International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878

Food and Foraging Ecology of African Thrush (Tuedus pellios) The Federal Polytechnic Ilaro South Western, Nigeria Okosodo E.F., Orimaye J. O., Ogunyemi O. O. Kolawole O.O.

'Department of Leisure and Tourism Management, The Federal Polytechnic, PMB 50, Ilaro, Ogun State Nigeria 2Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Management Department, Ekiti State University Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State Nigeria

Abstract litter and searching through where undisturbed or habituated to people Feeding is an indispensable activity in the life of birds. It is crucial for will feed out in the open in a similar fashion to the song thrush in their survival but the demands of food acquisition impose significant Europe, and it is also reported to crack open snails on an anvil stone challenges to both the physiology and behavior of birds. Thus, this study on the feeding ecology of African Thrush is imperative for understanding the like a song thrush. . Breeding is recorded in all months but breeding species adaptation to environments and also a crucial factor to be considered activity peaks in the wet season, which is March to September or while examining their economic status. This research study investigated the diet and foraging ecology of the African Thrush (Turdus pelios) in Federal October in West Africa, April–July in Ethiopia and November to March Polytechnic Ilaro Ogun state, Nigeria. Direct field observation method was in the rest of its range. The nest is cup shaped and rather bulky and is used to collect data for 12 months on the diet and foraging ecology of the bird species. The study area was divided into three compartments according to land constructed using plant fibers and mud lined with fine grasses, leaves use types, (developed area, Residential area, and Fallow/farmlands). The and roots. This nest is placed on a horizontal branch, in a tree fork or results show that the African Thrush consumed a variety of insects and fruits of some plant species. The insects constituted 45.3% of the diets while among vines, usually at a height lower than 10m from the ground. It earthworms 9.8%, millipedes 9.3% and plant resources made up 38.2%. The may re-use the abandoned nest of another species. The females is major diet resources were Exopropacris spp 8.60%, Ephyriodribus afrocidentalis 6.80%, Kyphopyge granulosa 4.70% and Azadirachta indica responsible for incubating the normal clutch of 2-3 eggs, although both 9.80%. African Thrush utilized the three compartments within the study area sexes feed the young. but with the percentage of utilization of habitat type highest in the Fallow/farmland area (45 %), Residential compartment (30%) and Developed compartment (25 %). The diversity index of variety insects consumed by Taxonomy complex and not fully understood. Subspecies groups Turdus pellios for both season indicates that dry season 2.783 was higher than based largely on plumage and distribution. races chiguancoides, wet season 2.358 Keywords: African Thrush, Diet, Foraging Ecology, nigrilorum, poensis and centralis have in the past been treated as races Conservation of T. olivaceus, and the first two along with saturates sometimes placed

with T. libonyana; bocagei, graueri a have also been placed INTRODUCTION with T. olivaceus. Situation still not adequately resolved (Sinclair and The African thrush or West African thrush (Turdus pelios) is Davidson 2006). Turdus pelio is not globally threatened. Widespread a passerine bird in the thrush family Turdidae. It is common in well- and fairly common to common. Abundant on Bioko; fairly common in wooded areas over much of the western part of sub-Saharan Africa, it Sudan; very common in Itombwe Mts, in DRCongo including Nigeria. It was once considered to be conspecific with the olive thrush but that has a wide range in Nigeria, this is importation (CITES 2014). species has now been split further. Populations are resident (non- Feeding is an indispensable activity in the life of birds. It is crucial for their migratory) (del Hoyo, et al, 1994) The African Thrush has dark olive- survival but the demands of food acquisition impose significant challenges to grey upperparts. The underparts show a whitish evenly brown- both the physiology and behavior of birds (Chen and Hsieh 2002). Thus, the streaked side throat, the breast is greyish brown and the flanks are study of feeding ecology is an imperative for understanding the species pale buff-orange with this colour not extending on to the lower breast, adaptation to environments and also a crucial factor to be considered while the belly and vent are white. It has a yellow-orange bill.[3] It weighs 46– examining their economic status. The diet and feeding ecology of Turdus 78g and measures 21–23 cm in length (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, pelios have been studied in Nigeria hence this research aims at providing the 2001) addtional information on the food and feeding ecology that will assist other The African thrush is normally encountered either singly or in pairs and workers interested in the management of the bird is rather shy and retiring preferring to remain in cover but will come out MATERIALS AND METHOD and gather at fruiting trees. Usually forages in the ground, flicking leaf

