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OF VICTORIA, with a DETAILED STUDY of the PALE SUN-MOTH (Synemon Selene KLUG, 1850)

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OF VICTORIA, with a DETAILED STUDY of the PALE SUN-MOTH (Synemon Selene KLUG, 1850) THE SUN-MOTHS (LEPIDOPTERA: CASTNIIDAE) OF VICTORIA, WITH A DETAILED STUDY OF THE PALE SUN-MOTH (Synemon selene KLUG, 1850) Fabian Douglas This thesis submitted in total fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science School of Science and Engineering University of Ballarat P O Box 663 University Drive, Mount Helen Ballarat, Victoria 3353 Australia Submitted in January 2007 Accepted for the MSc award in June 2008 Table of Contents Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Statement of Authorship & Copyright-------------------------------------------------------- 5 Acknowledgements-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 Dedication-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 DSE Research Permit under which this work was carried out-------------------------- 14 List of Figures------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15 List of Tables-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19 List of Appendices-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 Part 1: Taxonomy, Biology and Distribution of the World’s Sun-moths------------- 26 Chapter 1: Taxonomy, Morphology and Distinguishing Features of the Sun-moths (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 Chapter 2: Biology of the Sun-moths---------------------------------------------------------- 36 Chapter 3: The Origin and Distribution of the World’s Sun-moths------------------------ 56 Chapter 4: Ability of Australian Sun-moths to Survive Fire-------------------------------- 63 Part 2: The Identification, Distribution, Biology and Conservation of the Victorian Sun-moths------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83 Chapter 1: Descriptions of the Victorian Sun-moths (Synemon spp.)--------------------- 84 Chapter 2: Distribution and Conservation Status of the Victorian Sun-moths---------- 106 Chapter 3: Habitats of the Victorian Sun-moths-------------------------------------------- 115 Chapter 4: Biology of the Victorian Sun-moths-------------------------------------------- 121 Chapter 5: A Proposed List of Common Names for the Victorian Sun-moths--------- 132 - 2 - Chapter 6: Conservation and Management of the Victorian Sun-moths-----------------136 Part 3: A Detailed Study of the Pale Sun-moth, Synemon selene Klug, 1850------- 171 Chapter 1: Descriptions of the Six Morphs of the Pale Sun-moth (Synemon selene Klug, 1850)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 172 Chapter 2: Distribution and Conservation Status of the Pale Sun-moth Morphs------- 187 Chapter 3: Are the Victorian Morphs of the Pale Sun-moth Parthenogenetic?--------- 197 Chapter 4: Would the Parthenogenetic Morphs of the Pale Sun-moth be Capable of Non- parthenogenetic Reproduction?----------------------------------------------------------------- 210 Chapter 5: The Extent of Genetic Variability Between and Within the Parthenogenetic Morphs of the Pale Sun-moth------------------------------------------------------------------- 217 Chapter 6: The Nomenclature and History of the Pale Sun-moth------------------------ 230 Chapter 7: Habitats of the Pale Sun-moth--------------------------------------------------- 251 Chapter 8: Biology of the Pale Sun-moth---------------------------------------------------- 266 Chapter 9: Conservation and Management of the Six Pale Sun-moth Morphs--------- 275 Bibliography------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 315 - 3 - Abstract The sun-moths (family Castniidae) are a distinctive group of monocot-feeding diurnal Lepidoptera that contains a high proportion of threatened species worldwide. Seven of the eight Victorian Synemon species are considered as threatened. This study has determined through extensive fieldwork that most of these species are now restricted to very small remnants of their particular habitats. These findings have been integrated into a review of the current distribution, biology and habitat requirements of all the Victorian species. This has enabled recommendations for their long-term conservation and management to be made. Special attention was paid to the Pale Sun-moth (Synemon selene Klug, 1850) because it appeared to be nationally endangered and without a government strategy for its conservation. Also, there was strong circumstantial evidence of complete parthenogenesis within all of its Victorian populations. The Victorian occurrences are shown to be parthenogenetic, although specimens of