they started telling him that they were gonna give that to a PFRA or whatever they were calling it at that time (WBFNs Elder Nora Kakakaway, Interview 10, 2012).

Elder Almer Standingready collected pickets and cut wood for extra money:

I used to haul pickets for them … Where the golf course is there. My dad was telling me I made three times the money I made money in the bush. First, when the first started, they cut wood there … for people in Carlyle and all the area. Used to have two trains going into town and we used to do all the cutting, where the golf course is.

They cleaned that bush right out, and then they’d sell all the wood. We cut it flat for a golf course ‘cause we had no work. The band had no work at the time, so they had a work crew do that to keep them. My dad was the Chief at that time and he made them cut that out (WBFNs Elder Almer Standingready, 2012).

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HISTORICAL AND CURRENT TRADITIONAL USE AREAS IDENTIFIED BY THE ELDERS

Alameda Gillis Lake Pickerel Point Alameda Dam Gillis Lake Road Pipestone Creek Arcola Good Birch Point Prince Albert Basin Creek Harmon Trail Punnichy Bear Lake Heart Hill Qu’Appelle Valley / Lakes Bearlight Hewitt Lake Rafferty Bennett Lake Hug Lake Rango-Jango Big Hill Indian Head Red Wood Big Marsh John Pauls land Red Wood Trail Birch Hills Kakakaway Slough Regina Blue Heron Trail Kapuskasing Riley Spawn Boundary Kennedy Rocky Boy, Montana Boundary Dam Kenosee Lake Round Lake Brandon, Manitoba Kenosee Park Sandy Lake Road Broadview Kinnikinick Hill Shoal Lake River Codette Kisbey Shotgun Hill Candiac Lake of the Prairies Skeleton Lake Cannington Lake Lake Whitford Souris River Cantelite Last Mound Lake Souris Valley Basin Car-lar Lake Little Kenosee Lake South Saskatchewan River Cardiff Long Lake Southern Manor Carlyle Loon Lake Squaw Point Carry the Kettle Leross Standing Buffalo area Chain Lake Maple Creek Stevenson Lake Christopher Trail McRae Farm Stevenson Lake Road Claw Mans Reserve Moose Creek Stone Bar Courval Moose Mountain Park Stoney Lake area Corys Bay Moose Mountain Creek Stoughton Crooked Lake Moose Jaw Swift Creek Cumberland Moosimin Tobin Lake Cypress Hills area Moosimin Creek Turtle Mountain Dauphen Mount Maitre area Weyburn Diefenbaker Lake Narrows Weatherall Dumas Nemenas Weese Land Duncan Nipawin Welwyn EB Campbell Dam North Battleford White Bear Lake Elk Hill North Saskatchewan River Whitefoot Estevan Ocean Man Yusakami Estevan Lake Oxbow Fort Qu’Appelle Peegris

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CONCLUSION

This study has researched the historical and current land uses of the White Bear First Nations People. A total of 28 Elders and land users were interviewed and their information combined with historical and archival information and research. From the interviews, maps of the areas used historically and currently were produced. From this study we have attempted to better define the historical and current extent of the traditional lands of this culturally diverse First Nation.

The study has also found that the traditional uses of the First Nation were forcibly constrained through a series of conflicts between settlers, governments and other Aboriginal Peoples who themselves were forced off their lands by white settler immigrations. The White Bear Reserve is located where the historical lands of the Cree, Assiniboine and Ojibwe peoples tended to overlap. Because the Moose Mountains are an oasis of wildlife this was a natural center of activities both livelihood and spiritual for many peoples. The historical use map includes the area which would have been used by the White Bear People before the signing of the Treaty from the time they originally occupied the Moose Mountains and before they signed Treaty. This area is very large because of the inclusion of different peoples in the Band but also because of their hunting and traveling practices. The current land use of the Nation is much more centered around the reserve and the park, however, hunting and fishing occupations extend over a considerable distance beyond the boundaries of the reserve and park.

WBFN family with their sheep. Photo courtesy of White Bear First Nations.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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White Bear First Nations Elder and Current User Interviewees

Gibson, Phyllis. (August 9, 2012). Group Interview. Tapes 1 and 2. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Kakakaway, Ivan. (September 24, 2012). Interview 8. Tapes 13 and 14. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Kakakaway, Josh. (August 9, 2012). Section A. Interview #10. Tape # 2. (August 22, 2012). Section B. Interview #9. Tape # 4. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Kakakaway, Nora. (August 9, 2012). Section A. Interview #10. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Little Chief, Angus. (August 9, 2012). Section A. Interview #10. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Little Chief, Lucille. (August 9, 2012). Interview 5. Tape 20A. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Little Chief Sr., Edward. (August 10, 2012). Interview #3. Tapes 12 and 13. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Eldon. (August 9, 2012). Interview 2. Tape #11. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Grant. (September, 2013). Current User Video Interview 1. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Ken. (September, 2013). Current User Video Interview 2. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Loreen (August 22, 2012). Interview 6. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Michael. (September, 2013). Current User Interview 3. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonechild, Winnie (September 24, 2012). Interview 8. Tapes 13 and 14. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

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Lonechild, Yvonne. (August 9, 2012). Interview 7. Tape #8. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Lonethunder, Sally. (August 9, 2012). Interview 2. Tape #11. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Maxie, Elden. (September, 2013). Current User Interview 2. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

McArther, Aaron. (September, 2013). Current User Interview 4. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

McArther, Elsie. (August 9, 2012). Interview 7. Tape #8. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Peltier, Jean. (August 9, 2012). Interview 2. Tape #11. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Shepherd, Maria. (August 9, 2012). Interview 7. Tape #8. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Shepherd, Nadine. (September, 2013). Current User Interview 1. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Sparvier, George (August 9, 2012). Group Interview. Tapes 1 and 2. (August 22, 2012). Interview 6. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Almer. (August 9, 2012). Tape #2. (August 10, 2012). Interview 4. Tape #17. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Brian Chief. (September 2013). Current User Interview 5. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Darlene. (August 10, 2012). Interview 3. Tapes 12 and 13. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Irene. (August 9, 2012). Interview 5. Tape 20A. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Phyllis. (August 10, 2012). Interview 3. Tape #17. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

Standingready, Russell. (August 10, 2012). Interview 4. Tape #17. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

White Bear, Victor. (August 9, 2012). Interview 3. Tapes 12 and 13. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

White Bear, Wayne. (August 10, 2012). Interview 3. Tapes 12 and 13. White Bear First Nations Reserve.

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