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878

Study Area Figure 1, Map of the Study Area

It was opened to students on November 15, 1979 on a temporary site Source: Field survey provided by its host community, the ancient town of Ilaro, Ogun State. Data Collection The first site of the Polytechnic was the premises of the Anglican Grammar School, Ilaro about half a kilometer from Ilaro township The study area was divided into three compartments according to land use junction. The Polytechnic was on this temporary site till 1983 when it types: mature forest, logged area and farmlands. The data collection on the moved to its permanent site along Ilaro/Oja-Odan Road, about three diet and feeding ecology of African harrier-hawk was made on 36 pairs kilometers from Ilaro Township. It is also about 60 kilometers from ranging in size from 2 to 3 individuals over a continuous period of 12 months Idiroko, a Nigerian Boarder town with Benin Republic. Ilaro town itself (January-December 2016). The Direct Observation method as described by is an ancient town, land locked between Lagos and Abeokuta, the Akinpelu (2004) and Okosodo et al. (2016) was used for this study. Field capital of Ogun State. The Polytechnic occupies a total of 898.116 observations with binocular (Bushnell 7×50), whenever found necessary, were hectares land area on its permanent site. Access to Ilaro and indeed made early in the morning or late in the evening when birds actively fed with the Polytechnic can be gained from Abeokuta through Abeokuta-Lagos least disturbance. Individual pairs were followed for periods varying from 2 to Road via Papalanto [22 km] or through Abeokuta-Owode road via 5 hours during which it was usually possible to keep some birds in view at all Ibese [10km], from Lagos through Sango-Ota-Idiroko Road via Owode times but rarely possible to see all members of the group together. During [15km] and from Sagamu through Sagamu-Obele Road via Papalanto. each visit, observations were recorded on the foraging habitat, type of feeding The location of the Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro makes for easy access method employed, feeding session, number of birds, type of diets and of road traffic It has a coordinate of 6.8872° N, 2.9876° E. The rainy association with other bird species. Seasonal changes in the feeding habits of season in the area occurs from March till November while the dry season is the bird were studied. Pellets were not examined because of the height of the from December until February. Annual rainfall ranges from 1700 to 2000 mm. nests from the ground level and girth of the trees. The annual mean temperature in the area is 26 °C. Soils are predominantly ferruginous tropical, typical of the variety found in intensively weathered Data Analysis areas of basement complex formations in the rainforest zone of south-western Data collected from the observations were explored with descriptive statistics. 50 43.4 Nigeria (Mengistu, and Salami, 2007) The soils are well-drained, mature, red, The computer PAST Model version 3 was used to analyze38.2 bird species 40 diversity, generalized linear model, and SHE analysis. stony and gravelly in upper parts of the sequence. The texture of topsoil in the 30 area is mainly sandy loam. The school compound is design to retain RESULTS 20 9.4 9 indeginous tree species and some exotic and ornamental whre also planted 10 Observation% 0 making it eco-friendly (Isichei, 1995). The natural vegetation of the area is From the result obtained it indicates that African Thrush (Turdus pelios) tropical rainforest characterized by emergent with multiple canopies and consumed variety of food ranging from insects, earthworms,millipedes and lianas. Some of the most commonly found trees in the area include Melicia fruits, seeds, leaves and flowers of plant species. It was observed that the excelsa, Afzelia bipindensis, Brachystegia Nigeria, Lovoa trichiliodes, major diet of Turdus pelios were the insects and plant resources followed by Terminalia ivorensis, Terminalia superba, and Triplochiton scleroxylon. earthworms and millipedes Typesin the of study Diet area. Consumed (Figure2). The result also However, the natural vegetation of the area except for the areas devoted to indicates that Exopropacris spp.belonging to Acrididae family is the most farmland has now been reduced to secondary regrowth forest thickets and consumed insect (8.60%) and Azadirachta indica (9.80%) belonging to grassland (Keay, 1989). Meliaceae family is the most plant resources consumed by Turdus pellios in the study area (Figure 3).The result of the habitat utilization

indicates that Turdus pellios utilized Farm/fallow compartment (45%)

and this was followed by residential area 30% (Figure 4). The result of the Shannon diversity index of the insects consumed indicates that it was higher in the dry season 2.783 than wet season 2.538. SHE analysis and

Multiple Generalized Model (t dependent and n independent) of the Insects Species Consumed Turdus pelios in the Study Area was analyzed by Past Model (Figure 5 and 6). Checklist of insects, earthworms, millipedes and plant resources consumed by Turdus pellios is shown in Table 2, 3 and 4)

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878

Figure 4, Percentage of Utilization of Habitat type in the Study Area

45%

30% Figure 2 Food Types25% of Turdus pelios in the Study Area

Percentage 9.80% 8.60% 6.80% 4.70% Figure 5: SHE Analysis of Insects Species Diversity consumed by Turdus Developed Residential Farm/Fallow pelios in the Study Area Area Area Area Compartments

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Percentage 5.4 Figure 3, Major Diets ofMajor Turdus Food pelios Types in the Study Area 4.8

4.2

3.6

Table 1 Diversity of Insects Consumed in the Study B 3

2.4

1.8

1.2

0.6

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Area during Dry Season Dry Wet Diversity index season Lower Upper Season Lower Upper

Taxa_S 58 17 26 58 16 24

Individuals 31 31 31 25 25 25

Dominance_D 0.09856 0.02492 0.07794 0.1138 0.02415 0.0778

Shannon_H 2.783 1.957 2.488 2.538 2.028 2.582

Evenness_e^H/S 0.2786 0.4006 0.4829 0.2181 0.4684 0.5518

Brillouin 1.114 1.329 1.693 1.075 1.364 1.714

Menhinick 8.801 2.58 3.945 10.03 2.767 4.15

Margalef 16.6 4.659 7.28 17.71 4.66 7.145

Equitability_J 0.6853 0.6852 0.7694 0.625 0.7315 0.8126

ln S ln E

H

4.2

3.6 3

y

t

i

s 2.4

r

e

v

i 1.8 D 1.2 0.6

0 -0.6

Figure 6, Multiple32.5 Generalized35 37.5 40 Model42.5 (t dependent45 47.5 50 and52.5 n independent) of the Insects Species Consumed Turdus pelios in the Study Area N

