NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PAGAN CUSTOMS. 363

II.

E SURVIVATH NOTE N O F SPAGA O L N CUSTOM N I CHRISTIAS N ; WITH NOTICES OF CERTAIN CONVENTIONAL REPRE- SENTATIONS OF " DANIEL IN THE DEN OF LIONS," AND " JONAH ANE 'WHALK,'DTH " ENGRAVE OBJECTN DO S FOUN N EARLDI Y CHRISTIAN , AND ON THE SCULPTURED STONES OF SCOT- LAND, AND CROSSES OF IRELAND. BY JOSEPH ANDERSON, KEEPEK OF THE MUSEUM. (PLATES XV.-XVIII.)

The proces whicy sb custoha m gradually dies out, the modificationt si exhibit whan si Darwi r tM n calls struggl e "th e for existence, curioue "th s forms in which it crops up after long intervals, as if it positively declined to become e strangextinctth d ean , way whicn i s t i geth s hookeo t n do new ideas, or incorporated with new methods of giving expression to old form thoughtf so , furnish analogies applicabl whole th eo t e fiel archaeof do - logical research. breakso Thern e well-markeo ear n , d line f separatioo s n between the successive formations (if I may call them so), of the periods of archaeology. Stone passes gradually into bronze, bronze into irond an , pagan into Christian, each transition time exhibiting a peculiar set of phenomena which for e mosmth t interestin d suggestivan g e subjectf so researc whico ht studene hth archeologf o t addresn yca s himself. It has been asserted, for instance, that the philosophical arrangement of structurae th l sepulchral remain e earliesth f so progressivf to e timeon s si e advancement from the simple cist, by successive accretions and structural developments, up to the great chambered cairn. In this instance philo sophy seems to be at variance with fact, because it has assumed that progress betweeo extremetw a seriee nf th pasn o i ss t time s beeha s n alwaydirection—alwaye on n si s upwards, never downwards—thus entirely ignoring the existence of decadence or degradation. The cairn or the cist may be older than the deposit found within it, but the deposit can never be older than the structure within which it has been placed, and this is the only true criterion of the relative ages of sepulchral structures. Judge thiy db s test e oldesth , t structure e greath e t e cairnsar sth d an , most recent is the simplest form of cist—that made of stones which a man can easily lift. The process has thus been one of degradation and not of 4 38 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO / JANUAR , 1876Y10 . development, and the degradation can be accounted for by the known sequenc funerae th f eo l customs introductioe Th . f cremationo n gradually eliminated the cairn from the sepulchral arrangements by rendering the chambe longeo n r r congruou necessaryr so e a housidee th f r o Th a efo . dead—suc provides e unburnwa th s r ha fo d t dead—where b o t s wa e h e bodily present with all his prized possessions, became inoperative when the body was reduced to a handful of ashes. The contraction of the chamber to a simple cist sufficient to receive and protect the urn, was the obvious resulchange methoe th th f o tn ei disposinf do bodye th d f go an ; the same people who used cists for the urns of the burned dead, also used them for the dead which they did not burn—for it is conclusively estab- lished, and supported by the analogy of the modern practice among the Shan tribes, who bury their dead, but burn their , that the two methods of sepulture were simultaneously in use in prehistoric times. So e forc stronth f custo o es gwa m amon e prehistorith g c races that they crematioe adhere th e siz th f eo o t d n cist eve r unburnfo n t bodiesd an , doubled them up to make them fit. The full length cist—a further degradation, inasmucs composei t i s a f hsmalleo d r stones—marke th s disappearanc e megalithith f e custoo eth f f ccremationo mo ided an a . Degradation usually proceeds in divergent lines. What I have said illustrate e degradatioth s e internath f o n l e structureeliminath t Bu - . tion of the external structure left as a survival the boundary ring of e circulastoneth r o se essentia r th trench f o e l ,feature on whic s wa hs of'the complete cairn, marking off the special site of the burial from the common ground. Tha stone th t e circl direca s ei t survival fro oldee mth r structure is also suggested by the fact that the interments within it are usuall t entirelyno f y(i ) interments after , . In a previous paper I have illustrated the intrusion, among our Christian remains, of the phenomena peculiar to the contemporary paganism of the Northmen. doinn I 1 investigatiogradualle gs th thi wa o t sI d e yle th f no general phenomena of early Christian burial, with a view to the discovery, if possible f somo , e comparativeth clu o t e e chronolog s undateit f yo d interments. I cannot say that my efforts in this direction have been very successful t thebu ,y somo havt d eele curious results summarya , f whic,o h I have endeavoured to embody in this paper. 1 Proceedings, vol. ix. p. 520, and vol. x. p. 536. SUEVJVAE NOTETH N S O PAGA F LO N 5 CUSTOMS36 .

obviouis It s sucthaany ht investigation conducte scientifidon c prin- ciples must be comparative. In studying the antiquities of our own country alon searcn ei f generao h l principles shoule w , d proceed upo prepose nth - terous assumption that the human race originated in Scotland, and that all the arts and customs that have characterised humanity had their origin and subsequent development here. In order to understand the phenomena of early countrburiay an n i lf Europe yo periody an necessars i t a t ,i , o yt stud s phenomenyit l neighbourinal n i a g countries—if possiblel al n i , European countries. In cultivating his own little corner, the student is too apt to forget that it is a corner—and only a very small corner— of the great field, over which the phenomena of different periods are all related o eact h other s manifestationa , f successivo s e system f progreso s d san decadence. If this be true of the earlier period, it is specially true of the pheno- mena of the Christian period. Before we can understand the peculiar modifications of Christian customs and Christian art in any country, we must first know the special phenomena of the paganism on which they were engrafted. Without this previous knowledg shoule ew utterle db y unable to account for the presence of Orpheus charming the beasts, as a Christian allegor e catacombsth n yi f "o Sigur; d Fafni's bane "ane dth dragon on churchdoors in Norway; or of King Tidrik and the drake on churchdoor Icelandn si equalld an ; y unabl understano t e e fuldth l signi- ficance of the most striking forms of Christian burial. questione Onth f proposed eo ha sI myselo dt this:—Is wa f s thery ean f characteristicscharacteristico t se y an r o , , which, being presenn a n i t interment, enables it to be definitively and distinctively pronounced pagan ? Bu I tsoo n found that mos thosf o t e aceessorie intermenf so t whicd ha hI been accustome regaro dt indicativs da f paganismeo , wer t exclusiveleno y confined to pagan , but were also found as survivals in undoubtedly Christian interments. a comfortin s i t I g searcn doctrini e f generaho on o et l principles that e exceptio knoo th t e w on whethe n ns a i proves w i rulet e ho i r t sth ;bu exception that he has got hold of in the particular instance with which he is dealing ? This was my first difficulty—a difficulty that increased with every step of the investigation,, as the field widened, and the exceptions became ever more numerou variedd san ; unti t lasa l becamtI e convinced 366 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 187fi. that if the whole phenomena of Christian burial were tabulated, they would furnish instances of almost every pagan custom prevalent previous to the introduction of Christianity, excepting, perhaps, the customs of cremation and human . This, at first sight, seems a startling assertion t reflectiobu , n shows s nothini tha t i t g more than mighe b t expected in the circumstances. The burial usages of a race are the most unalterable of all its institutions. Religious observances change with the convictions of the individual, but the sentiment which leads to the dis- posal of the dead who are " gathered to their fathers " in the same manner as the fathers themselves were disposed, resists innovation longer and more stubbornly than any other. It is in the burial customs pre-eminently, therefore, that survivals of the older usages may be looked for. Survival of the Sepulchral structure.—In Borne, the cradle of the Christianity of Europe, the early Christians constructed their subterranean J in direct imitation and continuance of the pagan cemeteries the arrangemente usen i Th . f tho se Scipioe tomth f thosd bo san f o e the Christian of Domitilla are so similar, that if there had been nothinmere th et constructionagbu l feature sepulchrad an s l arrangements guido formint n i s eu opinionn ga , they would both have been assigneo dt origine perioe catacombe on on d Th . 2dan Naplef so s contain frescoef o s purely classical design, having nothing distinctively Christian about them; mann i d y an cases these have been plastered oved paintean r d with Christian subject a late f o rs time. From what occurred her e mighew t infer what must have occurred elsewhere. But we are not under the necessit f dependinyo n mero g e inference. Cairn-buria t onlno ys wa l practised in Scotland in the time of St Columba, it was in one instance,

3 Most of the great writers on the catacombs, Aringhi, Baronius, Severano, Bottari, Boldetti, D'Agincourt, Raoul Eochette, have asserte pagae dth n catae origith f - o n combs, but more recent investigation has shown that they were all constructed in Christia Christianse th n y timesb d an ,. 2 Agincourt has long since shown that the first Christian sepulchral chambers were arrange decorated'afted dan r heathen models e mosn somI th .f t o eancien t chapels catacombe oth f bees ha n t si trul y said tha t certait no " yoe nar ue whethe ar u yo r lookin pagaa a Christian gr o no n work. same Therth es i egeometrica l divisiof no .the roof, the same general arrangement of the subjects, the same fabulous animals, the same graceful curves, the same foliage, fruit, flowers, and birds in both."—Burgon, Letters from Rome, p. 250 ; Agincourt, L'Histoire de I'Art par les Monuments, Peintun, pis. v., vi.; Smith's Diet, of Christ. Antiq. mb voce "Fresco." NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PAGAN CUSTOMS. 367 t leasta , practise s presence,hi e alloweh n i d d d 1an a dconver ha o wh t believed beed ,ha n baptized received ha d sacramentse ,an dth buriee h o t ,d a thii s pagan fashion.e churchyarth n I 2 f Penmachnoo d n "Walesi , , wasr ther(o smala )s e i l cairn, wit a pillar-stoneh , bearin e Christiagth n monogram of the chrisma (or the conjoined Greek letters X and P for XPI2TOS) and the inscription CARAVSIVS HIO JACIT IN HOC CONGERIES LAPIDUM.S " This is," say Westwoodr sM ,onl e "th y instanc eI believ e recorstatemenon the dof suc of tproveit hfacta and ,s tha raisinthe t gof cairns and mounds of stones is not necessarily evidence of the paganism persoe oth f n interred beneat mound.e hth r StuarD " t also e referth o t s exceptional characte monument.e I know th s a f e o r stills th ,i fa t o I ,s 4 only one which specifies in precise terms that the burial was made in a cairn. My difficulty, however, is not with the monument, which speaks for itself wit hclearnesa precisiond san , which cannot admi f doubtto t Bu . suppose that this inscribed ston beed eha n destroye r removedo d , what would have bee e resulnth t1 Carausius would have been convictef do paganis jury f archEeologistsan yo y mb would an t ,hav dno e been allowed even the benefit of the doubt implied in the presence of his cairn in a Christian churchyard dealinn i d gAn wit. h undated burials ,I canno e b t sure that there were not many Christians buried like Carausius and Art- brananus, whose friends wer t carefuno e o leavt l expresn ea s recorf o d their having been Christians. There .is a remarkable instance of a Christian monument associated wit hgreaa t chambered moun t Jellingda Jutlandn ei Th e. mounds

e sainstayins e islan th time th wa s tSkyef a n eo dOn gi . .. boaa . t came 1 into the harbour, on whose prow sat a decrepit old man, the chief of the Geona cohort. Two young men took him out of the boat and brought him before the saint. After being instructe saine th y td b throug s believen interpretern wa ha ma d d dan ol e th , baptised, and when the was administered he died on the same spot, .... and his companions buried him there, raising a cairn over his grave. This cairn may be see sea-coaste n rivee th stil baptiseds th n whicn o lri d wa an e , h h calles i , thio dt s day Dobur Artbranani.—Adamnan Vit. St Columb., Reeves, p. xlii. When Brud Bile c Northere Kine th eth , Ma f go n Picts died bods hi , y was brought 3 o lonat afted an , r having receive blessine dth f Adamnango buries coffia wa t n di i , n mad hollowea f eo d oak Bronzmode a , th bot e sepulturf s eo a Britain eh Ag i d ol s nea and Scandinavia.—Adamnan Vit. St Golnmb., Eeeves, pref. p. xliv. 3 Archajologia Cambrensis . 257p . .ix , 4 Sculptured Stones of Scotland, vol. ii., Notices of the Plates, p. 57. 368 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 1876. of King Gorm the Old and his Christian Queen, are enormous harrows about 75 feet high. Queen Thyra's has been opened and found to contain a central chamber of oak beams. A beautiful silver cup, with the inter- lacing dragonesque ornamentation characteristi periode th foun s f co wa , d in evidens wa t i been d tt thaha bu ,t i moss , trifle it it f tdo valuable contents in the . Enormous pillar-stones crown both the mounds.. King'e Thath n so t mound bear representatiosa Savioure th f o n , witha crossed nimbusinscription a d an , Runen ni s stating that these mounds were erected by. King Harald, the Christianiser of Denmark and Norway, n memor i s fathehi f ro s y mothe e hi Gorm th d r ran ,fo Thyra t Bu . inscriptio archaeologiso nn t would ever have concluded, fro examinan ma - tion of the chambered mounds themselves, that a Christian had anything wito d ho t them.1 Thus we find cairn or barrow-burial, certainly the oldest form known, and the most universal in prehistoric times, continuing through all the phases of paganism, and all the forms of progress and civilisation down tente th ho t century intrudind an , g itsel ano t f . extent that we havo n e means of rigidly defining among the burial customs of Christianity.2 The policy of the early church was to consecrate existing customs which were no themselven i t s sinful therd nothins an ,e wa g objectionabl thin ei s mode of burial, except that it had been from time immemorial the burial of pagans. Other forms of pagan sepulture survived, and were permitted by the

remarkable th n 1I e Mamme Denmarth n casi f w o e Ho n k ther obscure ar e - ein dication f Christianityo s a cel n e buriabeamsli k mads Th oa .f lwa o e, beloe wth natural surfac groune th f eo d underneat mounde hth . Amon weapone gth s deposited with the corpse there was an iron axe inlaid with dragonesque ornamentation in silver pattere th , n bearin ga remarkabl e resemblanc thao et t sculpture somn do f eo e Rune-inscribeth d crosse Christiae th f so n perioIsle f Manth e o larg A n di . e wax- candle had burned in the grave till it was extinguished by the earth thrown over it, buckea d bronzd an an t e kettle deposite e corpsth y db e see indicato mt e cereth e - monial washin e corpse—th f o g a custom more suggestiv f Christianito e y thaf no Paganism. Full detail thif so s remarkable intermen e "Aarbogefoune th b n o di t e tar r for NordiskOldkyndighed," 1869 . 209p , . A curious instance of burial in a mound which seems to have been unconsecrated, 2 if not pagan, is recorded in the Annals of Loch Ce, under the date A.D. 1581 :— " Brian Caech O'Coinuegain, an eminent cleric, died, and the place of sepulture he selected for himself was, i.e., to be buried at the mound of Baile-an-tobair." SURVIVAE NOTETH N S O PAGA F LO N9 CUSTOMS36 .