both sexes are known from a ?now-extinct population near Two Wells, South Australia. It was also established that these parthenogenetic populations include five distinct morphs, two or three of which occur sympatrically at four localities in the Wimmera area. Parthenogenetic populations of these morphs cannot interbreed, this potentially restricting their genetic diversity. The extent of genetic diversity was examined with all parthenogenetic Victorian morphs of S. selene. DNA sequencing of 1515 bp of the COI gene revealed a maximum divergence level of 12 bp between some of the morphs and 1 to 2 bp within some morphs. This level of genetic diversity implies that these morphs have continued to evolve in the absence of males through time. This study has highlighted the special academic interest of S. selene and the urgent need for its adequate conservation. Some important directions for future research on the species are also discussed. - 4 - © Fabian Douglas 2008. This thesis is copyright. Apart from any legitimate practices for the purpose of research, private study or review, in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be copied by any process whatsoever without the author’s written permission. - 5 - Acknowledgments This work could not have been undertaken or completed without assistance from the following people and organisations: Dr Alan Yen (Department of Primary Industries): passed information on to the author regarding Dr R. P. Field’s discovery of an occurrence of Synemon jcaria within the ‘study area’ of the proposed Long Term Containment Facility, near Nowingi in north- western Victoria. Mr. Allen Sundholm: provided the author with information pertaining to his discovery of new distribution records for two Synemon spp. in New South Wales. Ms. Ann Jelinek: informed the author about her discovery of an occurrence of Synemon plana at Taggerty in southern-central Victoria. She also kept the author up to date with management practices that were adopted for the conservation of S. plana within the Mt. Piper Nature Conservation Reserve, also in southern-central Victoria. Dr Axel Kallies: provided much practical help and advice with the molecular work that was undertaken to determine the extent of genetic variability between and within the parthenogenetic morphs of Synemon selene. The results of this are discussed in Chapter 5 of Part 3 of this work, which was also proofread by Dr Kallies. As well as this, he procured a number of (difficult to obtain) reprints of scientific papers on the Castniidae and the related families Brachodidae and Sesiidae, which were kindly passed on to the author. And finally, at the author’s request he translated the description of Synemon selene (Klug, J. C. F. 1850. Uber die Lepidopteren-Gattung Synemon. Nebst einem Nachtrage uber Castniae. Abh. K. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1848: 245-257) into English. Mr. Bernard (Bernie) Fox: regularly emailed information to the author concerning the distribution and management of Synemon plana at several sites near Melbourne, Victoria. Mr. Bienvinido Malangis: specially obtained and provided information regarding the behaviour of Tascina metallica, on Palawan Island in the Philippines. This is documented in Chapter 2 of Part 1 of this work. Mr. Brian Newell: helped the author to trace some of the early history of the Hill family in the Murtoa/Kewell district, Victoria. Mr. Brock Baker: produced the distribution maps for Synemon selene that were used as the appendix to Chapter 2 of Part 3 of this work. These maps were based on a substantial amount of recent and historic data that were obtained by the author. - 6 - Mrs. Catriona McPhee (Museum of Victoria): helped the author to extract (and add to the Museum of Victoria’s database) most of the specimen data from the largely historic collection of the parthenogenetic morphs of Synemon selene that is held at the Museum of Victoria. Mrs. Cheryl O’Dwyer (University of Melbourne, Dookie Campus): provided reprints of her sole authored and co-authored papers on the distribution, biology and conservation of Synemon plana. She also informed the author about the difficulties involved in keeping the larvae of S. plana alive for longer than a few days. These problems were encountered while an unsuccessful attempt was being made by the Melbourne Zoological Parks and Gardens Board to rear the larvae of S. plana in captivity during 1999, 2000 and 2001. Mr. Clifford E. Meyer: allowed the author to study the Synemon spp. that are held in his private collection of Lepidoptera and also provided accommodation during several visits to Canberra to study the Castniidae that are
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