Table 2 Checklist of Insect Species and the Parts consumed by Turdus pelios in the Study Area

Parts Observations Name of Insects Family Order Eaten % Exopropacris spp. Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 8.6 Glypsus conspicus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.3

Lygaeus rivularis Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 Eumennes maxillosus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.6

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Ropalidia cincta Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.5 Acridium perigrinum Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.4 Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa unicolor Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.6

Catharsius sp Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 4.3 Epistaurus succineus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.7 Exopropacris spp. Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 4.4 Oedaleus nigeiensis Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 Calepphorus compressicornis Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 Pyrgamorpha vignaudi Pyrgomorphidae Orthoptera Whole 0.1 Zonocerus vignaudi Pyrgomorphidae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 Brachytypes membranceus Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 0.3 Melanogryllus morria Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 0.5 Gryllodes sigillarus Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 2.1 Dancus Chrysippus Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.06 Acreaea anacreaon Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1

Pyrene sp Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1

Coniesta sp. Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1

Appias drusilla Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3

Aphrissa statira Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.4

Kricogonia lyside Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3

Ascia monuste Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3

Phoebis argante Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.4

Eunica tatila Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.5 Euptoieta Claudia Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.5

Hypolimnas Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.03

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 hysius

Mycelia antholia Pierida Lepidoptera Whole 0.08 Archmestra teleboas Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.04 Atoconeura luxata Libellulidae Odonata Whole 0.01 Atoconeura biordinata Libellulidae Odonata Whole 0.03 Paragomphus sabicus Gomphidae Odonata Whole 0.02 Ictinogomphus frassri Gomphidae Odonata Whole 0.08 Notogomphus Adult spinosus Gomphidae Odonata Winged 0.02 Macrotermes Adult bellicosus Termitidae Isopterea Winged 0.1 Macrotermes Adult natalensis Termitidae Isoptera Winged 0.09 Campinotus Adult pinnilucnicus Formicidae Hymenoptera Winged 0.05 Adult termopsidae Formicidae Hymenoptera Winged 4.4

Rhinotermitidae Formicidae Hymenoptera Whole 0.05

Anapha venata Notodontidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.08 Anaphe reticulata Notodontidae Lepidoptera Whole 5.7 Adult Anaphe infracta Notodontidae Lepidoptera Winged 0.02 Adult Cicadidae Homoptera Ugada sp Winged 0.08 Glypsus Adult Pentatomidae Hemiptera conspicus Winged 0.01 Adult Lygaeidae Heteroptera Lygaeus rivularis Winged 0.03 Anopocnemis Adult Coreidae Heteroptera curvipes Winged 0.04 Eumenes Adult Eumenidae Heteroptera maxillosus Winged 3.6 Adult Vespidae Ropalodia cincta Hymenoptera Winged 1.2 Phragmataecia Adult

Cossidae fuscifusa Lepidoptera Winged 0.03

Tanyterys pryeri Petalurdae Lepidoptera Whole 0.05

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Gymnopleurus Scarabaeidae sp. Coleoptera Larva 0.06 Pachnoda Scarabaeidae marginata Dry Coleoptera Larva 0.07

Anomala mixta F Scarabaeidae Coleoptera Larva 0.03 Campinotus pinnilucnicus Formicidae Hymenoptera Larva 0.05 termopsidae Formicidae Hymenoptera Larva 0.07

Rhinotermitidae Formicidae Hymenoptera Larva 0.05

Table 3 Earthworms and Millipedes Species Parts Consumed in the Study Area

Earthworms Parts Observation Species Family Order Eaten s% Ephyriodribus afrocidentalis Almidae Haplotoxida Whole 0.7 Euabribus eugenriae Almidae Haplotoxida Whole 6.8 Paropolytorentus Eudrilidae abiensis Haplotoxida Whole 1.2 Libyolribus mericonsis Acanthodrilidae Opisthopora Whole 1.1 Millipedes 9.8 Kyphopyge granulosa Chelodesmidae 4.7 Kyphopyge sp. Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 0.6 Kyphopyge sp. Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 2.2 Cordyloporus aubryi Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 0.7 Paracordyloporus dilatatus Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 1.1 9.3

Table 4 Plant Species and Parts Utilized by the Turdus pelios in the Study Area

Observations Name of Plant Species Family Parts Eaten %

Ficus Thoniigii Moraceae Fruits 5.5

Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Fruits 9.8 Spondia mombin Sapindaceae Fruits 5.5

Dalium qiunense Fabaceae Fruits 4.4

Cathium hispicum Apocynaceae Seeds 2.1

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Flowers and Moringaceae Moriga Oliveri Leaves 5.7

