Effect of Serotonin Modulation on Dystrophin-Deficient Zebrafish Janelle M
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© 2020. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd | Biology Open (2020) 9, bio053363. doi:10.1242/bio.053363 RESEARCH ARTICLE Effect of serotonin modulation on dystrophin-deficient zebrafish Janelle M. Spinazzola1,2, Matthias R. Lambert1,2, Devin E. Gibbs1,*, James R. Conner1, Georgia L. Krikorian1, Prithu Pareek1, Carlo Rago3,‡ and Louis M. Kunkel1,2,4,5,6,§ ABSTRACT pathways (Acharyya et al., 2007; Allen et al., 2016; Feron et al., 2009; Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive muscle-wasting Garbincius and Michele, 2015; Spinazzola et al., 2015) that lead to disease caused by mutation of the dystrophin gene. Pharmacological cycles of myofiber degeneration, regeneration, and fibrosis (Cros therapies that function independently of dystrophin and complement et al., 1989; Marshall et al., 1989). The consequent muscle weakness strategies aimed at dystrophin restoration could significantly improve causes loss of independent ambulation between 10 and 12 years of patient outcomes. Previous observations have suggested that age, and premature death occurs in the late twenties to early thirties serotonin pathway modulation ameliorates dystrophic pathology, and typically due to cardiorespiratory failure (Emery et al., 2015). re-application of serotonin modulators already used clinically would Although glucocorticoid therapy, combined with advances in potentially hasten availability to DMD patients. In our study, we used respiratory supportive care, have improved quality of life and dystrophin-deficient sapje and sapje-like zebrafish models of DMD for extended life expectancy (Biggar et al., 2006; Gloss et al., 2016; rapid and easy screening of several classes of serotonin pathway Sheehan et al., 2018), there is no cure for DMD. Currently, there are modulators as potential therapeutics. None of the candidate drugs several treatment strategies under investigation aimed at restoration tested significantly decreased the percentage of zebrafish exhibiting of dystrophin expression, such as viral delivery of micro-dystrophin the dystrophic muscle phenotype in the short-term birefringence assay and read-through of translation stop codons (Verhaart and Aartsma- or lengthened the lifespan in the long-term survival assay. Although we Rus, 2019). Notably, Eteplirsen and Golodirsen, two drugs that act did not identify an effective drug, we believe our data is of value to the to promote dystrophin production by restoring the translational DMD research community for future studies, and there is evidence that reading frame of dystrophin, have recently been approved by the suggests serotonin modulation may still be a viable treatment strategy FDA (Aartsma-Rus and Corey, 2020; Frank et al., 2020; Mendell with further investigation. Given the widespread clinical use of selective et al., 2013). However, these therapies are not expected to cure serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants and reversible DMD given that they result in production of a low abundance of inhibitors of monoamine oxidase, their reapplication to DMD is an truncated, partially functional forms of dystrophin protein, and a attractive strategy in the field’s pursuit to identify pharmacological dramatic change in the course of the disease will likely require a therapies to complement dystrophin restoration strategies. combinatorial treatment approach (Verhaart and Aartsma-Rus, 2019). Thus, identification of therapies that improve pathology KEY WORDS: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Zebrafish, Serotonin, independent of dystrophin and work complementarily with genetic- Drug screening based approaches would be of significant value to patients. Interestingly, there are several previous studies suggesting serotonin INTRODUCTION modulation may be a candidate strategy to treat muscular dystrophy. Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive x-linked Serotonin is a neurotransmitter most commonly associated with the muscle-wasting disease that affects approximately one in 4000 male regulation of homeostatic processes including sleep, appetite, births (Emery et al., 2015) in which mutations in the dystrophin gene emotions and perception (Mohammad-Zadeh et al., 2008). Thus, result in production of a truncated, non-functional dystrophin protein serotonin, its precursors and products, and serotonin modulators such (Hoffman et al., 1987; Monaco et al., 1986). Absence of dystrophin at as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic the sarcolemma increases muscle susceptibility to contraction-induced antidepressants and reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase damage (Dellorusso et al., 2001) and causes alterations