early founders of the Church, who sought rather to wean the people gradually from pagan practices than to uproot them at once. A striking instanc thif e o Todd'r gives si D n i s t Patrick.LifS f daughtero eo Tw 1 s of King Leoghaire were baptised by St Patrick, and having died, " they buried them nea wele th r l Clelaeh thed an ,y mad circulaea r ditch liko et aferta,2 becaus Scotie th o es c peopl gentiled ean s were usee do.o dt Th " earle tombth yf so saint Irelandn si , say r PetrieD s , " presen varietta y of forms, as in those on Aran, which are often rude sarcophagi, somewhat similar to pagan cromleacs or kistvaens, while at other times they are small cairns enclose circulaa y db r quadrangulao r r wall."3 I have already alluded to the process of degradation by which the chambe e cairs reduceth wa f na simplo r o t de th ee cisf cisto Th t . later pagan times was usually so short as to necessitate the doubling up of the body. Even this form, repugnant as it must have been to Christian feelings, furnishe wit s well-authenticatee u s hon d instanc survivalf eo I . allude to the remarkable cemetery at Alloa, described by Dr Stuart, in which a cist, three feet long, had two crosses incised on its cover. The full length cist of stones (a further degradation) was used in many northern churchyards to a late date.4 Along the northern and western coasts there are isolated burial bodiee th f shipwreckef so so d sailors, sometime conn si - siderable groups n shalloi , w graves abov beache eth n whici , bodiee hth s have been lai cistdn i s mad flaf eo t stones, gathered fro neighbourine mth g strand whichtht s efactn Ac wa I Poo obliginy t w .i b , rLa inspectoe gth r of poo defrao t r expense yth a woode f o e n coffi d decenan n t buriar fo l

1 Quoted by Dr Stuart in the Sculptured Stones of Scotland, vol. ii., Appendix to the , p. xl. Ferta, pagaa n burying-ground.

32 Petrie's " Bound Towers of Ireland," p. 450. In the churchyard of St Nicholas Church, in the island of Papa Westray, stone cists-ar4 e frequently found in the older parts of the burying ground, and the late Mr Petrie informed me that they were not uncommon in other churchyards in the islands havI . e seenorthera n no n headlan whosn grave ma dea th grandchildref eo n are yet alive, and I know it to be a cist of small slabs from the neighbouring beach, wit hsingla e covering stone seve r eigho n t fee than t longtow wheI . n firsw t Isa I woul t i d hav eprehistoria taker fo t ni c buria I no d t beelha n made acquainted with its history. It lies close to, but not within, the precincts of an ancient chapel, whose foundations are barely visible under the turf, and within these precincts there are probably many cist similaf so r construction earlief o t rbu , date. VOL. XI. PART II. 2 A 0 37 PROCEEDING THIP SO i SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 187G.

all penniless or friendless unfortunates,1 finally extinguished in Scotland a custom whic d survived hha fore otherr mon o n i , , fro e timmth e when the first burials were mads soilit .n ei 2. Cremation and the strewing of Charcoal in Graves.—I have met wit o undoubten h d instanc e survivath f o e l among Christian f tho s e custom .of burning the body. Although many pagan practices were tolerated by the Christian fathers, they seem to have drawn the line at cremation. Merivale, indeed, asserts that the early Christians did burn theie adduceh rs a deado evidenct n se fact bu ,s assertioth hi ,f o e s ni utterly unworthy of credit. Yet it is almost certain that it must have survived to some extent. In fact, we have cases in which the converts rebelled and went back to their old customs in spite of the efforts of the clergy to restrain them. Thu e fin n w A.Dsi d . 1249, tha n Livoniai t , where heathenism lingered longer than in almost any other part of Europe, ther solema s ei n dee f contracdo t entered into betwee e convertnth d san brethree th Hole th yf no Cross, whicy b 2 converte hth s become boundr fo , themselves and their heirs, never again to burn their dead or to bury with them horses or slaves, or arms or , or any other things of value, bu buro t t y thei rcemeteriee death n di s attache churchese th o dt . Again we find that the Esthonian converts rebelled in 1225, took back the wives they had given up, exhumed the dead they had buried in the Christian cemeterie d burnesan d them pagad , ol afte e fashione th th rtimes. f o n 3 Mr Kemble adduces the case of a barrow at Elze, near Hildesheim, as suggestive of a lingering preference for cremation. When the mound was remove buriale dth s wer esurface founth n o edf levelo fivt n I eou . the six interments, the bodies had been laid over small holes in the ground, which were nearly filled with wood ashes. The base of the barrow had been enclosed with a ring of stones. There is nothing here to suggest

tracee survivab e y cise anothen Th di th ma t f o l continues r phasewa t I . d above groun 1d symbolicallydan , long afte s disusit r e below ground sarcophage Th . i and splendid stone tombs of the Middle Ages, and the ruder table-tombs and cromlech- like slabs supported on pillars which were so common in old-fashioned country churchyards hal a centurf y ago e lineaar , l descendant primitive th f o s e sepulchral constructions. 2 Drpger's "Codex Diplomatieus Pomeraniie. Proceedingse note th th n ei e Se " , vol- x. p. 562, for the text of the passage. Grnber's " Origines Livonia," cite Wylliy db "n ei Archfeologia," xxxvii. 46 . p . 3 SUBVIVAE NOTETH N O SPAUAF LO N CUSTOMS. 371. Christianity, but, crematioothee one th th . y r hand wh difficuls i ne t i ,se o t t shoul t havdno e been complet buriale th f ei s were thos f paganeo e th n si pagan time. A modified custom of cremation, however, might have sur- vived among half-hearted converts r amono , g pagans secretly practising their own customs in the Christian period. The oft-quoted of the capitulary of Charlemagne of A.D. 785, " Si quis corpus defunct! hominis secundum ritum paganorum flamma eonsumi feceri t osse t a eju d cinerea s m redierit, eapite punietur," refers to the case of the pagan Saxons whom he had conquered and removed from theicountryn ow r , dispersing them throug e Frankisth h h territory. At the time of this capitulary, Christianity had been as long in France as Protestantism has been in Scotland, and we can scarcely imagine such a lengthened surviva custoe th f f crematioo lmo n amon e Frankgth s them- selves.1 Although the custom of cremation does not appear to any extent as an actual surviva connection li n with Christian burial t survive,i d symbolically. The placin f charcoago graven i l a purel s si y Christian rite I canno. t regard this custom in any other light than, as a simulation of the effect of cremation thereford an , direcea t surviva e oldeth f ro l custo symboly mb . I cannot conceive thapractice th t strewinf eo g ashe charcoad san l ritually opee th nn i grave layind an ,unburn e gth t body upon them, eonld possibly have arise crematiof ni t precedetrus i no t e I d thaChristiae n. ha dth tit n liturgist sothe n accouno t i r r groundsfo t , bue shoulw t t expecdno t them confespagaa to as nit s survival. Durandus say it,sof 2 that the charyuse - coa testimonin l y thagrounthe t whicin d corpshthe burieis e no dis longer common, and should not be used again for common purposes. The reaso e assignf h ncharcoao thir e sfo us s l is tha t i lastt s longer under ground than anything else.

1 Yet St Arnulphus is said to have saved a sick man from being sacrificed and burn n Thuringii t e seventth n i a h century e followinTh . g passage describee th s practices of the Saxons :—Promiserunt Saxones cum juramento quod infra annum cum suis, quotquot nondum baptizato, baptismuirf suscipient, .... quod sacrificia hominum et bestiarum cremationes hominum mortuorum, incerta auguria et divina- tiones infidas derelinquent. Parts, . (capitiv Spur.) A.D. 784. Carbones ponantu n testimoniui r m quod terra ilia in communes usus amplius 2 redig potestn ino ; plus enim durat carb terrb osu a quam aliud.—Durandus Off*e D , Mortuorum. 372 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. JANUARY 10, 1876.

When we find a set of graves, therefore, in which the bodies are buried in ston groune e th cists d whicn do an , h they lieearte wels th ,a s ha l over them s intermixei , d with charcoa d ashesan l , instea f concludindo g that thee paganar y e probabilitth , s rathei y r that they were Christians buried with this distinctively Christian ritual. This conclusion ,I think , would certainly apply to the curious group of cists at Hartlaw, explored by Lady Scott, and described by Dr Stuart1 as full length graves formed of stone slabs on edge, set in the direction of east and west, with the head west.e th o t 2 They wer t pavebottome eno th n dcharrei d ,an d woos dwa foun aun di d aroun coffinse dth , while clos they eb m were small holesr o , round pits lined with stones and containing charcoal—evidently the im- provised fire-places made for the purpose of providing charcoal for the several burials. . Burial3 with Urns r Clayo Vases.—The practic f placineo g clay vases in the cist with the unburnt body is one of the most widely diffused and most distinctively pagan customs connected wit e intermenth h e th f o t e presencth t dead Ye f claeo . y vasea ston n si e cist wit n unburna h t meano e regarden b body o b t s s yi certainls d a y indicativ f paganismo e . alss oChristiaa wa t I n custom. Vases of glass and of clay were buried with the early Christians in the catacombs. glass-vessele Th 3 s were drinking cups clae th ,y vesseln i e sar l probabilital y suc wers ha domestin ei c use. Garrucci give0 34 slisa f to of these glass vessels, man f whicyo h hav e Christiaeth n monogramr o , scenes from Scripture, depicte n themo d . Ther e othersar e , however, ornamented with scenes from domesti civid can l lifed evean , n with sub- jects from the Pagan mythology.4 As the presence of drinking cups/in Christian interment exacn a s si t parallel r rathe o ,I regar s trua a r , deit 1 Proceedings, vol. vi. p. 56. Debet autem quis sic sepelire, ut capite ad occidentem posito, pedes dirigat ad 2 oriente quaso qu i n mi ips a positione orat.—Durandi, Rationale, Div. Off. lib. vii. e. 35. Aringhi, " Roma Subterranea," . 298volp . i . . Aringhi supposes thavasee th t s e catacombfounth 3n i d s containe e martyrse blooth dth f o d . Casalius Roma,a n antiquary of the seventeenth century, who published a work entitled " De Veterum Sacris Christianorum Ritibus," is nearer the truth. He says, Aponebatur quoque in monumentis aqua benedicta, unde etiam reperiuntur in cemeteriis vasa vitreaet lutea in dictum usum veresimiliter accommodata. 4 Norlhcot Brownlowd ean , "Roma Sotterranea, . 279p " . NOTE THN SO E SURVIVA PAGAF LO N3 CUSTOMS37 .

survival of the well-known pagan custom of depositing food-vessels and drinking-cups with the dead, it is of some importance that the actual characte thesf o r e vases shoul completele db y established. That thee yar drinking cup s provee inscriptioni s th y b d s which man f theyo m bear, such as—"Drink, and long life to thee," "Drink, and propose a toast."— Bib propinat ee , &c., with many other similarly friendl pioud yan s phrases.1 In Denmark, vases of a simple form filled with charcoal are found in Middle Age graves.2 In a stone of the ordinary form of the twelfth century (wit heade a hnichth r )efo foun t Eoeskilda d e Cathedral, there were smal le headloculith t a , feet d middle coffinan th , f n whici o ,e h stood small clay pots with thre e ordinar feetth f o , ye culinar forth f mo y pot, filled with charcoal; a and of tin were also in the coffin. anothen I r coffi vasa n e filled with charcoal stood behin heade dth . The custo buryinf mo g clay vases wit deae h th Francen di , which began Stone th n ei Age, continued throug transitioe hth n perio f Galldo o Roman paganism to the ripened Christianity of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.3 Prankise th n I h e graveMerovingiath f o s n period singla , e vass ewa almost invariably found at the feet of the skeleton, and this was the case whether there were indication f Christianitso r not.yo 4

Ambrosb 1S e denounces those i calice"qu sepulcrd sa a martyrum deferunt atque illic vesperam Mbant. alse oSe "Northcot Brownlow'd ean s " Eoma Sotterranea," p.283. 2 Komerup, " Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed," 1873, p. 266. ' This curiou littld an es known custo fulls mi y illustrate Abbe th e n Cochet'i d s works La Normandie Souterraiue, 2d edition, ] 855, and its sequel Sepultures Gauloises, Romaines, Franques et Normandes, Paris 1857. See also Bulletin Monu- mental, vol. xxii . 329-364.p , 425-44 7vol; . xxv . 103-132.p , 273-311; Memoiree sd a Soeietl Antiquaires ede Normandiee sd ,, 294-298 vol12 , . xxii11 . , p .vol . xxiv. p . 5-8; Archaeologia, vol. xxxv . 233p . , vol. xxxvii . 399p . , vol. xxxviii , vol66 .. p . ; Proceeding7 xxxix11 e Societ. p th . f f Antiquarieo so y f Londono s , 1855. ,pp ; Kevu2060 29 e 1'ar, d e t Chretien, vol . (1858)ii . . 420 p Caumonte , D ; , Cours d'Antiquites Monumentales, vol. vi. p. 316 ; A. Murcier, La Sepulture Chretienne en France, p. 159-164. indicatione Th f Christianitso y in. many of these t doubtfulgraveno e sar . They consis4 t of the orientation of the grave, the presence of the cross graven or embossed on belt-buckle other so r personal ornaments scripturar o , l subjects similarly engraved, or Christian inscriptions crose sige th founs f si greanTh a o .n do t numbe f thesro e ornaments. It was especially common in the graves at Charnay, where it was repeated not only on the beautiful fibulce, but on the large belt-buckles. In the " Jahrbuoher 374 PROCEEDINGS .OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 187G.