Maagnifera indica Anacardiaceae Fruits 4.4 Blighia Sapida Sapindaceae Fruits 0.8 38.2 DISCUSSION From a general dietary perspective, Turdus pelios, fed more on several varieties of insects, earthworm worms, millipedes and fruits leaves and flowers of of plant species. This is supported by various authors Greenlaw, 2007 who reported that Turdus pelios consumed insects, earth worm and fruits of Azadirachta indica in South Africa. Dorn, et al, (2011) reported that the insects formed the major bulk of Turdus pelios matter and numerically important ones were the Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Isoptera which accounted for almost two-thirds of the insects.Heinrich, and Morrison, (1990) reported that the proportion of arthropods in the diet probably increases during the breeding season because protein is particularly important for developing offspring. Foraging is crepuscular and fruit, especially that of the nim Azadarichta indica, as well as figs, papaya, berries and seeds, makes up most of the diet supplemented with invertebrates and the occasional small fish. Hockey, et al, (2000) reported that Turdus pelios consumed mainly locust, grasshoppers, termites, caterpillars, earthworms and butterflies, using a

It was observed that they switch their diet to take supplements from fruits and pods of some plant species which is not seasonal but depends on the available food resources. These observations occurred majorly during the wet seasons which is their breeding seasons. These findings is in agreement with Mckilligan, (2005) (2005) reported that Turdus pelios are general insectivorous, partly add fruits to their diet, which includes large insects especially locusts, grasshopper, especially earthworms, millipedes and fruits. Morse, 2005 reported that insect are important food resource for birds irrespective of their feeding mode. Klassing 2000 reported the diet of Turdus pelios and other insectivorous constituted about eighty percent of insects in their diet. Onadeko, (2011) reported that the species of insect consumed often depend on the bird species and its stage in life.(Akinpelu and Oyedipe, (2004) reported that in terms of nutritional value, insect diet is adequate; because it is rich in easily digestible protein and fat although the digestibility of various parts largely depends on their chitin content Insect diet studied by collection of insectivorous passerines affirmed that birds exhibit preference for certain insect orders, as they fed primarily on insect Orders Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Diptera thereby generating 36%, 23%, 12% and 9% insect remains in their droppings respectively. Asokan (1998) found that Hymenopterans (dominated by ants) and Coleopterans (dominated by beetles were the principal food items of the Bee-eater Merops oreintalis in Nagapattinan District, India. During the period of this study, it was observed that Turdus pelios starts their daily activities 6.15 hours in the morning and end their daily activities by 18.00 hours. During field encounters during Data collection, it was observed that most their feeding is the ground level, feeding on insects earthworms and millipedes. Sometimes they feed on variety of resources in one day which include insects and plant resources. Within intervals they make short flies and run on the ground. During the breeding period they fed more on insects than plants resources. These fed observations is supported by the following authors. Klasing 2000 reported that protein increased in insectivorous diet from 1.8% to 55% when breeding (Burton, 1998) reported that the presence of these groups of different species of insects for foraging was more frequent on the ground than in the air, he stressed further that this observation buttressed the fact that the birds were poor fliers. Black and Ross, (2005) reported that Turdus pelios specializes in using its legs to extract food from ground. The percentage of utilization was higher in the farms/fallow areas compartments than the rest two compartments. This could be linked to preferred food availability or ecological requirements of these birds. These observations in agreement with work of Brown, and Amadon, (2012) who reported that the Turdus peliosfrequents a variety of landscapes throughout its range in central and southern Africa, including forest, woodland, and savannah. It is most often found at the top of tall trees fringing the larger rivers or in hilly country where there are deep ravines and steep hillsides. CONCLUSION The results of this study clearly indicate that Turdus pelios consumed insects, earthworms, millipedes and fruits, leaves and flowers of some plant species resources available to them in the study area. But, compared to fruits, the insects are consumed in larger proportions. The Turdus pelios, therefore, help in the suppression of insects and help to substain the capacity in the ecosystem and the Turdus pelios are useful species for farmers and keep to check on various harmful insects like grasshoppers, beetles, termites, and caterpillars etc., which are injurious. They also help in the dispersal of seeds. To the agricultural crops.

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are very grateful to the staff and management of the Federal Polytechnic and especially the Head of department of Leisure and Tourism Management for their support during the period of the study

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 REFERENCES

Akinpelu, A.I. & O.A. Oyedipe. 2004. A Twelve-month field study of the West African Thrush Turdus pelios (Passeriformes: Muscicapidae). Part 1: food and feeding ecology. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52: 1001-1007

Asokan, S. (1998). Food and feeding habits of a small green bee-eater Merops orientalis in Mayiladuthurai. Journal of Eco biology, 10(3), 199-204.

Chen, C. & F. Hsieh (2002): Composition and foraging behavior of mixed-species flocks led by the Grey-cheeked Fulvetta in Fushan Experimental Forest, Taiwan. Ibis 144: 317–330

CITES 2014) http://www.cites.org/ Del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. and Sargatal, J. (1994) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Dorn, N.J., Cook, M.I., Herring, G., Boyle, R.A., Nelso, J. and Gawlik, D.E. (2011). Aquatic prey switching and urban foraging by the White Ibis Eudocimus albus are determined by wetland hydrological conditions. Ibis, 153, 323-335. Ferguson-Lees, J. and Christie, D.A. (2001) Raptors of the World. Helm Identification Guides, A & C Black Publishers, London. Fogden, M.P.L. 29. The seasonality and population dynamics of equatorial forest birds in Sarawak. Ibis 114: 307-343.

Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ and Ryan PG 2005. Roberts - Birds of southern Africa, VIIth Ed. The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Pp45

Isichei, (1995). Omo Biosphere Reserve, Current Status, Utilization of Biological Resources and Sustainable Management (Nigeria). Working Papers of the South-South Cooperation Program on Environmentally Sound Socio-Economic Development in the Humid Tropics. UN ESCO, Paris

Keay.R.W.J.,(1989), Trees of Nigeria. A review version of Nigerian trees (1960, 1964) by R. W. J Keay, C. F. A Onochie and D. P Strandfield. Claridon Press Oxford University press: Pp 476 pp

Klasing, K. C. (2000). Comparative Avian Nutrition. C ABI Publishing.

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Mengistu, and Salami. (2007). Application of remote sensing and GIS inland use/land cover mapping and change detection in a part of south western Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Vol. 1 (5), pp. 099 -109

Morrison, M.L., and C.J. Ral P h, J. Verner & J.R. jehl jr. (Eds) (1990): Avian foraging: theory, methodology, and applications. Studies in Avian Biology No. 13. Cooper Ornithological Society, California

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Taxonomy complex and not fully understood. Subspecies groups Abstract based largely on plumage and distribution. races chiguancoides, Feeding is an indispensable activity in the life of birds. It is crucial for nigrilorum, poensis and centralis have in the past been treated as races their survival but the demands of food acquisition impose significant International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) challenges to both the physiology and behavior of birds. Thus, this study on of T. olivaceus, and the first two along with saturates sometimes placed the feeding ecology of African Thrush is imperative for understanding the Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 with T. libonyana; bocagei, graueri a have also been placed species adaptation to environments and also a crucial factor to be considered ISSN: 2456-1878 while examining their economic status. This research study investigated the with T. olivaceus. Situation still not adequately resolved (Sinclair and diet and foraging ecology of the African Thrush (Turdus pelios) in Federal Davidson 2006). Turdus pelio is not globally threatened. Widespread Polytechnic Ilaro Ogun state, Nigeria. Direct field observation method was used to collect data for 12 months on the diet and foraging ecology of the bird and fairly common to common. Abundant on Bioko; fairly common in species. The study area was divided into three compartments according to land Sudan; very common in Itombwe Mts, in DRCongo including Nigeria. It use types, (developed area, Residential area, and Fallow/farmlands). The results show that the African Thrush consumed a variety of insects and fruits has a wide range in Nigeria, this is important (CITES 2014). of some plant species. The insects constituted 45.3% of the diets while earthworms 9.8%, millipedes 9.3% and plant resources made up 38.2%. The Feeding is an indispensable activity in the life of birds. It is crucial for their major diet resources were Exopropacris spp 8.60%, Ephyriodribus afrocidentalis 6.80%, Kyphopyge granulosa 4.70% and Azadirachta indica survival but the demands of food acquisition impose significant challenges to 9.80%. African Thrush utilized the three compartments within the study area both the physiology and behavior of birds (Chen and Hsieh 2002). Thus, the but with the percentage of utilization of habitat type highest in the Fallow/farmland area (45 %), Residential compartment (30%) and Developed study of feeding ecology is an imperative for understanding the species compartment (25 %). The diversity index of variety insects consumed by adaptation to environments and also a crucial factor to be considered while Turdus pellios for both season indicates that dry season 2.783 was higher than wet season 2.358 examining their economic status. The diet and feeding ecology of Turdus Keywords: African Thrush, Diet, Foraging Ecology, pelios have been studied in Nigeria hence this research aims at providing the Conservation addtional information on the food and feeding ecology that will assist other INTRODUCTION workers interested in the management of the bird