in signaling (RIMAs) are commonly prescribed clinically to treat insomnia, depression and anxiety (Taciak et al., 2018). However, even prior to the discovery of the dystrophin gene, treatment of dystrophic chickens 1Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA. with the serotonin antagonist methysergide was found to prevent 2 3 Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. DMD muscle weakness and reduce serum creatine kinase (Bhargava et al., Therapeutics Inc., Seattle, WA, USA. 4The Stem Cell Program, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA. 5Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA. 1977; Hudecki and Barnard, 1976). More recently, investigation of 6The Manton Center for Orphan Disease Research at Boston Children’s Hospital, serotonin modulators have been investigated in C. elegans, mouse and Boston, MA, USA. *Present address: UCLA Biomedical Science Research Building, University of zebrafish models of DMD. In a C. elegans model of DMD, treatment California, Los Angeles, CA, USA. ‡Present address: District 2 Capital, Huntington, with serotonin or the SSRIs fluoxetine, imipramine or trimipramine NY, USA. suppressed muscle degeneration, and reduction of serotonin levels §Author for correspondence ([email protected]) caused degeneration of non-dystrophic muscles (Carre-Pierrat et al., 2006). Mdx mice treated with the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline M.R.L., 0000-0001-8300-3124; P.P., 0000-0002-2722-6398; L.M.K., 0000-0001- exhibited decreased forelimb muscle pro-inflammatory cytokines 6126-0242 TNF-α andIL-6(Manningetal.,2014),andGureletal.foundthat This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution serotonin, in combination with histamine, improved grip strength and License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, 5cv distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed. lowered contraction-induced injury in mdx mice (Gurel et al., 2015). In dystrophin-deficient sapje zebrafish, fluoxetine was found to Received 1 May 2020; Accepted 16 July 2020 prevent muscle pathology and disruption of muscle membrane Biology Open 1 RESEARCH ARTICLE Biology Open (2020) 9, bio053363. doi:10.1242/bio.053363 integrity, and transcriptome analysis indicated changes in calcium Table 1. List of candidate drugs tested homeostasis as a potential mechanism of extracellular serotonin- No. Drug Class induced rescue of dystrophin deficiency (Waugh et al., 2014). Zebrafish have emerged as a powerful preclinical genetic model 1 Serotonin 2 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan Precursor to serotonin to study muscle development and diseases, complement murine 3 Tryptophan Precursor to serotonin studies, and accelerate the discovery of potential therapeutics. The 4 Melatonin Product of serotonin zebrafish dystrophin associated protein complex (DAPC) localizes 5 Cisapride Serotonin receptor agonist to the muscle cell membrane and functions similarly as in mammals 6 Citalopram hydrobromide SSRI (Guyon et al., 2003). The highly ordered sarcomeric structure of 7 Escitalopram SSRI zebrafish somatic muscle can be observed as bright chevrons on a 8 Fluoxetine SSRI 9 Fluvoxamine maleate SSRI dark background by rotating polarized light through the transparent 10 Paroxetine hydrochloride SSRI zebrafish embryo. This optical property, known as birefringence, 11 Sertraline hydrochloride SSRI results from the diffraction of polarized light through the pseudo- 12 Clomipramine Tricyclic antidepressant crystallin array of muscle sarcomeres, and can thus be used as an (serotonin selective) assay to detect the disorganized muscle structure characteristic of 13 Imipramine hydrochloride Tricyclic antidepressant diseased muscle repeatedly and noninvasively. The two DMD (serotonin selective) 14 Amitriptyline Tricyclic antidepressant zebrafish lines, sapje and sapje-like, harbor mutations in the (non selective) dystrophin gene that both result in absence of the dystrophin muscle 15 Moclobemide RIMA protein causing extensive muscle degeneration, inflammation, and 16 Pirlindole mesylate RIMA fibrosis similar to the pathogenesis of human DMD (Bassett and 17 Toloxatone RIMA Currie, 2004; Guyon et al., 2009). Mutant fish exhibit a patchy birefringence pattern detectable 4 days post fertilization (dpf) and death occurs prematurely, typically beginning around 12 dpf. homozygous mutant muscle phenotype detected by birefringence In this study, we used sapje and sapje-like zebrafish to assess assay (Fig. 1B). In short, 1 dpf embryos resulting from heterozygous serotonin and 16 serotonin precursors, products and modulating pair matings were treated either a candidate drug, 0.1% dimethyl drugs as DMD therapeutics. We performed both short-term sulfoxide (DMSO) control, or E2 water (untreated). On 4 dpf, fish birefringence