In the Carlovingian period a species of clay vase appears which, is dis- tinctively Christian, inasmuch as it belongs to a usage which we only kno Christianws a . These vase piercee sar d with holes irregularly placed.1 The purpose of these perforations is suggested by the contents of tbe vases, and confirmed by the testimony of the ancient liturgists. When found the e usuallyar y about three-fourths filled with charcoal.2 The inferenc s thaei t when they were used .the charcoa lighteds wa l d an , the holes were intended to keep alive the burning embers by promoting the circulation of air through them. This at once suggests the burning of incense face tTh tha. t suc s performea rith ewa grave th s t estabi eda - lished by documentary evidence, altogether irrespective of the testimony of the tombs themselves. Johannes Belethus3 who wrote in the twelfth century, and after him Durandus, of Mende, both mention- the custom.,4 Durandus says that when the body is laid in the grave there

des Verein Altherthumer,e sdi " &c., Bonn ther1871, accounn 97 a . es i Frankisa p , f to h cemetery of the Carlovingian period probably about the ninth century. The corpses were placed either in sarcophagi, or in cists with built sides and flat stone covers: They all lay in the Christian position, with feet to the east and head to the west. In several of the graves there were single-edged swords, and belt-buckles with silver plates attached whicn o , h crosses were engraved. Bead snecke werth f n someseo o , and with others were boars' tusks arid Roman coins, combs and glass beakers. somn I e case holee sth s have been piercer! whe othesoftn clas e I nth y. wa r cases vasee th s1 have been pierce holey db s driven throug vessee side th hf th e o s l aftewa t i r burned, as if by a nail or other pointed implement. They cannot be confounded with the earlier small urns usually know "incenss na e cups, accounn a r " fo whicf o t e hse Proc .. 189p vol . .ix . Mabillon notices this custom:—-" L'on trouveiit assez souvent dans 1'anciens 2 tombeaux des Chretiens des petits vases de terre pleins de charbons."—Dissertation sur le suite des Saints inconnus, p. 25. , : 3 Aquam benedictam et pranas cum thure apponei-ent.—Beleth, De Divinis Officiis, c. 461. . . 4 Deinde ponitu n speluhci r ponitua qu n ai r aqua benedict t prunae'cuae m thure; Aqua benedicta ne demones qui multum earn • timent ad corpus accedant; solent namque desaevire in corpora mortuoruni, ut quod nequiverunt in vita, saltern post :nortem egant. Thus propter faetorem corporis removendum, set .defunctuu n s creator! suo acceptsbilem bonorum operum odbrem intelligatur obtulisse, seu'ad ostendendum quod defunctis prosit auxilium orationis.—.Durandus, De Off. Morluorutn, In, Rationale Div. Off. lib. vii. c. 35. Vascula cum aqua lustrali in sepulchris ap- ponebantur.—Aringhi, Roma Subterranea, vol. i. p. 94. Statutum etiam fuit ut in sepulchris crux, et aqua lustralis seu benedicta apponeretur.—Durantes, Ex Antiq. Ritual. Sacr. Libris. apud Aringhi, loc. cit. SURVIVAE NOTETH N S O PAGA F LO 5 N 37 CUSTOMS

was placed with it and charcoal with incense. They use holy water, say e "h s tha e demonsth t ,t 'wh greatle no ar y o ma y , afraiit f o d come nea bodye th rr the wone fo , yar fasteo t n -viciousl e bodieth n f yo so deade th , that theobtaiy victorye ma nth y over the mdeatn i h which they could not achieve during life. Incense also is used to remove the putri- dity of the corpse, to indicate that the dead person has entered the pre- s Creatosenchi f eo r wit acceptable hth e odou f gooo r d worksshoo t d wan , obtaines ha tha e benefie Church'e h t dth th f o t s . shalloe Th 1 w basin-like vessels found at the feet of the corpse were thus for holy water, piercee th d dan vases partially filled with charcoa le incens werth r ef fo e o these Christian sepulchral rites.2 The known rang f thio e s survival extends ove followine th r g countries of Europe—Italy, Switzerland,. Denmark Franced an , , and befor eI finis h this paper we shall add Scotland. It may be interesting to indicate its range in time by a few instancss, with well-define de coffi th datesUrsonf o nn I . , Abbo f Jumiegeso t o wh , die n 1127i d o piercetw , d vases were found. t Leure,A 3 near Havre, among many interments of the thirteenth century with similar vases there was one grave with an inscribed slab identifying it as that of Pierre Berenguier (1270-1290). In the stone coffin there were six of these pierced vases.4 n 1714I n removini , e pavemen th ge choi th f Notr o f ro t e Dame ed Poissy, the of the two princes, brothers of St Louis, who died in the early part of the thirteenth century, were disturbed. Each contained four of these vases set at the four corners. At Bouteilles great quantities of them were found. In several cases they occurred with crosses of

1 (A.D. 198), says " The Sabeans will testify that more of their mer- chandise d thaan ,t more costly s lavishei , e burialsth n f Christiando o s than i n burning incens godse th o .et followine localitiee Th fea th wf e o gar whicn si h thes varietieo etw vasef so s have 2 occurred most abundantly. Incense vases pierced with hole containind san g charcoal, have been found at Braquemont, Martin Eglise, Bouteilles, where over 100' vases occurred, Eoux Mesnil, Neuchatel. Holy water vases have occurre t Eouda x Mesnil, Bouteilles, St Aubun-sur-Mer, Martin Eglise, Lillebonne, Londinieres, Rouen, Bernay Parisand , . f theso Museue e eth vase 3On n i t mSevress a si describes i t I figure.d an d y db M. Broguiart in his "Description Methodique du Musee deSevres," I'aris, 1845, p. 1S3, 4 Mem. de la Soc. Antiq. de Normandie, vol. xxii. p. 388. 6 37 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH P SO , JANUAR , 1876Y10 .

of the thirteenth century.1 The stone coffin of Simon de Goucans, Bishop of Amiens, who died in 1325, contained three vases, two being placed at the shoulders and one at the feet. They were all pierced with hole d containean s d charcoal. .In .the/grave e familth f f o yo s Dunois-Longuevill JSTotrt ea e Dam Clerye ed same ,th e thin observeds gwa . In the coffin of John Count Dunois, who died',in 1468, seven vases occurred n thaI f Francif Longueville.o o t t 1s s o died wh ,n 1491 i ' , twelve pierced vases with charcoal partially consumed were ranged along righe th e coffin woodee n te sideth th O th sidf f o .s eo n e coffith f o n Abbe Frangois d'Orignai, who died in 1483, two pierced vases were found. In the leaden coffin of Agnes of Savoy, Duchess of Dunois, who died in 1508, there were four vases of common red unglazed ware contain- ing charcoal. At Troyes a prodigious quantity were found in the cemetery of St James, one having the date 1576 scratched upon it. The custom is also on record in the seventeenth century. Claud d'Escarbotte left orders wilhi ln si tha e younth t g lads, orphans wero o follo• wh t e, m whi to the grave should carry each a torch and a pot with incense. Jehan Thelinige described the custom more particularly, for he prescribes in his will that the small pots with the fire and the incense shall be thrown into gravelatese e th Th t. precise dat r thiefo s practic s furnisheei e th y b d grav f Charlotte-Lenormaneo Beaumone d t Benedictine th t a t e t Mansa e coffin Th whicn .o , inscriptioe hth stils nlwa legible^ GHABLOTTE LB DORMANT DE BEAUMONT,'DECEDB LE 12 AVBIL 1688, contained a vase with charcoal.2 In the chapel of Notre Dame at the Cathedral of Troyes, the skeletons of a number of Canons who had been interred in wooden coffins were disinterre n 1844 di . Arnau M . d states tha n eaci t h coffin there was a chalice of tin and several pots of clay, having side-handles and three feet, and containing charcoal. They were either of greyish clay covered with glaze unequally applied, or of red or brown ware unglazed. The form of -these pots, he says, is exactly that of the clay pots .still in use in this country. cemetere th n I Verduilf yo . holy water sixteente vaseth f so h centure yar

descriptioe th e 1Se thesf no e Crosse Absolutiof so Dy nb r Mitchell Proceede th n ,i - ings, vol. x. p. 625. Archieologie Ceramique des Sepultures, par 1'Abbo Cochet; Mem. dela Soc. Antiq. •Normandie2 , vol. xxiv. p. 290 ;' Sepultures Gauloises, i>. 383. NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PAGAN CUSTOMS. 377 common Abbee Th 1. Barraud states that having obtained som thesf eo e eh gave Museue theth mo t mBeauvaist a authoritiese Th . , deeming the- mun worth placa f theiyo n eo r shelves, threw them int streete oth . The whad ydi t has often been done before. In the eyes of many antiquaries the speci- men loses its importance when the of mystery has been lifted from it. This custom of burying clay vases with the dead is scarcely yet extinct, passew no dthougs intha e symboli t th oi h e districc th phase n f I o t . Morvan, say . JuleM s s Chevrier e peasant th ,dayn ow s r s ou eve n i n continue the custom of using vases. They throw upon, the coffin, when it is lowered into the grave, a porringer or some such dish of earthen- ware whic beed hha n ordinaril defunctye certain useth i y d db nan ; parts of La Bresse they still throw into the grave the holy water vessel which had stood at the feet of the defunct previous to the ceremony of inhumation. Thus we trace the survival in France to the present time,1 of one of the very oldest of the burial customs of the human race. I have now to prove the survival of the custom of burial with clay vases to the Christian period of the Middle Ages in Scotland. In the " Pre- historic Annal f Scotland,so r Danie"D l Wilson devote chaptea s e th o t r domestic and sepulchral vessels of the Archaic or Bronze period, in which he gives an account of a very interesting discovery made on the demolition of the old town steeple of Montrose, in 1833. Three feet below the base

In the garden of the Monastery of St Ouen at Rome, the Abbe Coehet found a buryin1 g place which had been successively used from the seventh to the fifteenth century. Uppermost were graves with wooden coffins, or without any coffin, and containing vases partially filled with charcoal, of which thirty specimens were found. The character of the pottery indicated the dates of the vases, as ranging from the fifteent e thirteentth o t h h century. The ykindso werwhitisa tw f f o ,eo h paste with greenisa h glaze irregularly applied reddisf o r o , h cla pierced yan d with holes. Below these were stone e Capetiacistth f so n period (105 01250)o t , mad dressef eo d stonet sse on edge in cement, widest in the middle and with a niche for the head. These cists are leadee dateth y db n crosse absolutiof so n (foun similan di r cist t Bouteilles)sa e th , writing of which was of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Below these were coffins hollowed from single stones, straight-sided , heae wideth dfeete t a tharth ,t nana d wit ha circula re head nichth r . fo e This form mark Carlovingiae sth n era. Below these were e Merovingiancoffinth f o s . era, hollowe f singlo t edou stones similao rt e Carlovingiathosth f o e n era t wit ,e bu slopin d foohth en t g outwards insteaf do being vertical containind an , g holy water feetvasee th .t sa Below these were Frankish coffin a singl f o s e stone withou t e headniche th t wit r bu , fo hs roof-shaped covering slabs, and containing belt buckles and clay vases. 378 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 18'76. of the old tower, a 'skeleton was found disposed at full length in a rude stone cist, and with four urns beside it, two at the head and two at the feet. One of these urns, which is preserved in the Museum at Montrose, is of reddish clay, 4 inches in height, 5 inches in diameter at the wides tinche3 partd an s, acros e moutth s h (see fig. 1). This vesses i l figured by Dr Wilson, though he makes no remarks on its peculiar character.1 It is manifestly one of the Middle Age vases -or pots for char- coaincensed five th an le holed sides it an , n si for promoting the circulation of air in the burning charcoal have been pierced by driving a sharp-pointed instrument throught no , it ' whe clae nth y "was softt aftebu , r fired s it'wa . preciselyo s s i t I , similae Frencth o t rh vases that there can be no doubt of its real character. Judging fro fors mappearanced it man vase ,th e is probably at least a century later than the Fig. 1. Clay Vase, one of four date popularly assigned to the old tower, foun mediaevaa n di l stone underneath whose foundation s diswa - t i s coffin at Montrose. covered e fulTh l .lengt h burial e cisf th o ,t stones e " th urns, " beinge th dispose t a o tw d head and two at the feet,2 and their sides pierced with holes driven through unmistakablthemall are , e evidence a Christia of s n interment, certainl t earlieyno r tha e thirteentth n h century n factI Abbe . th , e Cochet give representatiosa n fro illuminatefourteentn e ma th f o . hdMS century, of vases burning at the side of the coffin during the funeral ser- vice (see fig , whos.2) e for s exactlmi Montrosye th tha f o t e " urn.s A " has been already mentioned, these vases, after burning during the service, were placed in the grave. In the illumination the red colour of the fire withi e vasenth s appears throug holee hth s pierce thein di r sides. This cannot be shown in the wood-cut (which is reproduced on the opposite page), but the escaping smoke indicates with sufficient certainty the' positio aperturese th f no .

1 It is also described by Mr Jervise,' F.S.A. Soot., in the Proceedings, vol. ii. p. 461, who remarks on its peculiar character and the unique features of the interment.' At Bernay, where 150 of'these vases were found, the most common arrangement 2 was four in one coffin or grave, two at the head and two at the feet. NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PAGAN CUSTOMS. 379 Society'e Anotheth n i n s rur Museu l probabilitmal n (figi ) .3 y belongs thio t s class. Unfortunately e recor s discovermose th it , th f o df t o s yi meagr unsatisfactord ean y kind. What is known beeabous ha n t i ttol d by Dr Proceedingse Stuar th a not n n i ei t , vol. viii . 182p . . There ew lear founs n thawa 1829n di t i t , wit othero htw s unde flaa r t e stonth t ea

Fig. 2. Illumination from a 14th century MS., representing incense vases placed, alternately with candles, round the coffin during the funeral service.

Castle Hil Rattrayf o l , Aberdeenshire thesf o e e otherOn exhibite.s swa d Jamer byM s Cumin e Archfeologicath t a e l Exhibitio t Aberdeenna n i , 1859, and we possess a drawing of it1 which is here engraved (see fig. 4). From a note attached to the drawing we learn that the urns were filled with ashes when they were discovered r asheFo sI .woul d read charcoale On . vaseo tw ribbe s si e oth f d horizontally thid san , peculiarity, whic neves hi r found in pottery of an early period, is not uncommon in pottery of the

e serie th . Gibbf drawing A o s1n f Aberdeen I r o , M y sb , presente Come th y -db Archaeologicamittee th f eo l Exhibition through Ch'as. E..Dalrymple, Esq., F.S.A. Proceedingse th e ScotSe . ,. 193volp . .x . 380 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 1876. fourteenth century.!' The place where they were found may probably have been, an .old cemetery. [While :this paper was. passing throug e press th hy attentio m , s wa n called by Dr Arthur 'IMitchell to a communication which he had received • Fig. 3. . .. • i. : . . , Fig. 4.