MATERIALS AND METHOD The African thrush or West African thrush (Turdus pelios) is a passerine bird in the thrush family Turdidae. It is common in well- Study Area wooded areas over much of the western part of sub-Saharan Africa, it It was opened to students on November 15, 1979 on a temporary site was once considered to be conspecific with the olive thrush but that provided by its host community, the ancient town of Ilaro, Ogun State. species has now been split further. Populations are resident (non- The first site of the Polytechnic was the premises of the Anglican migratory) (Del Hoyo, et al, 1994) The African Thrush has dark olive- Grammar School, Ilaro about half a kilometer from Ilaro township grey upperparts. The underparts show a whitish evenly brown- junction. The Polytechnic was on this temporary site till 1983 when it streaked side throat, the breast is greyish brown and the flanks are moved to its permanent site along Ilaro/Oja-Odan Road, about three pale buff-orange with this colour not extending on to the lower breast, kilometers from Ilaro Township. It is also about 60 kilometers from the belly and vent are white. It has a yellow-orange bill.[3] It weighs 46– Idiroko, a Nigerian Boarder town with Benin Republic. Ilaro town itself 78g and measures 21–23 cm in length (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, is an ancient town, land locked between Lagos and Abeokuta, the 2001) capital of Ogun State. The Polytechnic occupies a total of 898.116 The African thrush is normally encountered either singly or in pairs and hectares land area on its permanent site. Access to Ilaro and indeed is rather shy and retiring preferring to remain in cover but will come out the Polytechnic can be gained from Abeokuta through Abeokuta-Lagos and gather at fruiting trees. Usually forages in the ground, flicking leaf Road via Papalanto [22 km] or through Abeokuta-Owode road via litter and searching through where undisturbed or habituated to people Ibese [10km], from Lagos through Sango-Ota-Idiroko Road via Owode will feed out in the open in a similar fashion to the song thrush in [15km] and from Sagamu through Sagamu-Obele Road via Papalanto. Europe, and it is also reported to crack open snails on an anvil stone The location of the Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro makes for easy access like a song thrush. . Breeding is recorded in all months but breeding of road traffic it has a coordinate of 6.8872° N, 2.9876° E. The rainy activity peaks in the wet season, which is March to September or season in the area occurs from March till November while the dry season is October in West Africa, April–July in Ethiopia and November to March from December until February. Annual rainfall ranges from 1700 to 2000 mm. in the rest of its range. The nest is cup shaped and rather bulky and is The annual mean temperature in the area is 26 °C. Soils are predominantly constructed using plant fibers and mud lined with fine grasses, leaves ferruginous tropical, typical of the variety found in intensively weathered and roots. This nest is placed on a horizontal branch, in a tree fork or areas of basement complex formations in the rainforest zone of south-western among vines, usually at a height lower than 10m from the ground. It Nigeria (Mengistu, and Salami, 2007) The soils are well-drained, mature, red, may re-use the abandoned nest of another species. The females is stony and gravelly in upper parts of the sequence. The texture of topsoil in the responsible for incubating the normal clutch of 2-3 eggs, although both area is mainly sandy loam. The school compound is design to retain sexes feed the young. indeginous tree species and some exotic and ornamental whre also planted making it eco-friendly (Isichei, 1995). The natural vegetation of the area is 251

tropical rainforest characterized by emergent with multiple canopies and earthworms and millipedes in the study area. (Figure2). The result also lianas. Some of the most commonly found trees in the area include Melicia indicates that Exopropacris spp.belonging to Acrididae family is the most excelsa, Afzelia bipindensis, Brachystegia Nigeria, Lovoa trichiliodes, consumed insect (8.60%) and Azadirachta indica (9.80%) belonging to Terminalia ivorensis, Terminalia superba, and Triplochiton scleroxylon. International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Meliaceae family is the most Vol plant-1, Issue resources-2, July consumed-Aug- 2019 by Turdus However, the natural vegetation of the area except for the areas devoted to pellios in the study area (FigureISSN: 3).The 2456 result-1878 of the habitat utilization farmland has now been reduced to secondary regrowth forest thickets and indicates that Turdus pellios utilized Farm/fallow compartment (45%) grassland (Keay, 1989). and this was followed by resindential area 30% (Figure 4). The result of the Shannon diversity index of the insects consumed indicates that it was

higher in the dry season 2.783 than wet season 2.538. SHE analysis and Multiple Generalized Model (t dependent and n independent) of the Insects Species Consumed Turdus pelios in the Study Area was analysed by Past

Model (Figere 5 and 6). Checklist of insects, earthworms, millipedes and plant resources consumed by Turdus pellios is shown in Table 2,3 and 4)

Figure 1, Map of the Study Area

Source: Field survey

Data Collection

The study area was divided into three compartments according to land use Figure 2 Food Types of Turdus pelios in the Study Area types: mature forest, logged area and farmlands. The data collection on the 9.80% diet and feeding ecology of African harrier-hawk was made on 36 pairs 8.60% ranging in size from 2 to 3 individuals over a continuous period of 12 months 6.80% 4.70% (January-December 2016). The Direct Observation method as described by Akinpelu (2004) and Okosodo et al. (2016) was used for this study. Field observations with binocular (Bushnell 7×50), whenever found necessary, were made early in the morning or late in the evening when birds actively fed with least disturbance. Individual pairs were followed for periods varying from 2 to

5 hours during which it was usually possible to keep some birds in view at all Percentage times but rarely possible to see all members of the group together. During Figure 3, Major Diets ofMajor Turdus Food pelios Types in the Study Area each visit, observations were recorded on the foraging habitat, type of feeding method employed, feeding session, number of birds, type of diets and association with other bird species. Seasonal changes in the feeding habits of the bird were studied. Pellets were not examined because of the height of the nests from the ground level and girth of the trees. Figure 4, Percentage of Utilization of Habitat type in the Study Area

Data Analysis Data collected from the observations were explored with descriptive statistics. 45% 43.4 The computer PAST Model version 3 was used to analyze bird species 50 38.2 40 diversity, generalized linear model, and SHE analysis. 30% 30 25% RESULTS 20 9.4 9 10

From the result obtained it indicates that African Thrush (Turdus pelios) Observation% 0 Percentage consumed variety of food ranging from insects, earthworms,millipedes and fruits, seeds, leaves and flowers of plant species. It was observed that the Figure 5: SHE Analysis of Insects Species Diversity consumed by Turdus major diet of TurdusDeveloped pelios wereResidential the insects andFarm/Fallow plant resources followed by pelios in the Study Area Area Area Area Types of Diet Consumed Compartments 252

6

5.4

4.8

4.2

3.6

B 3

2.4

1.8

1.2

0.6

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A

International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 Table 1 Diversity of Insects Consumed in the Study ISSN: 2456-1878