Figs. 3, 4. Clay Vases found at Castle Hill of Eattray, Aberdeenshire (5 in. high). fro Eeve mth . Gordon Ingram, ministe parise th f f Urquhartho ro , Elgin- shire, relative to the recent discovery in the graveyard there of a glazed clay witr ja hhola e pierced throug side hth e of it near the bottom. I wrote imme- e Eevdiatelr Ingramth M .o o t y wh , obligingle Museuth o t mr yja sene th t furnished an tha , e I mightit m de se t wite followinth h g particulars it f o s discovery. It was found at a depth of two and' a-half feet fro e presenmth t sur- face in diggin e ggravnorth-easa th n ei t end of the site of the old chufch'of the prior f Urquhart—yo -a. foundatioe th f o n Fig. '5. 'From'a 'Cairn at Memsie '- • ' (4 j. in.-high).. J Another vase of somewhat similar character (fig. 5), but unpierced, is in the Museum. It evidently belong about. sto same -th e -greentime th e; , glaze with whic s coatei t hi d did not appear in France before the thirteenth-century, but beyond its having been foun :an i dcair t Memsina knoo ew w nothing about it. NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PA&AN CUSTOMS. 381

earl ytwelfte parth f to h r wacenturyja smoute e covereth Th f . ho d with a piece of slate, and there was nothing in it but a small quantity of very black earth, suggestive of the presence of charcoal. In digging graves on the site of the choir of the old church, which was removed after the Reformation and its site added to the existing burying-ground, many similar jars have been turne frop du m tim o timet e , non f whico e e ar h now known to be in existence. The present specimen is a well-made jar, forn i m resemblin greybeardga n te jar e moutht s widei th ,bu t I n i r . inches high and four inches in diameter across the mouth, which is encircled collaa y b r slightly sloping outwards. Fro nece mth t bulgeki s gradually to eight inches wide near the middle of its height, and contracts slightly inchex si o t s diamete e basejare n th fronth I ,f t .a ro abou t n inca t h abov bottome eth , ther smala s ei l round hole sloping slightly downwards, and smoothly unburnboree th furnishes i n d i r ja t claye dTh .wit hcurvea d handle, slightlflatd an , y concave throughou middle lengths th t it f eo t I . has a salt glaze, and strongly resembles the ordinary coarse earthenware water-jar seventeente th f so eighteentd han h centuries same th t e timA . e t unlikelno s wa y t thai t mighi t analogoue b t handlee th glazeo d st dan d jars of similar form which were placed in the grave with burning charcoal and incense in Trance. Jars almost exactly similar in form to this'one are e figureAbbeth y "b d Cochet, fro e cemetermth t Bouteillesa y d an , attributed to the fourteenth century. In the absence of more examples of this custom in Scotland, I do not claim this vessel as a sepulchral jar of the same character and purpose as those I have described, although its form, its cover, its contents, and the pierced holes, are suggestive of this, while the reported occurrence of many others in the same burying- ground rather strengthens than weakens the supposition.] 4. Burial Clothed, and with Arms, Ornaments, or Insignia.—This custom wels i s la , known universas wa ,- ex n pagat i l no s n timeswa t I . tinguished eve cremationy nb t i survive d an , d down inte Christiath o n form f burialo s . The first Christians, says Aringhi, did not follow the heathen custom of placing quantitie f goldo s , silver d othean , r precious thing n theii s r sepulchres. But they permitted gold interwoven with the cloth in the preparation of the body for the burial, and such things as a gold ring on fingere th . With young girls, too, they often buried their ornamentd san 382 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUAKY 10, 1876.

such things as they most delighted in, and sometimes even money.1 This custom traceable in the catacombs as a direct survival of the older usage gradually becomes distinctively Christian confined highee an , th o dt r orders Churcn i d Statee Merovingiahan Th . n King f Franceo s , heathed an n Christian alike, were buried in their regal robes with their arms2 and ornaments. Childerie and Charlemagne, the one the last of the pagan kings, ane othedth r .the .establishe f Christianito r nationaa s ya l institution-in France, were both buried after the same fashion, and their tombs and their content knowe s ar describedd nan e ChristiaTh . n kinburies gwa d seatedy wit s robeshhi s armd ornamentshi ,e an e booth s th f o kd an , s kneehi n .so Gregor f Touryo srobbere gravtelle th th f so f eyo of the wife of Gonthram, who was buried in the Church of Metz, " cum auro multo rebusque preciosis sepulta est;" and Montfaueon adds that from this we see that it was not the kings onljj but the great of the land also, -who wer t thaea t time buried with thing price.f so 3 Kinge Th Denmarf so k were 'also buried with arms.4 Whe grave nth e of King Ola t Sora fopeneds ewa lona , g swor s foundwa d ove bode rth y from the head to the feet. In the coffin of King Erik Glipping, in the Church of Viborg, his sword lay at his side. The Queens of France were buried with spindles. The custom6 must also have prevailed in this country, although the

1 The body was swathed in linen, sometimes with the insignia of office, or with ornament goldf so r gemo , s placee coffi th r sarcophagus.— o n di Euseb. Vit. Const. iv. 66 ; Anibros. Orat. in obit. Theodos; August Conf. ix. 12, cited in Smith's Diet, of Christ. Antiq. sub voce "Burial of the Dead." The insignia of office, if the deceased held sucy ha dan h position—gol silved dan r ornament case privatf th e o n si e persons —were often flung int opee oth nwaste graveostentatioth d d ean an , whico nt h this led had to be checked by an imperial edict.—Cod. Theodos, xi. tit. 7, 1, 14. Ibid. So commo buriae th s weaponf lo n wa ornamentd san .earln si y Christian times among Frankse th , that enactments agains e violatioth t gravef no searcn si treasurf ho e form speciaa l featurSalie th cn e i Laws . ("Se Cangeu eD , Sepulchrorum Violatores.") 2 The symbolism of the spear is illustrated by the following:—When Gonthram made over the kingdom to Childebert, he delivered to him a spear with the words— .-' Ho t indiciuces m quod tibi omue regnum meum tradidi ?" 3 Montfaueon, " Monuments de la Monarchic Franjaise," vol. p. 109. 4 Ivornerup, "Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed," 1873, p. 251, variet 5A e custo th f yf o buriam o l clothed too fore kf buriath m o l i umonkisa h t uncommono s e twelfthabitth wa t n I i nh . centur laymer thuye fo b so nt buried , unde notioe th r n tha e sanctit th tdrese th sf y o preserve e boddth y from molestation SURVIVAE NOTETH N SO PAGA F LO N 3 CUSTOMS38 .

indications are few. Maitland, in describing the monastery of St Catherin Sciennee th t ea n thisi s city, saye s th tha n o t d oppositan t i o et eastern side of Newington, there was a chapel on a gentle eminence called Mount Hooly, whic e judgeh h o t havd e belonge e Knightth o t d s Templars, " from the position of the bodies buried cross-legged ways, with their sword theiy b s r sides, which were found latel digginn yi g there."l The only other instance I have seen recorded is the occurrence of a scab- bard-en grava n di t Coupar-Angus. ea 2 Giraldus describin miserable gth e circumstances attending the burial of Henry II., says that when the body was being prepare r buriadfo l scarcel decena s ywa t foune rinb r o gt dfo fingers hi a sceptr r o , e for s hand .s hi crowa head r hi o r , nfo , except such as was made from an old head-dress which by chance was found, nor were any of the usual insignia of royalty given except such as were obtained by earnest entreaty, and that was little suitable to the occasion. In the chance parise th f ho l churc f Broughaho m"Westmorelandn i 184n i , e 6th skeleto f Udarno Brohae d m "the Crusader," 1140-1185 s founwa , d under an- incised slab, cross-legged, and on the left heel a prick-spur of iron. Near the head was a variegated glass globe broken in half. In another grave was the silver mounting of a drinking-horn, engraved with cherubs paneld an , interlacinf so g work.3 The old pagan custom thus continued through the Middle Ages, though now rulere disuse th case f nationsth f o s eo n di , nevertheless surviven si the case of the Episcopal Orders of the Church in every country of Christendom. When it was disused for kings, it was retained for the clergy.4 Archbishops and have always been buried with their

by demons. Thus Erik Ploupenning sets forth in a deed dated 1241, " Votum feeimus ut in habitu fratrum minorum mori debereraus et in ipso habitu apud fratres minores Roeskildenses sepiliri."—Pontoppidan, Aiinales Ecel. Dan. 1609. The idea of sanctity connected with the monastic orders led people to seek for burial, not only in the consecrated ground about the monastery, but in the habit of the . The right was in early times purchased by the great men of Brittany by the gift of lands and other offerings, as we have seen to have been the case in Ireland.—Stuart's Sculp- tured Stones of Scotland, . Ixiiivolp . .ii . 1 Maitland's Hist Edinburghf o , . 176p , . s Proc. Soc. Antiq. Loud. 1861-64, p. 294. 3 Arch. Jour. iv. 61. 4 In the " Capitularia Eegum Francorum" we are told that the custom which had grown obsolete amon e commogth n peopl retaines clerge ewa th r ydfo :—Mos illn ei vulgo obsoletus in funeribus episcoporum et presbyterum retinetur. 38i PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUA'KY 10, 1876. insigni robed aoffice.an f so t stilI 1 l survives, symbolically pompoue th n ,i s accessorie a militar f o s y funeral e .swor th Whene d se laie dw ' ovee th r n processioi horse coffinth d e graveele d th witnes an e , o nt w , sure th s - vival of one of- the oldest ceremonies ever performed' by, men, the only difference e beinggrave sworth laith s n ed i d ,wa ol besidtha f o e t eth horse corpseactualls th d ewa an , y slaughtere accompano dt y his.masteo t r the.unseen worlde latesTh t. instanc f thieo s custos mit carrien i t dou integrity occurre intermene th t da f Frederico t k Casirnir Knigha , e th f o t Teutonic Order, -whburies owa d s witarm hi horss t Treveshhi sa d ean n i , February 1781.2 5. Burial with Shoes on the Feet.—It is well known that this custom

Durandus says, Cleriei vero, si sint ordinati, illis indumentis induti sint, quae requirun1 t ordines, quos habent; si vero non habent ordines sacros more laicorum sepeliantur. Verumtamen lice n aliii t s ordinibus propter paupertate saepiuc mho s omittatur, in sacerdotibus tame t Episcopine s nullo modo praetermittendum est.— De Div. Off. lib . .7 Kornerup, describin e practicth g n Denmarki e e , th say f o s burial highee th f so r order f thso e clergMiddle th n yi e Ages— their-headn "O s they bor mitree eth thein o , r shoulder cloae sth golf ko d brocade fingee th Episcoe n th ro , - corpsee side th f th e o crosiee y . b th l ring Theiy d pa rla an , r feet were e th shod d an , chalice and paten were placed in their hands.' These particulars have been verified in many instances, among which it is only necessary to mention the graves of Bishop Absalon at Sore, and Bishop Sunesou at Lund."—Kornerup, Aarbogerfor Norilsk OldfcyndigJied, 1873, p. 251. instancn 2 A s occurrenceit f customa e o s a t t simpl bu no ,freak,a s ya recordes i , d newspapere th n i f laso s t week (Jan , 1876).7 s followa , s :—A e prettth t y village of Hatfield, near Doncaster, ther solemnises ewa thosf o dfuneraa e e on remarkabl f o l e gentlemen whose school or class is nearly extinguished. He was possessed of con- siderable property, and some people designated him Squire Hawley, but he delighted in " Jack Hawley," and would not be accosted by his correct name, Pilkington, a family of the highest respectability. He died on Christmas Day, and was buried on Tuesday in his own garden, in the centre of the graves .of his cattle which died during fuln i rinderpest e lais t l th huntindou wa e H .g costume, including spur whipd san , and was carried from the house to the grave on a coffin board, when he was placed in a stone coffin, which, weighing upwards of'a tori, had to be lowered by means of a crane. His old pony, Nance, was shot, and buried at' his feet in bridle and saddle, and his dog and an old fox were buried at his head. The funeral ceremony was performed by the Roman Catholic at Doncaster, who had specially consecrated the ground, witnesses wa d mourners s w s wholestate lefan dhi fe th ha t f onla e o eo t H y yb . his groom, John Vickers, on condition that the funeral, &c., be conducted according to his expressed wish, and, should he fail in doing this, the whole of the property is to revert to the priest at Doncaster for the benefit of the Catholic religion. SURVIVAE NOTETH N S O PAGA F LO N5 CUSTOMS38 .

wa commosa amone n on Teutoni e gth Scandinaviad can n peopl pagan ei n remarkable timesth n I . e cemeter e transitioth f yo n perio t Oberflachda t e intermentth s were foun n i single-tred e coffins, accompanied with swords, daggers d spearan , f irono s , bows, arrows d shieldsan , , personal ornaments of bronze,1 vases of clay,' wooden bowls and platters, and vessels of glass. Some of the larger vessels contained remains of spoon- meat, other d boneha sf animalo s grave on n them i s verea n I y. small stono celt occurred, along with a bronze finger-ring, buckle, and stud. In others there wer en somi flintse flintd th e an s, were placed besida e wooden candlestick. Most of the bodies had been deposited clothed, and with sandal thein o s r e feetgraven somI th f . o es there were obscure indication f Christianity,—tho s e e skeletonarms th d leg f an o s s were crossed, and a hazel-wand had been laid over the body lengthwise, a custom which in the Middle Ages became a Christian usage.2 e mosOnth f teo strikin e northerth f go n Scandinavian sepulchral cus- toms of the pagan time was that of binding the " hell-shoes" on the e " th Sage dead th n feef GislI f ao e Outlaw, .o t th i s statei t i " d that, when they were laying Vestein in his grave-mound, Thorgrim, the priest, went up to the mound, and said, '"Tis the custom to bind the hell- shoes on men, so that they may walk on them to Valhalla, and I will now do that by Vestein," and when he had done it, he said, " I know nothing about binding on hell-shoon, if these loosen." This custo alss mowa Christian well-knows wa t liturgiste I th . o nt f so the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Durandus says, " Mortui habeant et soleas in pedibus qua significent se esse paratos ad judicium"—the dead must also have shoe thein so r feet whicy b , h shothey ywma that thee yar ready for the judgment. As matter of fact, it is often found in Christian as well as in pre-Christian graves in Central Europe. Members of religious orders were usually thus buried, but the custom was not confined to them. Bernard, grandso f Charlemagneo n dieo n 818di wh s foun, wa , d with shoes on his feet when his coffin was opened in 1638. William Lynde- 1 It is worthy of notice that the bronze of the Oberflacht graves is a zinc-bronze. [See my remarks on the bronze peculiar to the Iron Age in " Remains of the Viking Period," Proceedings, vol. x. p. 558.] The analysis by Professor Fehling gives the following as the composition of the Oberflacht bronzes:—Copper, 87'68; tin, 6-94; lead, 115; zinc, 4'13 = 99'90. 2 See the account of burials with hazel wantls at p. 384, infra. VOL. XI.' TAUT II. 2 B 6 38 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUAR , 1876Y10 . wode, Bishot David'sS f o dieo p n i 1446wh d, s t burieS wa , n i d Stephen's. Whe s grav s recentlhi n wa e y disturbed during repairse th , body was found wrapped in cere-cloth. It was unclothed, but with shoes e cathedra th e feet. on th I f 1Worceste o l a skeletor s founwa nn i d 1861 having shoes or sandals on its feet, the soles of which were quite entire.2 The Abb6 Cochet mentions a large number of instances in France, proving the existence of the custom there from the twelfth century to the seventeenth. accounn a funerae n th I f 3o t l expense Kogef so r Beloto ,wh die n 1603di , ther charga sou2 1 s e i denier 6 sf eo paia r shoef o rsfo o st place on the feet of the defunct. 6. Burial with Hazel Wands.—The custo layinf mo ghazel-wana d over e corpseth , reaching from hea o footdt s apparentli , f pagayo n origin, although I have not succeeded in finding any notice of its origin or of its meaning, whether as a pagan or a Christian burial rite. A few examples wil e sufficientb l . Thos t Oberflacha e t have already been referred to.4 When the coffin of Queen Bilichilde, the queen of Childeric II., at St Germai Pres s openedde nwa s ,a haze thers lwa e wand ove bodye th r . At St Wandrille, four of the burials with sandals on their feet had also hazel wands. At Etran an instance of a hazel wand occurred in a stone coffin, of the form assigned to the twelfth century. At Neubourg, a range of stone coffins was found, each of which contained a wand placed at the right side of the skeleton. At Toussaint, Angers, a wand occurred beed ha Abb n coffie a o burie th s f 6wh o n hi i n di witd san h shoes on his feet. In the tomb of Eiehard Mayo, bishop of Hereford (1504-16), in Hereford cathedral, a hazel wand was found. 7. The Funeral Feast.—The funeral feast was almost universally cele- brated at the grave in' pagan times. The occurrence of a quantity of the bones of animals in and around the tomb or grave, is usually held to be indicativ t necessarilno s paganismf i e o t i t y Bu alway. custoe s so.Th 5m

"e Archseologia,1Se " vol. xxxiv . 403p . . 2 " Gentleman's Magazine," October 1861. 3 " Revue Archfeologique," xxv. (Jan. to June 1873), p. 12. notice th e thef . e383o p * Se t ma , supra. "6 Professor Rolleston says on this subject: " It does not seem clear to me that any great probability attache argumenn a e o heathest th r fo t n characte intermenn a f o r t fro e discovermth y ther f suceo h evidence funeraa f so le bone feasth s domestif a so t c animals."—Archccologia, vol. xlii. p. 424. NOTES ON THE SURVIVAL OF PAGAN CUSTOMS. 387

was Christian as well as pagan, although, it was denounced by the Church at an early date. Ambrose, Augustine, Cyprian, and others of the fathers, frequently refer to the abuse of the funeral feast by the early Chris- canon e thire th th f df o s o e councitiansOn Arie.f lo s states that, "t doei s not become the Christians, and it shall not be lawful for them to carry meats to the graves of the dead, or to offer to the dead "—Non oportet, non. liceat Christian is prandia ad defunctorum sepulchra deferre, et sacrificari mortuis.1 But at an earlier period the agapse held on the anniversaries of the death of departed friends at their tombs were a dis- tinctively Christian institution, and numerous representations of them frescoee occucatacombs.e th th n f o r o s mann I 2 f thesyo e representations of the agapse there is nothing distinctively Christian, and Mr Tyrwhitt remarks the close resemblance between the agapse of the catacombs of St Domitilla and St Callistus, and the confessedly heathen banquet of sevee th n prieste Gnostith n i s c catacomb muco s . n thishi In s elsea ,. , Christianity simply inherited existing customs,3 purging the idolatroumf o s taint, and continuing them under the consecrating sanction of the Church. What took place at Home in the earlier ages of the Church was repeated

Similar references to this custom occur in the capitularies of Charlemagne :— " 1Admoneantur fidelesuod a t s u smortuo agann no quaa s e paganorute d e m ritu remansuerunt t quand sepulturaE d a . s oeo m portaverint, ilium ululatum. excelsum no t supee n . facian r. eorui. . t n tumulos nee manducare nee hibere presumant." —Capit. Carl, Ludoii.t e lib . cap.vi . 197. recene "Th t investigation Bosse D muc o f d iso dispeo specifihe t ideth e f th la o c and2 exclusive character of the Christianity of the primitive Church. Rejecting the abuses arising from the license of pagan morals, there was nothing in itself to take funeraexceptioe th n i l t a nfeast."—Smith' s Diet, of Christian Antiquities, weeb su " Cella Memorise." erectioe Th a " f cello n a memoris tom e persoa th ef bt o " a n deceased t whica , h 3 memorial feasts wer survivines helhi y db g relation uncommon a t friendsd no san s wa n, custom among the Romans in pagan times. A copy of a will once engraved on the testator's tom t Langreba Rossi e gives si D t contain I y .nb s minute instructionr sfo the completion of the cella memories, which had been begun in the testator's lifetime, and provides for its being furnished with couches, coverlets, pillows, and garments gueste fo wer th o rspecifie y meeo est wh da e tfeas o dannuallth t n to togethert i yn i . Another inscriptio extans ni t relatin collegiuma o g t buriae deade th th r f ,o lfo dated A.D. 133. One of the regulations was that the confraternity were to dine together yeae timex th si rn si i n honou f Dianao r , Antinous patroe collegium.e th th d f no an , —Northcote and Brownlow's Roma SuUerranea, p. 51, and Smith's Diet, of Christian Antiquities, voceb su " Cella Memoriae " 8 38 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUARY 10, 1876.

in other part f Europo s subsequenn ei t times buriad an , l ami debrie dth s of a funeral feast, whether in Celtic, Scandinavian, or Anglo-Saxon graves, may not be always indicative of the pagan character of the ritei or of the paganism of the person buried. The custom has survived almost to our own day in Scotland in a modified form, represented by the " lyke- wakes," and the special baking of " dirigie bread " of the last century.1 t knono wo d tha I t Christians ever buried foo other do r provisions with the body, in the belief that it was to be of service to the dead, as we assume that the pagans did. But Weinhold mentions that in remote districts of Svveden, up to a very recent period, the tobacco-pipe, the pocke e fillet th knife dd brandy-flaskan , , were placed wit deae th hn di gravee th . These examples may suffice for the present. They show that we shall greatl concludee yw er f i r , fro e appearancmth custome grava th n ei f eo s characteristi paganismf co , tha persoe th t n thus buriepagana s dwa .

"DANIEL IN THE DBN OP LIONS.". whils wa e t I examining int prevalence oth e custoth f f "eo mo Buria l Clothed," tfhat I became interested in the subject of the curious representa- Lions,f o tionn "f "sDe o Danie engravee th "e n agrafeth i l n do s belt r "o -

1 A curious instance of the cropping up of an old custom, in a freak of eccentricity individualn pare oa nf th o t affordes i ,terme wila th f y slo b d mad n Haddingtoi e n yeae th testator e r n i 1800 Th wroto .s own-epitaph wh ,ehi , claime havo dt e "died a Christian." His testament contains the following clauses:—"I desire that there shall be no dregy at my funeral, but that there be carried to the grave as much wine arid biscuits as will be 3 glasses to each." He then gives directions that after the funeral service oves i epitap s hi r three hth shalr e fo readglassee lb d an ,winf so e eth following toasts are set down, apparently in a seriously religions frame of mind:— " ToastFathere honouth e d th glor1st.d o , Go Hol T d Sonan rf yo an y, Ghost, three persons and one God. 2nd. The cause and success of true religion in general without superstition. 3rd. To the memory of —— —— (the testator), and that he may be happ eternan a n yi l state. properts lefbule e hi H th poortf e " ko th o y,t bequeathed his library to the Episcopal Church, and nominated the clergy of the town as his c-,xecutors, leaving them L.10 eac their hfo r trouble I hav. informatioo en w ho o t s na much, or rather how little, of the testator's directions regarding the conduct of his s executorshi funera e mer y carries th b et wa t l facbu ,ou d t that such things were considere e Christiaon y db s appropriat na a nineteent o t e h century funeraa n i l Scottish churchyard, demonstrate possibilite sth e earlieth f yo r custom being looked oappropriats na many eb y Christian muca n si h less enlightened age. #• DANIEL IN THE DEN OF LIONS. 389 clasps so frequentl t wit me yn Burgundiahi d .Prankishan n gravef o s the early Christian times. (See Plate XV.) The peculiar treatment of subjecte rudenese th th d an f ,Mi so e style s stronglwa , y suggestiv f cero e - • tain e groupsculptureth n o s d stone f Scotlando s . With this casual suggestion as a stimulus to further investigation, I reasoned that if the meaning of the groups represented on these belt-clasps were ascertained d founan o harmonist d e with the characte e sculptureth e f th o r n o s Scottish stones, the analogous groups on them would be also explained and accounted for. The first question, then, was—What did the wearers of these belt-clasps mean by the subjects which they engraved on them? The obvious answer was, that they were probably talismanic and Christian. The most common representation among them was the figure of the cross, sometimes singly, sometimes as the central figure of a composite group, and sometimes marked upon the figures of subjects of •which it was not a principal member. The common composition of this last group was a man standing with outsprea uplifter do d hands, betwee lionso ntw , sometimes rampant upon him, at other times licking his feet. The specific meaning of this grou establishes pi d with certaint occurrence th y yb f certaieo n engraved r embosseo d belt-clasps havin gbordea r roun e figuredth s inscribed with their description. clase Th p1 fro Burgundiae mth n cemeter Dailleusf yo , for instanc es engrave (Plate ha borde . fig, th 4) .en n XV debasei o dr d Roman characters round the group of the man and the two lions, the WOrds DAGHIHI LEOHEO DV L S PEDES EIVS LEHGEBAHT——Daniel o liontw , s licke feets dhi . Anothe museue th t Germainn S ri f mo s (Plate XVI. fig) 1 . divides i d intcompartmentso otw e containinon , customare gth y grouf po the man with the lions, the other a single human figure. These are entitled respectively DANIHL PEOPET d ABBAOAan V PKOFETA e associaTh . - tio f Habakkuno k with Daniee t authorisegiveth no n s ni i l d English version of the Scriptures, but it is contained in the Vulgate.2 The story 1 Sometime inscriptioe sth n give name sth f eownere o instancr oth e f fo s on a , n eo the clasps from Lavigny: NASVALDVS NANSA, followed by the formula common in early Christian inscriptions:—VIVA VTEKO TDE E FELIX. They cast him (Daniel) into the lions' den, where he was six days. In the den ther2 e were seven lions. . . . Now there was in Jewry a prophet called Abbacuc which had made pottage and broken hread into a howl, and was going into the field for to AngeLore e reapersth th e df t th o lbrin sai o Bu t d t g. i unto Abbacuc: " Go, carry 0 39 PROCEEDING THF SO E SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 187G.

s alsi o represente e detaiembossen di th n o l d gilt copper mountinga f so wooden bucket foun grava n di thn ei e Merovingian cemeter f Miannayo y near Abbevill n .Francei e . (Seee Platon n eO XVI ) 5. d . figsan 4 . buckee parth angef e o t th t representes li d lifting Habakku e haith ry kb of the head, and on another he is being set down in the den. He bearj the pot with the pottage in the one hand and. the symbolic fish in the other. Daniel stands clothed and crowned. Only one lion is represented, rampant inscriptioe Th . Roman i n letters, distributed amon figurese th g , may be read:— [ANGE]LVS MISS[VS] DANIEL PROFETA ABBACV FERT [PANEM] IN LACY LEONVM

Only those portions of the bucket which illustrate the story of Daniel and Habakku alsd figurede oha kar t representationI . e Saviour,th f o s 1 nimbed seated n ornamentaa an , n do l chair, treadin e serpength t under tho footT o lef. t were Ada d Eveman , wit e serpenhth t twining round tree presentind th oan forbiddee gth n fruit.2 meae th t that thou hast into Babylon unto Danie lionse l th whic n d 'i den.s hAn i " Abbacue said: "Lord, I never saw Babylon, neither do I know where the den is." Then the Angel took him by the crown of the head and bare him by the hair of the head, .and througn Babyloi m mighe spiris hi hth nhi t f d upose to t e denAn th n . Abbacue cried, saying: '' 0 Daniel, Daniel, take the dinner that God hath sent thee." — The Book of Daniel, chap. 14. presence Th thesf eo e interesting representation thin so s bucke s suggestivi t f o e 1 a new explanation of the frequent occurrence of these vessels with. Prankish and Anglo-Saxon interments. They have been explained as " ale-vessels " for a festal carouse. In this case such an explanation is inadmissible. The subjects of the orna- mentation imparvessee th o sacrea t lt r ritualistido c character suggesd an , t that i t may have held the holy water placed in. the grave to drive away the demons. This suggests also that as the ritualistic washing of the body was a purely Christian custom, it may be that the bucket and bronze kettle, so often found in graves, may be due to this Christian custom, of which Durandus says—"Deinde corpus, nisi vivens noviter inunctus fuerit debet lavari, ad significandum, quod si aiiima per confessionem a culpa mundata sit, utrumque (scilicet anim t corpuse a ) eternam glorificatiouet me claritate judicie di mn i i consequetur, &c."—In Ration. Div. Off. lib. 7 . This conventional representation of the Fall appears first in the catacombs, and 8 is found treated in precisely the same manner on the Sculptured Stones of Scotland and Irelaud importans i t I . noto t e also that these suppl missine yth g link referred DANIEL IN THE DEN OF LIONS. 391

The meaning of these curious representations being thus ascertained, nexe th t question was—Wha s theii t r origin e probabilitTh ? y seemed thae Franke b th t o Burgundiant d san t invenno d tsdi thes e conventional representations of subjects, with which they had been familiar only for a comparatively brief period; but that they had received the traditional types of them along with their Christianity.1 Their origin therefore was to be looke Eomen i r dfo , among e sculptureth - d painting an searliese th f o st Christian period. The story of Daniel and his miraculous deliverance, his example of abstinence constancs hi d an , y under trial, were favourite themes wite hth early fathers. His preservation in the den of lions was specially suited to strike the imagination in an age of persecution. Hence it is one of the earliest of the pictorial groups which occur in the catacombs. While the infant Churc strugglins hwa r existencefo g s lessonit , f constanco s d an y comfort under the severest trials were continually kept before the minds convertse oth f . Danien Thei e th Churche w figure yth n sa th i l f d o e an , lions the figure of the persecutors restrained by Divine power. Thus this conventional representatio constantlo ns y presen theio t t r eyed theian s r imagination, became gradually associated with other symbolisms not pri- marily suggeste store th yy d b itself, wherd an 2 e superstitio beet no n d nha supplanted by intelligent faith (as among the uninstructed Franks), the group would be readily invested with talismanic powers.