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Area during Dry Season Eumennes Dry Wet maxillosus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.6 Diversity index season Lower Upper Season Lower Upper Ropalidia

Taxa_S 58 17 26 58 16 24 cincta Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.5 Acridium Individuals 31 31 31 25 25 25 perigrinum Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.4 Dominance_D 0.09856 0.02492 0.07794 0.1138 0.02415 0.0778 Cyrtacanthacri Shannon_H 2.783 1.957 2.488 2.538 2.028 2.582 s aeruginosa Evenness_e^H/S 0.2786 0.4006 0.4829 0.2181 0.4684 0.5518 unicolor Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.6

Brillouin 1.114 1.329 1.693 1.075 1.364 1.714 Catharsius sp Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 4.3

Menhinick 8.801 2.58 3.945 10.03 2.767 4.15 Epistaurus succineus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.7 Margalef 16.6 4.659 7.28 17.71 4.66 7.145 Exopropacris Equitability_J 0.6853 0.6852 0.7694 0.625 0.7315 0.8126 spp. Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 4.4 Oedaleus ln S ln E nigeiensis Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 H Calepphorus compressicorni

s Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 4.2

3.6 Pyrgamorpha Pyrgomorphid 3 vignaudi ae Orthoptera Whole 0.1

y

t i Zonocerus Pyrgomorphid

s 2.4

r

e

v

i 1.8 vignaudi ae Orthoptera Whole 0.2

D 1.2 Brachytypes 0.6 membranceus Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 0.3 0 Melanogryllus -0.6 morria Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 0.5 Figure 6, Multiple32.5 Generalized35 37.5 40 Model42.5 (t 45dependent47.5 50 and52.5 n independent) of Gryllodes the Insects Species Consumed Turdus Npelios in the Study Area sigillarus Gryllidae Orthoptera Whole 2.1

Dancus Chrysippus Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.06 Table 2 Checklist of Insect Species and the Parts consumed by Acreaea Turdus pelios in the Study Area anacreaon Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1

Pyrene sp Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1

Name of Parts Observatio Coniesta sp. Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.1 Insects Family Order Eaten ns % Appias drusilla Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3 Exopropacris Aphrissa spp. Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 8.6 statira Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.4 Glypsus Kricogonia conspicus Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.3 lyside Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3

Lygaeus Ascia monuste Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.3 rivularis Acrididae Orthoptera Whole 0.2 Phoebis Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.4

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 argante Adult Glypsus Pentatomidae Hemiptera Winge Eunica tatila Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.5 conspicus d 0.01 Euptoieta Adult Claudia Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.5 Lygaeus Lygaeidae Heteroptera Winge Hypolimnas rivularis d 0.03 hysius Pieridae Lepidoptera Whole 0.03 Adult Mycelia Anopocnemis Coreidae Heteroptera Winge antholia Pierida Lepidoptera Whole 0.08 curvipes d 0.04 Archmestra Adult teleboas Nymphalidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.04 Eumenes Eumenidae Heteroptera Winge Atoconeura maxillosus d 3.6 luxata Libellulidae Odonata Whole 0.01 Adult Atoconeura Ropalodia Vespidae Hymenopte Winge biordinata Libellulidae Odonata Whole 0.03 cincta ra d 1.2 Paragomphus Adult Phragmataeci Whole 0.02 sabicus Gomphidae Odonata Cossidae Winge a fuscifusa Ictinogomphus Lepidoptera d 0.03 frassri Gomphidae Odonata Whole 0.08 Tanyterys Petalurdae Adult pryeri Lepidoptera Whole 0.05 Notogomphus Winge Gymnopleurus spinosus Scarabaeidae Gomphidae Odonata d 0.02 sp. Coleoptera Larva 0.06 Adult Pachnoda Scarabaeidae Macrotermes Winge marginata Dry Coleoptera Larva 0.07 bellicosus Termitidae Isopterea d 0.1 Anomala mixta Scarabaeidae Adult F Coleoptera Larva 0.03 Macrotermes Winge Campinotus Hymenopte Isoptera 0.09 natalensis Termitidae d pinnilucnicus Formicidae ra Larva 0.05 Adult Hymenopte Campinotus Hymenopte Winge termopsidae Formicidae ra Larva 0.07 pinnilucnicus Formicidae ra d 0.05 Rhinotermitida Hymenopte Adult e Formicidae ra Larva 0.05 Hymenopte Winge termopsidae Formicidae ra d 4.4 Hymenopte Rhinotermitida Table 3 Earthworms and Millipedes Species Parts Consumed in e Formicidae ra Whole 0.05 the Study Area Anapha venata Notodontidae Lepidoptera Whole 0.08 Earthworms Parts Observation Anaphe Species Family Order Eaten s% reticulata Notodontidae Lepidoptera Whole 5.7 Ephyriodribus Adult Anaphe Winge afrocidentalis Almidae Haplotoxida Whole 0.7 infracta Notodontidae Lepidoptera d 0.02 Euabribus Adult eugenriae Almidae Haplotoxida Whole 6.8 Cicadidae Homoptera Winge Paropolytorentus Eudrilidae Ugada sp d 0.08 abiensis Haplotoxida Whole 1.2