Misy b so t e type Irvin r worth d figure he n an sko n g i se Bibl.oth f e illustratey db Earle Middlth d f yan o t e"e Ages,Ar th whicn "i remarke apparenhe sh th n so t blank existing fro fourtthirteente e mth th o ht h centuries. Clovis Frankise firsth e f th ,o t h Merovingiae kingth f so n dynasty baptises wa , d 1 with warriors 300hi f 0o A.Dn si . 486Burgundiane Th . s were baptised wholesaln eo their entry into Gaul in the beginning of the sixth century. attitude Th whicn ei h Danie invariabls i l y represente e catacombth n di s became symboa earle crucifixione th 2 th f yf o lo writere On .s says shutha d e mouthth tGo t s lione oth f s when Danie l dene arms spreathuth d hi n ,t an si s dou conforme e th o t d similitud e crossth f eo . Another says—" Whe Prophee nth t Daniels spreahi t dou handsimilitude th n si crosse th passee f eh o , d safe frolion e jawe th m th f s so blessing Christ the Lord." In the same way the bread presented to him by Habakkuk is constantly referred to as a type of the . This enables us to see how an migh substitutee b t e centrae samth th r dfo ew l e figurgroupfigurho th d f eo ean , with outspread arms migh appropriatele b t y replace cross e suggestes i th s y a ,d b y db two of the representations on the Scottish stones, viz., at Nigg and at Ulbster, 2 39 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUARY 10, 1876.

The conventional grou earlieslionits Daniethe of p in s tand l form1 (Plate XVI. fig. G) represents the prophet clothed, and standing with out- spread arm gooa s n betweei d s styli lions o f e t artlionI eo ntw th , . s natura livelyd an n llate I . r representations prophee figure th th , f eo s i t entirel t yslightl nudbu r o e y liondrapede e seateth sar d n eitheo an d, r side in the attitude of attentive mastiffs. Habakkuk is introduced in the later examples wit decussatee hth d bread basketa n 2i . (Plate XVI. fig) .2. To balance the figure of Habakkuk, sometimes an angel, oftener a human figure introduceds wa , represeno t , e protectinth t g presenc Divine th f eo e power. (Plate XVI. Rg'. 3.) Aringhi, in his "Koma Subtorranea," figures twenty examples of this group of Daniel and the lions among e frescoeth sculptured an s d sarcophag e catacombs.th conf f o o is -i t I 3 stant occurrence on the sculptured sarcophagi of the fourth and fifth centuries, not only at Rome, but at Eavenna, Aries, and other places. The treatment never varies unless in the minor details: Few of those catacombe th n i latee ar s r tha e earlnth e fiftyth par hf o tcentury t a , which time they cease commonle b o dt y use buryins da g places. Eusebius states, in his " Life of Constantine the Great," that he erected a brazen statu Danief eo l standing betwee forulionse e nth th t mConn ,i a -

earliese Th t representatio thif no s subjec cemetere fresca th s i t n oi Domitillf yo a of 1the second century. 2 This decussation of the circular rolls of bread is said to symbolise the eucharist, the decussation commoe representinth s wa n t e crossmethoi sige th t gf th nbu o ,f do makin breade gth . cycle f 3scripturaTh o e l subjects represente then di frescoescatacombe th f o as si s follows':—Adam and Eve by the Tree, Cain and Abel, Noah in the Ark, the Sacrifice of Isaac, removin s Shoesghi , Moses receivin Tablese gth , Moses strikine gth Rock, David with his Sling, Elijah in the Chariot, the Three Hebrews in the Furnace, Daniel in the Lions' Den, Jonah thrown Overboard, Jonah being Swallowed, Jonah being Disgorged, Jonah under the Gourd, Job on the Dunghill, Tobit and the Fish, Susanna and the Elders, the Magi, the Water made Wine, the Woman of Samaria at the Well, the Paralytic carrying his Bed, the Blind Healed, the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, the Raising of Lazarus, the Triumphal Entry, with Zaccheus in the Tree, Pilate washin s Handsghi Annunciatione th , Baptise Jordane th , th Wise n mi th , e Virgins. Mos f theso t e subject representee sar fixea n di d traditional form, varying only in slight details of treatment. The range of subjects on the sculptured sarco- phagi includes t allmost thesef no , o f i , foregoine , witth n i hfe a t wg no thalis e tar t e Destructiosucth s ha f Pharaohno e Visioth , Ezekielf no . &c , WHALEE JONATH D .HAN 393 stantinople. It is mentioned in the "Liber Pontificalia," that IV. adorned altar frontals with gilded representation same th f eo ssubject . The group also appear smale th n lso medallions of green glass enclosing scriptural subjects executed in gold leaf,1 which were enclosed in the clear glass forming the bottoms of the glass drinking-cups deposited in Christian tombs in the catacombs. In these cases the prophet is often separated fro lionse m th s figurhi , e formin e ornameng th e medallionon f o t , while two other occupiee sar lionse th y .db Thu e threo th ss et figureno e ar s thae place ey suggesto t e the s componene dth a yar o t t t parta singl f o s e separato e placetw ar n e i de Ev e Adasamy groupth d wa emn an I . medallions tree th e d wit serpene an , h th a third n i t . These gilded glass vessels have not been found out of Rome except in two instances, in which they have occurred at Cologne.2 " JONAH AND THE WHALE." Another subject frequently engraved on these Frankish and Burgundian belt-clasps, consisting of a man with one hand raised in the attitude of preachin r prophesyinggo s alwayi , s accompanie ay db monste dragonr o r - csque creature, having two feet and a long convoluted fish-tail. (Plate XVIII. ) fig6. Thi. s subject usually occur n connectioi s n wite th h figure of the cross. The cross occupies the centre of the clasp, and the fish-likd an n ema monstee figureth f repeatee o sar r eithen do r. sidit f eo

subjecte th lis 1f A o t s represented thesn o e Glasses mayb interest:—Adaf eo d man Eve, Noah Ark e iSacrifice nth th , Isaacf eo t (?),Pi ,Josep Mosee th n hi s strikine gth Rock, Moses liftinBrazee th p gu n Serpent Spiee th , s bearin Grapee gth f Canaano s , Joshua commandin stano t n d Su still e gth , Jonah thrown Overboard, Jonah Swallowed by the "Whale," Jonah Disgorged by the "Whale," Jonah under the Gourd, the Three Hebrews in the Furnace, Daniel in the Den of Lions, Daniel destroying the Dragon, Tobit and the Fish, the Three Magi, the Water made Wine, the Paralytic carrying his Bed, the Seven Loaves Multiplied, the Raising of Lazarus, the Good Shep- herd Virgie th , n MaryEarle fet th Paula t PeteS wf d yS ,o d Martyrsan , an r . These glasses were mostl e fourtth f yo h century. 2 One of these, found in the neighbourhood of the Church of St Severin, was a glass plate or paten about ten inches diameter ; the other was found with charred bones in a rudely made stone cist, 30 inches in length and 15 inches in width and depth, near the church of St Ursula. The first is figured in Northcote and Brown- low's "Roma Sotteranea, Slade th othe e n e. 290i " p Th collectios ri . Britise th n i h Museum. It is considered to be of the fourth or fifth century.—Nortlicotc and Bm^— low, "Roma Sotteranea, . 277"p . 394 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 1876. This group I interpret as a conventional representation of the story of t awarno s beee m e a fish.thaha Jona n th t I i td hithert1 - han re o s o evidencegardede th t bu , I think, conclusives i , . In the first place the subject is manifestly as distinctively Christian as s evidentl tha e Lionswa f Danieo th t d d an ,y an l place n theso d e belt- clasps from the same feeling. It must, therefore, have been a subject as popular and well known among the early Christians as that of Daniel's deliverance. Now, the story of Jonah is an exact parallel to that of Daniel, and was equally popular in the early Church. In fact, it holds firse th t place amonsubjecte th l gal Testamend s Ol fro e mth t represented in the catacombs.2 " It was continually repeated in every kind of monu- ment connected with the ancient Christian cemeteries; in the frescoes on the walls, on the bas-reliefs of the sarcophagi, on lamps, and medals, 'and glasses,3 and even on the ordinary grave-stones. The Christian artists, however meano n y b ,s confined themselve thalifsceno e e st f eth o on t en i e prophetth n whici , e foreshadoweh e resurrectionth d , viz.yhis three days' burial in the belly of the fish, and his deliverance from it as from the jaws of the grave." The story is represented in four scenes. (Plate XVIII. figs. 1-4.) First throwinthere th s ei g overboar prophete th f do . This si sometimes treated historically vessee ;th sees li n labourin tempeste th n gi , the sails and rigging in disorder, and part of the crew attempting to com- stormbae tth , while par engagee tar "lighteninn di shipersoe e gth th p f "o n of Jonah. Sometimes it is treated conventionally. A small canoe,4 dug out piecee o witfon d ,an h neither oar sailr sno , appear smoota n so s it h d seaan , single occupant is thrusting Jonah over the side head foremost into the open moute "whale.th f ho " Sometime e "shipth s dispenses "i d with

M. Troyon's explanation of these figures is too ingenious, I think, and the mean- 1 ing too recondite. He regards it as emblematic of conversion, the human figure being supposed to represent a pagan priest turning his back on the false gods, typified by the fish-like monster, and worshipping the cross. 2 Northcote and Brownlow's "KomaSotteranea,"p. 243. Of the fifty four sarcophagi enumerated by Burgon in his letters from Rome, twenty-three have the story of Jonah amon sculpturee gth s on them fourteed an , n that of Daniel. 3 Garucci figures a large number of examples in his " Vetri Anticbi," Eoma, 1858, fol. 4s represente i Similarl k ar t highe squara e no ys th x da r ebo tha kneese nth f -o receivo t t Noahi e dovstand o th en i ewh ,p swit u e olivth h e branch oftes i t nI . placed in the same sea with the ship of Jonah. 5 39 WHALEE JONATH D . HAN

altogether, and the prophet is simply seen half swallowed by the beast. Frequently the two scenes of the swallowing and the disgorging are placed f contraste swallowino th y sidn wa I sid y ey b . b e g scene e dragonth , - like beast appears with head and neck extended, and only the legs of the human figure are seen, dangling out of its mouth (Plate XVIII. fig. 2). In the disgorging scene, the upper half of the human figure is seen rising fro beast'e mth s open mouth (Plate XVIII. fig las.e 3).tTh scen1 e shows Jonah reposing under the gourd, and the "beast" contemplating him from a little distance (Plate XVIII case .Danielf th fige o n i . 4).s A ,2 Jonah some-

1 The swallowing was emblematic of death, the disgorging of the . One of the directions for painting a '' morality," in which the Seven Ages of Man form a part, by Dionysius, author of the 'Ep/uenet TTJIT f«7fjaiKjps (fourteenth or fifteenth century) follows:s a s i , —years,5 7 ...f o ' n the"ma n Writ d makOl e' toma e b whicn largo a s hi e drago s throathi nn i havin ,n heama gda downwards whof o d man , seene b onl haln e . yth ca f Nea tome th r b writ e' Hel l all-devouring ' Death, d an ' ' s swallowei e dragon th o y wh b nead ,p m du "Alawilan hi o r lwh sav s! fro e em all-devouring Hell.' "—Didrou, Manuel d'lcongrapMe Ghretienne, . p 404 . Paris, 1854. At a later period it was differently spiritualised by the Western Church— " lonam glutiverat, Sed non consumpserat Marina bellua; Quern t trajiciensu , , Ita rejiciens Eemansit vacua. Christnc "Si s Gentibus, Emergens fluctibus, Salutem praedicat; Tune mundus timuit, Timens pcenituit t culpaE s abdicat."

On one of the many sarcophagi figured byAringhi, the history of Jonah is repre- 2 sented with great detail. First he is cast out of the ship, the large sail of which is filled with wind from the conch shell of a winged figure above, personifying the winds in the well known classical style. The " whale " opens his mouth to receive the pro- a femalpersonifiephety d sk an e ,e th buse cal n sth i tm which succeeded fise hTh . nexs i t represente vomitins da g fort prophee hth groundy dr t e whicon nth o , h crabs, lizards snaild e seean , ar sn crawling about. Clos thio t e se figur e scenth th f o s ei e prophet reposing under the gourd. The sculptor has filled every available space with same figuresth ed watean , r whicscene th f thes o es hi e incident life f th o e n si Jonah, floats a little square box in which Noah receives the dove with the olive 396 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUAKY 10, 1876. .times appears clothed mors i t e bu ,frequentl y represented fornudee mTh . "e o whalfth monste a se e r " o absolutels ri y constant s unliki y d ean an , •real inhabitan e deepth f .o t Throughou whole th t e repree serieth f -so sentation catacombe th n si t nevesi r varie outlinn si attributesr eo , though there are slight variations in the details of its mane, its jaws, its claws, or this i tails t I it form. commoo s , "s na Jonah' ssculpturee fish,th n o " s and frescoee catacombsth f o s , which reappear e belth tn so clasp s from Burgundia Frankisd nan h graves. There is an interesting point in connection with the form of " Jonah's fish s represented.ia " catacombse nth , whic s illustrativhi e firsth tf eo creatioa t no f Christia subjecty no s i m par t f I o t. n pagaa art t ,bu n survival. It is the old classical dragon of the pagan myth of Andromeda unchanged in a single feature. • " A school of art," says Mr Tyrwhitt, " cannot be improvised. There was nothing exceptional about early Christia moro n s e nthawa e art t nth I . continuation.o Christianitt ar e th f y found already existin exponene th s ga t of the ideas of the age. The artists who executed the work were not necessarily always Christians, although working under Christian guidance. earliese th n I t frescoe catacombe th n i s s ther s absoluteli e y nothing dis- tinctively Christian. They are simply the common wall decorations of the time." By and bye these common decorations of the time, and subjects from pastoral life, e treatebegab o t nd symbolically fishere th fise d - han Th . men became emblematic objects instea f mereldo y decorative. Orpheus charmin beaste gth s wit lyre s Ulyssehd hi ,an s closin voicee ears th ghi o st s e sirensoth f , were adopted fro e pagamth n mytholog s symboliya f o c scriptural teachings. Elijah is represented as ascending to heaven in a quadriga over the river Jordan, which is still figured in Christian sculp- tures as a river-god reposing on his urn. Jonah is represented as being swallowed by the same conventional " whale " with which we are familiar in the fabulous tale of Andromeda. Having thus traced these conventional representations of Daniel and Jonah to their origin in the infancy of the Christian Church, we find them surviving in more or less modified forms to late mediaeval times. In e earlth y ages they havoccure w es sepulchrae a ,seen th n o , l frescoed san

branch, while on the otherwise unoccupied shores, the artist has placed an angle hookin water-bira gfisha d an , d lookin provr gfo . 7 39 WHALEE JONATH D .H AN siu-cupnag n Ital i i d Gaul,y an d Africa,an 1 n lampo 2 f terra-cottao s r o , drinking-cups of glass in Italy and Germany and Albania, and on diptychs, ivory plaques ciborid fourte th an ,fiftd f haan o h centuries.3 They occur engraved or embossed on Burgundian and Frankish belt-clasps in graves, datin gninte fro th e fift mhth o t hcenturie Switzerlann si France.d dan 4 They tympane occuth n o r churcf ao h doors paintingn o , interiorse th n si , on fonts, on altar f rentals, on embroidered vestments, and depicted in stained glass window f earlo s y mediaeval times. They were gradually supplante Testamenw Ne y b d t subjects'in more recent e timesw t bu ; have in the Museum some curious illustrations of the inherent vitality of such conventional representations.6 One of these I have represented here,

Romet 1A , Naples, Ravenna, Aries othed an , r places. sarcophagu2A whitn i s e marble, foun t Chulla d Algerian ui , tear snumbea f ro Christian subjects, in bold , in panels divided by palm-trees, among which are Daniel and Jonah as usually represented in the fourth and fifth centuries, except that Daniel is clothed in a classical tunic (as on the glass vessel from Podgoritza) and the tail of Jonah's fish wants the usual convolution. It is figured in the " Annuaire de la Societe Archseologique de la province de Constantine," 1856-7, and described as " Bas- relief enigmatique." Churce Michaen th Sa n 3I f hMuranoo e d l Venicet a , , therivorn a s eyi plaque with representatioa Savioue th f centrepiecea n o s ra containind an , g also principatho etw l scenes fro scene life Jonahf mth o eth en I unde. e gourrth n angeda s introducei l d bringing to the prophet the word of the Lord. Jonah (see Plate XVIII. fig. 5) is represente reposins da e "fish, bode th th f yn o g o " whica pai f lons o r hha g earsa , fish-like tail, and an elongated, attenuated snout, which suggests a resemblance to the similar appendage of the so-called "elephant" of the Scottish sculptured stones.— Jahrhicher Vereinss de wn Althertfiumsfrcunder PJieinlande,m i Bonn, 1863, Taf. .v Thes* e belt-buckles, say Troyon. sfounl M al e grave n dsami ar ,e th f eso description, oriente d formean d f undresseo d d slabs. They contain also sword daggerd san f so damascened work, finger-rings, necklaces, and vases of coarse pottery.—Mittheilungen der Antiquariscken Gesellschafi n Zurich,i Ban . Hefdii , Zurich8 t e , th 18i4 n I . cemeter Curea l Pr f ygravee e o e d th , upoy sruinla e nth Romaf so n fortificationsd an , yielded agrafe e usuafibulad th san f lo ? Burgundian types, with bead braceletsd san , rings, and other ornaments of bronze, andswords, daggers, spears, and hatchets of iron. —Mitt, der Ant. Gessell. Zurich, Band xiv. Heft 3, Zurich, 1862. Bonstetten figures a clasp with a human figure between two lions, which was found in the cemetery of Tranche Belon. The only other things found were an iron fibula and a coin of Constantine 1st337.—r o , 5 A.D33 Recuei. Antiquitess de l Suisses, pi. xxiii. • 5 On two carved Norwegian powder-horns (which I brought from Christiania in 1872e subjectth ) partle ar s y scriptural undee . e Ev treAda repree th rd e ar man - sentee samth y edb conventional group treated almose samth en i e t manneth n i s a r catacombs t quitstyl a e sculpture ar n f th archais i eo a n d o an ,s ca d stone f Scotso - 8 39 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUAR , 187GY10 . muco s account n ho no s relatio it subjecty f m o t w o nbecaust s a ,no s i t ei of rare occurrence, ansubjece dth t generalle mighb t no t y recognisedt I . smala s i l statuette-like hala figur d f brass,n i an inchee o tw length1n s i , representing Jonah issuing from the mouth of the fish, with hands clasped

Brass Knife-handle, representing Jonah being disgorge fise th h y (Actuadb l size).

in allusion to his from the fish's belly. He is here represented as an old man with a long beard, It has evidently been a knife-handle,2

land and Ireland, though one of the horns bears the date of 1759. Thus this con- ventional representation of the Fall exhibits an absolute constancy of type through fifteen centuries. David, Samson, and Daniel are also represented, but instead of the lions, it is the dragon that accompanies the last-mentioned figure. 1 Bellerman describes and- figures one exactly similar in an article, entitled " Mittel- alterliche Bronze-figur des Propheten Jonas," in the " Jahrbucher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunde Kheinlande,n i n " Bonn Tafd , . an 1863.v The4 4 . ,yp seee b mo t statee rareh r sfo , that onl knowe y ar othe o him—ono nt tw r e foun t Andernach,da . t Colognea anw anothed no an , t Wesela r . Bellerman, however, suggests that they may have been part of the handles of 2 spoons used ecclesiasticall ritualistir yfo c purposes. DANIE SCULPTUREE JONAD TH LAN N HO D9 STONES39 .

similar to several of the medissval knife-handles of brass in the Museum, which are cast as figure-subjects, and are sometimes enamelled. This specimen belonge Belth lo t scollection d waan probabl,s. y founn i d Ireland. DANIEL AND JONA THN HEO " SCULPTURED STONE SCOTLANSP "O D AND CROSSE IRELANDF SO . As these conventional representations of Daniel and Jonah were so universally connected wite sepulchrath h l monument e earlth yf o s Christian Church witd e ecclesiasticaan ,hth l symbolis e Middlth f mo e Ages, it was reasonable to suppose that they might be found among the subjects represented on the sculptured stones of the early Christian time in Scotland and Ireland. This probability was strengthened by the fact, casew whicn fe i s e hth tha thesn i t e interestin t mysteriougbu s groups have been identified, they have been found to represent scenes from Scripture. It was also reasonable to suppose that the further the con- ventional representatio s removenwa d fro s originamit l localit d timyan e the greater would be its variability. This is exemplified by the fact that the variations of the representations in the catacombs are few in compari- son with those in Switzerland and France, and these fewer than those in Scotlan Irelandd dan . The early Irish sepulchral slabs bear no emblems or sculptures except e cross.e figurth th f o e1 The e usuallyar y incise d inscribean d d with simple formulae latee Th r .crosses , elaborately sculpture boln di d relief, are more rarely inscribed. The subjects of their sculptures are altogether scriptural so far as they have been recognised,2 and scarcely one-fourth of the whole remain unidentified.

1 See the exhaustive monograph, " Christian Inscriptions in Ireland," in course of publication by the Royal Archseological and Celtic Society of Ireland, edited by Miss Stokes. 2 The following are the most common of the subjects sculptured on the Irish Grosses:- 1. Adam and Eve under the tree ; 2. Cain and Abel (Cain with a club) ; 3. The Sacrifice of Isaac j 4. Samuel selecting David ; 5. Samuel and David, with an attendant carrying the Head of Goliath ; 6. David and the Lion ; 7. David playing Adoratio e Harpe o nTh th e Flighe Magi . th 8 Th ; f . o nt9 ; inte o Th Egyp . 10 ; t Baptis e Savioure Temptatioth Th f m o dog-heade. o e Saviou11 th tw ; f y no (b r d Demons) ; 12. The Five Loaves and Two Fishes; 13. The Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem Betrayale Th . . Pilat14 ;15 ; e "Washin Crucifixioe Th Hands . ghi 16 s; n; 400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 1876. majorite th f I subjectf y o sculpture e th n so d crosse Irelanf so thue dar s certainly known to be scriptural, it is reasonable to suppose that the sculptured monuments of the ecclesiastical sites of the early Scottish Church may have been similarly decorated. In point of fact, Mr West- wood, one of the best authorities, though believing that on the Scottish stones the religious subjects were very few, and the secular subjects very numerous recognised ha , Aldbae th de lio n th Davio nr stoned an d an , Sampson smitin stone th Philistinee n egth o s as bonn a w s f witja eo e hth at Inchbrayock,1 but no one seems to have thought of following up the clue, and comparing the Scottish sculptures in detail with the earlier contemporard an y cycl f Christiaeo n subject commonlo s y representen do the sepulchral monuments, and on objects of domestic and ecclesiastical use from the second to the ninth and tenth centuries. As I am only concerned, in the meantime, with the two groups representing Daniel and Jonah, I now proceed to specify the instances of their occurrenc Scottise th n Irisd eo han h sculptured monumentso t d an , indicate their identit composition yi n wite similath h r group I shav e already describe prevailins da earliee th n Churchg- e i r th ex age f d o s an , emplified in the frescoes and sculptures and other of the catacombs, the decorations of churches, and the belt-clasps from Frankish Christian interments. Lions.e Danielth d —Takingan Scotland first I ,fin d thae grouth t p representing Daniel and the lions occurs on its sculptured stones2 as follows:— e transo th crose th n 1.t Camustonsf O m.a o , paris f Monikieho , For-

17. The Transfiguration ; 18. St Michael "Weighing the Souls ; 19. The Last Judg- ment. O'lSTeil preface s "Illustrationth hi n i , o et Irisf so h Crosses, recognises "ha e dth most of these, "but the group which he identifies as the three Marys at the Sepulchre unquestionabls i three yth e Hebrewe grou th furnace e d pth whicn An si .call e hh s conjecturally " Mary Magdalene and the Seven Deadly Sins," is undoubtedly Daniel in the den amid the seven lions. He has also failed to recognise the second scene flighe oth f t into Egypt, representin transoe e downfal gth e th idol th n o f m,f o o l the west cross at Monasterboice, and the ascent of Elijah in the chariot on the shaft e samoth f e cross. Thu feweo sn r than twenty-thre f theo u subject e Iristh hn o s crosse scripturale sar . remarks hi e notica Se n s i Df eo r Stuart' sSculpturee worth n ko d Stone Archn si . 1 Jour. xiv. p. 195. Plate e Stuart'r th D e f so Se s grea t"e wor th Sculpture n ko d Stones of Scotland." 2 DANIEL AND JONAH ON THE SCULPTURED STONES. 401

farshire (Plate XVII. fig . ,Her1) e propheeth s representei t d clothed, witd s arman hhi s fully outspread ove lione th r s (compar ePlatn figo , .e7 XVI.), whic bendine h ar f lickini s a gs feet ghi . This grou s beeha p n regarded as a crucifixion,1 but there is no instance of a crucifixion repre- sented with lions therd exampln a ,an groue s ei th f peo representing Daniel similaa n i r attitud transoe th n crosa e o f m t o Kells sa Irelandn i , , while eth crucifixion wit e usuallhth y accompanying figures occupie e oppositsth e face of the transom. As Daniel was a type of the crucifixion, there is no inappropriateness in the group occupying this place on the cross. In fact, there is reason to believe that the cross itself was sometimes substituted figurfoe rth Danielf o estone Th t Ulbsterea . Caithnessn i , , bear crossa s on one side with two lions regardant, and at a little distance a figure kneelin r vesselo g t witpo , whica h h might represent Habakkuk with f pottage.o t po e 2 th 2. On the stone at Dunkeld, Daniel is represented clothed in a long tunic d witan , h outspread arms, standing betwee o pair f tw lionno s s (Plate XVII. fig, 2).3 stone th t Meigle,n ea O s representei . 3 e 4h d clothe lona n gi d tunic, and with arms partially outspread, standing between two pairs of lions, which hav placew epa eace d againshon s bodhi t y (Plate XVII. fig. 3) . 4. On one of the stones recently discovered at St Vigeans 6 the prophet