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 Libyolribus consumed mainly locust, grasshoppers, termites, caterpillars, earthworms mericonsis Acanthodrilidae Opisthopora Whole 1.1 and butterflies, using a Millipedes 9.8 It was observed that they switch their diet to take supplements from fruits

Kyphopyge and pods of some plant species which is not seasonal but depends on the granulosa Chelodesmidae 4.7 available food resources. These observations occurred majorly during the Kyphopyge sp. Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 0.6 wet seasons which is their breeding seasons. These findings is in Kyphopyge sp. Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 2.2 agreement with Mckilligan, (2005) (2005) reported that Turdus pelios Cordyloporus are general insectivorous, partly add fruits to their diet, which includes aubryi Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 0.7 large insects especially locusts, grasshopper, especially earthworms, Paracordyloporus millipedes and fruits. Morse, 2005 reported that insect are important dilatatus Chelodesmidae Polydesmida parts 1.1 food resource for birds irrespective of their feeding mode. Klassing 2000 9.3 reported the diet of Turdus pelios and other insectivorous constituted about eighty percent of insects in their diet. Table 4 Plant Species and Parts Utilized by the Turdus pelios in Onadeko, (2011) reported that the species of insect consumed often the Study Area depend on the bird species and its stage in life.(Akinpelu and Oyedipe, Observations (2004) reported that in terms of nutritional value, insect diet is Name of Plant Species Family Parts Eaten % adequate; because it is rich in easily digestible protein and fat although Ficus Thoniigii Moraceae Fruits 5.5 the digestibility of various parts largely depends on their chitin content Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Fruits 9.8 Insect diet studied by collection of insectivorous passerines affirmed that Spondia mombin Sapindaceae Fruits 5.5 birds exhibit preference for certain insect orders, as they fed primarily on Dalium qiunense Fabaceae Fruits 4.4 insect Orders Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Diptera thereby

Cathium hispicum Apocynaceae Seeds 2.1 generating 36%, 23%, 12% and 9% insect remains in their droppings Flowers and respectively. Asokan (1998) found that Hymenopterans (dominated by Moringaceae Moriga Oliveri Leaves 5.7 ants) and Coleopterans (dominated by beetles were the principal food items of the Bee-eater Merops oreintalis in Nagapattinan District, India. Maagnifera indica Anacardiaceae Fruits 4.4 During the period of this study, it was observed that Turdus pelios starts Blighia Sapida Sapindaceae Fruits 0.8 their daily activities 6.15 hours in the morning and end their daily 38.2 activities by 18.00 hours. During field encounters during Data collection, DISCUSSION it was observed that most their feeding is the ground level, feeding on From a general dietary perspective, Turdus pelios, fed more on several insects earthworms and millipedes. Sometimes they feed on variety of varieties of insects, eartworm worms, millipedes and fruits leaves and resources in one day which include insects and plant resouces. Within flowers of of plant species. This is supported by various authors intervals they make short flies and run on the ground. During the breeding Greenlaw, 2007 who reported that Turdus pelios consumed insects, earth period they fed more on insects than plants resources. These fed worm and fruits of Azadirachta indica in South Africa. Dorn,et al, observations is supported by the following authors. Klasing 2000 reported (2011) reported that the insects formed the major bulk of Turdus that protein increased in insectivorous diet from 1.8% to 55% when pelios matter and numerically important ones were the Orthoptera, breeding (Burton, 1998) reported that the presence of these groups Coleoptera and Isoptera which accounted for almost two-thirds of of different species of insects for foraging was more frequent on the insects.Heinrich, and Morrison, (1990) reported that the proportion the ground than in the air,he stressed futher that this observation of arthropods in the diet probably increases during the breeding season buttressed the fact that the birds were poor fliers.Black and Ross, because protein is particularly important for developing offspring. (2005) reported that Turdus pelios specialises in using its legs to extract Foraging is crepuscular and fruit, especially that of the food from ground. nim Azadarichta indica, as well as figs, papaya, berries and seeds, The percentage of utilization was higher in the farms/fallow areas makes up most of the diet supplemented with invertebrates and the compartments than the rest two compartments. This could be linked to occasional small fish. Hockey, et al, (2000) reported that Turdus pelios preferred food availability or ecological requirements of these birds. These

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International Journal of, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-1, Issue-2, July-Aug- 2019 ISSN: 2456-1878 observations in agreement with work of Brown, and Amadon, (2012) who reported that the Turdus peliosfrequents a variety of landscapes throughout its range in central and southern Africa, including forest, woodland, and savannah. It is most often found at the top of tall trees fringing the larger rivers or in hilly country where there are deep ravines and steep hillsides. CONCLUSION The results of this study clearly indicate that Turdus pelios consumed insects, earthworms, millipedes and fruits,leaves and flowers of some plant species resources available to them in the study area. But, compared to fruits, the insects are consumed in larger proportions. The Turdus pelios , therefore, help in the suppression of insects and help to substain the capacity in the ecosystem and the Turdus pelios are useful species for farmers and keep to check on various harmful insects like grasshoppers, beetles, termites, caterpillars etc., which are injurious. They also help in the dispersal of seeds. to the agricultural crops.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are very grateful to the staff and management of the Federal Polytechnic and especially the Head of department of Leisure and Tourism Management for their support during the period of the study

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