1 It is so described by Commissary Maule in his description of the Barony of Pan- mure, 1611 ,Registran e giveth n i Panmuree d t , Appendi Prefacee th o xt . xciiip , . 2 A glass vessel found at Varpelev, in Denmark, was ornamented with a group re- presenting two lions similarly regarding a double cross of the equal armed form. It is figured in the " Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed,'' 1861, p. 314. 3 He is represented with four lions in the Cathedral at Amiens ; and with five in the Cathedral at Lincoln (Arch. Jour. xxv. 6). On the cross at Kells the number of lion fours si . Prefacs hi Sculpture e n I "o eTh t d Stones of Angu Mearns,d san " Patrick Chalmers 4 states that he has not attempted to describe the figures. '' With how little success this s beenha , tried formerly, addse h " appea,y "ma r froprincipae mth l e figurth n o e Meigle stone having been said by one to represent a woman torn by dogs or wild beasts anothey b , Danie e lionse h th o t rn 'i l den." See the account of this interesting discovery of many fragments of sculptured 5 stones, includin e uppegth e rfamou th par f o t s inscribed stone Eevy b ,Duker M . , F.S.A. Scot., minister of St Vigeans, in the Proceedings, vol. ix. p. 494. I am indebted to Eev. Mr Duke for a rubbing and full-sized drawing of the group here described. 0 2 . VOLFARXI . . TII 2 40 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUAR , 1876Y10 .

is represented half length with .outspread arms touching the mouths of frvvo lions couchant eithen o (Platrm sidhi f eo XVII. fig. 4.)1 t Martin'S n O . s5 cros t s lonaa representei s e h , a full-lengt s a d h clothed figure, with two lions rampant on either side of him, with open mouths applied to his ears (Plate XVII. fig. 5). stona n O e . wit6 h moulding t Inchinnansa , Eenfrewshire appeare h , s busa s a t betwee lionso ntw , having their open mouths applie ears hi so dt (Plate XVII compard . figan , .6 e with Plate XVI. fig. 8).2 stone th t Barrochanea n 7O . groue th , p occupie lowee sth re parth f o t e figur t roo shafth cross a no r f Danies ther f mo es A fo o t .ewa l between the two lions, the sculptor has placed him over them, and under what seems a canopy, introducing the angel on one side and a figure which may be Hahakkuk on the other (Plate XVII. fig. 7). e IrisOth n h crosses Daniel appears with two, four r seveo , n lions. shafe O nth f o te churchyar e crosth n si t Kellsda s placei e h , d ine .th same panel with the three Hebrews in the furnace, while on the reverse crucifixione crose th oth fs si s figur Hi t rises i clothedi e.s a s d intan ,o narroe th wintersectioe th par f o tcrosse t slightl th s armbu f hi n,e o sar y outspread, his hands resting on the upturned heads of the two lions. In the centre of the transom of another cross which stands in the street at Kells e appearh , s with four liond witan sh arms fully outspreado Tw . of the lions are at his knees, and two above his arms, with open mouths

On a sculptured font in the Museum at Copenhagen there is a similar group, the man'1 s arms heing entirely include lionse th n d'i mouths figures "e i Guidth t I n di . e Illustr e Museu . Engelhardtth e M o "t y mb thren O e. gold pendants fount a d Brangstru Denmarkn pi probatld an fifte , th h f ycenturyo , ther representatione ear s which I cannot but regard as degraded copies of the conventional group of Daniel and the lions. See the figures of these and the interesting description by Archivary C. F. Herbst, a Corresponding Member of the Society, in the "Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed," 1866, p. 344, and pi. iv. See also the same group of Daniel with outstretched arms and his hands included in the lions' mouths on the tympanum of the door of the church at Tonnerein France, figured in Du Caumont's "Abecedaire," vol. i. p. 95. A curious representation of the group, in which Daniel appears kneel- ing, and with clasped hands, in the' modern attitude of prayer, occurs on an "ivory e Newcastlpyxth n "i e Museum s figurei t I . Wn Scott'.i d B . s "Antiquarian Gleanings," plate xxi. , ,2 On one of the gold bracteate-like plates, found at Brangstrup in Denmark, a similar bust-like figure with rudimentary arms is represented between two open- mouthed lions. (See Plate XVI. fig. 8.), DANIEL ANIJ JONAH ON THE SCULPTURED STONES; 403

close to his head. In a panel on the base of the shaft of the cross at Moone Abbey, he appears as a rude cloaked or armless figure in the midst of the seven lions.1 Other examples might be adduced from the Irish crosses, but these will e presentsufficth r fo e . Jonah and the Whale.—The representation of Jonah, which, as we have seen, was the most popular of all the Old Testament subjects in the earlier ages of the Church, does not appear at all on the Irish crosses figured by O'Neill. s rari e t ScottisI th 2even n o h s stonestreatei a d n an i d, manner which shows thae recogniseth t d conventional treatmen. e th f o t subject by the earlier Church was unfamiliar to the Scottish artists. In one case, on the stone at Dunfallandy, however, the recognised form of the " whal ecommo o " s catacombs e th n ni fairls i , y reproduced (Plate XVIII. "e dragoTh . fign 7) "whaler ." o Jonaf "o regardes leviathahe wa th s da n figures "a Booe wa dragon os th fd a f dJob ko an , "a witfeed o an httw long convoluted tail terminating like that of a fish or seal. The head was sometimes provided with ears, and usually with a crest. On the Dun- fallandy stone this monster appear nakea f o dg s le humawit e hon n figure mouths hi n i . thire Thith disgorginr ds o si g e fulscenth l n i eserie f so the story of Jonah, and its special significance on sepulchral monuments resurrectione wastypa th s f ,earlies e o tha wa th t i tn I t .representation s catacombse th n i prophee th , s representei t s onla d y half emerged, with both legs still in the throat of the beast, but in later representations he is usually represented, as at Dunfallandy, with only one leg, sometimes with beast'e onlfootth e n yon i ,s mouth.3 On the stone formerly at Woodwray, near Aberlemno, in Forfarshire, and now at Abbotsford, there occurs a representation which seems to be secone th swallowinr do gprophee store scenth th f yo n ei t (Plate XVIII.

1 " In the den were seven lions," Vulgate, Dan. chap. xiv. The sculptor of this group had evidently never seen a lion. His conception of the king of beasts is any- thin t complimentarygbu platee th O'Keill'n e i s Se . s " Irish Crosse thessr "fo e Irish examples. onle 2Th y Irish exampl f Jonaeo s thuhi s presumabl brase yth s knife-handla f eo late mediaeval date which I have figured at p. 369. representeo s s i e marbl3a H n do e bas-relie Churce th t Mari S n i ff l Popoloho ade , on a frieze ont he exterior of the Cathedral at Strasbourg, and on stained glass windows at Mans, Bourges, and Chalons-sur-Marne. 4 40 PROCEEDING SOCIETYE TH F SO , JANUAKY 10, 1876.

fig. 8). In this scene the position of the body of the prophet in the beast's mout always hwa s represente e revers th e diss th f a dtha-o e n i t gorging scene whic I hhav e just described e heabodd th , an dy being include e moutth n i hd ane legth ds only visible, dangling froe mth open jaws of the monster.1 In this case the " whale " or " dragon " of the usual conventional representations has become a four-footed beast, wit ha serpent-heade d tailt sucbu , h liberties wer t uncommoeno e th n ni later treatment of these subjects.'' thesd Ha e representations originated independentl n thii y s country, the composition of the groups would have certainly exhibited greater variation from same thath f eo t subject s treate a s e earl fixed th ydy an db Christian cycle Church th f earl eo n I y. Christian art, each subjecd ha t in its main features a well-defined traditional type, consecrated by repeti- tion, from considerewhics wa t hi d irreveren deviateo t timpossibls i t I . e to conceive separate schools of art arriving independently at such closely simila pureld an r y conventional representation f thesso e subjects. t impossibleno s i t I , however suggeso t , e channeth t whicy b l e hth

subjects of these sculptured. representations might have been introduced into Scotland directly from Rome. Bede, in his Life of Benedict Biscop,3 states tha A.Dn i t . 648, whe e returnenh d fro s pilgrimagmhi Homeo t e , he brought witpaintingm hhi f sacreo s d subjects, representatione th f o s gospel histories, and placed them in his church at Jarrow or Monkwear- mouth enteredo , wh tha"o l s tal , even those ignoran lettersf o t , might call mino e Incarnation.t e gracth th df o e " Again A.Dn i , . 685e broughh , t other pictures from Eome, this tim f sainteo subjectd san d s Ol fro e mth Testament, among whic e sacrifichth e braze f th Isaa o ed nc an serpene ar t specially mentioned.

1 See the representations on a fresco, figured by Aringhi in "Roma Subterranea," glase th sn o vesse d an l , foun39 t . Colognea dp vol. ii . , figuree "th Jahrbuche n i d r des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunder im Kheinlande," Bonn,v Heft xxxvi. Taf. 3, for early examples of this scene. 2 In the '' Hortus Deliciarum " (twelfth century) the fish swallowing Jonah is a carp. churce apse t JeaIth nS th f a shar eo f nLyo a ho s i kt ni turnes bacit kn o dwhic h disgorge serpent-headee th s Jonaho t s A . d tail commonlo s s y teaste giveth f o nt so these sculptures, and the dragonesque work of the period, the idea is descriptive of horsee Apocalypsee th th f so . " Their powe thein i s i rr tails their fo , r tails were like unto serpents, and had heads wherewith they do hurt."—Rev. ix. 19. s Vita B. B. Abbatum Wiremuth (Op. Ed. Giles), vol. iv. p. 368, 375). DANIEL AND JONAH ON THE SCULPTURED STONES. 405

o thit s verNowwa t yi ,monaster f Benedicyo t s Biscop'shi o t d an , immediate successor Ceolfrid, that King Nectan sent his famous letter in 710,1 requesting instructions and assistance to enahle him to reform the Piotish Church, and promising " that he and all his people would imitate mannee hole th th yf o rEoma d Apostolinan c Churc s muca h s theyha , sequestered at such a distance, were able to learn." This was followed in 717 "by the expulsion of the Coluuiban clergy for non-conformity, and then, says Bede ,leagua natio Picte e "d th th peacf f sha eo n o e with Northumbria, and rejoiced in being partakers of Catholic peace and truth with the Universal Church."2 Thus we see how the same cycle of Christian, subjects that prevaile t Eomda e might have been introduced into Pictland, or that portion of Scotland to which these sculptured stones are chiefly confined, through the medium of the Northumbrian Church.3 Having thus added Danie e d Jonasubjectth an l o t h s representen do e sculptureth d stone f Scotlando s t mighi , t have been expected thaI t should have endeavoured to answer the question which naturally arises, whethe more b f thest o er no ether y rudma e e representations similarly recognisabl compariny b e g them with their traditional prototypest Bu . it was no part of my purpose to do this, and if it had been, the facilities t withino y reache m nr ar Scotlan fo , s singularli d y destitut f tho e e ordinary sources of information on these interesting subjects.4 Bede's Eccles. Hist. Edit. Giles, London, 1860 . 318p , . Ibid . 335p . . onle 13Th y indicatio f datn o obtaie ew n fro sculpturee mth e coronafouns si th n di l 2 tonsur t PeterS f eo , introduced int Scottise oth h Churc thiy hb s same King Nectan i 717, whic stonee t Vigeansth S hf t o appear sa e on .n so 4 It may be desirable, however, to suggest that increased familiarity with the scope and treatment of the cycle of Christian subjects in the early ages might verify, and would no doubt greatly extend the following list, which I have hastily selected from among the rude groups on our " Scottish Sculptured Stones," and which is here given provisionally, viz. :— (1.) Adam and Eve under the tree, at Farnell and lona. (2.) Samson smiting the Philistines with the jawbone, at Inchbrayock. (3.) Elijah in the Chariot, with the bear tearin childrene gth t Meigle,a . (4.) Lionse Danieth t d Camustona , an l , Dun- keld, Meigle, St Vigeans, lona, Inchinnan, and Barrochan. (5.) Jonah and the Whale, at Dunfallandy and "Woodwray (the latter now at Abbotsford). (6.). David rending the jaws of the Lion, at Aldbar, St Andrews, Dupplin, Aberleinno, Drainie, Niggd an . (7.) David playin Harpe th t n Duppliga ,o Monifiethd nan . (9.) Joseph's budded Rod, and the young men of the house of David bringing their Rods, at JEassie. (10.e AnnunciationTh ) t Ruthwella , . (11. e VisitationTh ) t Ruthwela ,t S d an l Vigeaus. (12.Virgie Th )Childd nan t Graila , , Brechin, Kildaltou t ,Martin' anS n do s 406 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, JANUARY 10, 1876.

It is a pleasing thought—that these early sons o'f the Scottish Church exerted their skill to raise such pictured monuments over the graves of their spiritual fathers I presum r fo , e that mos f the o t e monumentmar s of ecclesiastics. What could be more appropriate than that the sacred stories which these old teachers had spent their lives in repeating should adorn their grave-stones—that when the eloquent tongue lay silent in the dust dume th , b enduring stones should still speak and edify their people? Cross, lona. (13.) The Flight into Egypt, at Ruthwell. (14.) The Temptation of dog-headeo thetw Savioue th y d (b r demons) t Hamiltoa , Kettivs.d nan (15.)e Th Healing of the Blind, at Ruthwell. (16.) Mary Magdalene washing the Saviour's feet, t Ruthwella . (17.e fouTh )r Evangelists t Camustona , . (18.) Pilate washins hi g Hands t Cannaa , . (19.e Agnu th t Joh )S d s an nDei t RuthweUa , . (20.e )Th Crucifixion, at Monifieth, Kirkcolm, &c. Move doubtful, perhaps, are the follow- ing :—The Destruction of Pharaoh's host, with the twelve tribes, on the shore of the R,ed Sea, at Dunkeld; the Burning Bush, at Meigle ; Ezekiel's Vision, at Dunkeld; Joachim and Anna at the Golden Gate, at St Vigeans and Aldbar ; Aaron making the Golden Calf, at St Vigeans ; the Downfall- of the Idol of Egypt, at St Vigeans; Trinit}e th ' (significantly accompanie eithen di e f three samro th th t casf eo ey se b e mysterious symbols), at Dunfallandy and St Madoes. The symbolism of these monuments, however separata s i , e subject, still awaitin gprocesa f demonstratioso n simila thao rt t whic bees hha n applie sculpturee th o dt d group Danief so Jonahd an l . Enoug bees hha n said fopresente rth , whe suggestes i t ni d tha "e huntintth g scenes," centaurse th othed an , r " impossible beasts," whic ofteo hs n occu Scotlandn ri , have their counterparts on other Christian monuments of the eariy ages, and are explained by the allegorical teachings of the Fathers, or by the Bestiaries and Church decorations of the early Middle Ages.

Teri'a-Cotta MuseumVasethe in , , fron Catacombthe i Alexandriasat .