Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment Nancy P. Gallavan and Teresa A. Roberts In the spring of 1942, nearly We supported our families; we hon- detained for almost three and a half years 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry ored our culture; we believed in at 10 WRA camps scattered across the 7 living along the west coast of the United our country. We never thought to western United States. The internees States were ordered to evacuate their display any civil disobedience. The were gradually released throughout 1945, homes and abandon their businesses. U.S.A. was our home too. the year World War II ended. For most These federal orders, giving Japanese Japanese Americans, their re-entry into and Japanese Americans just a few days —Reflections from an 80-year-old the U.S. mainstream was a slow and 8 warning before being rounded up and Japanese American internment painful process. sent to internment camps, came less camp detainee than four months after Japan’s attack Honoring Fred Korematsu on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent One of the best-known Japanese United States entry into World War and Utah also were designated military Americans who fought the intern- II. Two-thirds of those evacuated from areas. ment orders was Fred Korematsu. their homes were American-born citi- Then, on March 18, President Korematsu, who was born in Oakland, zens. More than half were children, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9102 California, was in his early twenties exiled only because their parents had creating the War Relocation Authority, when he refused to report for trans- been born in Japan.1 Evacuees were not (WRA) which established the orderly portation to an internment camp, even told how long they would be held, nor evacuation of designated persons liv- as his family and friends complied were they charged with any crimes.2 ing in the restricted military areas. Just a with government orders. Korematsu On February 19, 1942, President few days later, on March 21, Roosevelt insisted that “it was wrong to subject Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive signed Public Law 503 making it a fed- innocent people to this treatment with- Order 9066, giving the military com- eral crime for anyone to disobey General out trial or any evidence of criminal mander power to select certain parts of DeWitt’s orders.4 behavior”… and that the evacuation the West Coast as military areas. People Throughout the spring and sum- order “should be declared unconsti- considered enemies of war or a threat to mer of 1942, Civilian Exclusion Orders tutional.”9 Korematsu was found guilty national security were forbidden access directed all persons of Japanese ancestry, of violating Public Law 503; his case to those areas. On March 2, General both immigrants and U.S. citizens, to report was appealed all the way to the United John DeWitt, who had been named mil- to control stations or assembly centers, States Supreme Court. The Supreme itary commander, issued a proclamation consisting primarily of fairgrounds and Court decision upheld the exclusion designating military areas in the states of horseracing tracks.5 From there, Japanese order, and Korematsu was found guilty Washington, Oregon, California, and Americans were transported to relocation of a misdemeanor. However, the case portions of Arizona. The proclamation, centers, essentially prisons or internment provoked strong reactions on all sides known as Public Proclamation No. 1, camps constructed of wooden framed bar- for many years to come.10 excluded certain persons from these racks situated in desolate, harsh, unsani- Over time, presidents Nixon areas, specifically Japanese, German, tary sites.6 The evacuees, separated from and Ford signed bills repealing the and Italian aliens.3 On March 16, the their extended families, former neigh- law for which Korematsu was con- states of Idaho, Montana, Nevada, bors, and well-established lifestyles, were victed. In 1983, Korematsu’s case S EPTEMBER 2 0 0 5 275 (Originally, only Quakers and the ACLU officially opposed the 1942 Executive Orders. Teachers may want students to consider if the outcome might have been different had more (AP (AP Photo/Dennis Cook) people and groups publicly opposed President Clinton these actions.) The Patriot Act of presents Fred 2001 has increased scrutiny of Arab Korematsu with a Americans and various foreigners in Presidential Medal the United States, placing limitations of Freedom dur- ing a ceremony at on liberties ostensibly to protect the the White House greater society, as allowed by the U.S. Thursday, January Constitution and Bill of Rights. 15, 1998. Korematsu’s legal challenges to Teaching about Justice civilian exclusion orders during World The study of the Japanese American War II helped spur internment provides the opportunity the redress move- to engage learners (in grades 4–12) ment for Japanese- designed for reflecting on fairness, Americans. freedom, and justice. Such exercises require today’s students and teachers to step back in time and view the past through a different lens, in order to examine the world of 60 years ago. The powerful lessons learned from studying this event strongly sup- port citizenship education, democratic was reopened and the conviction set lessons of Korematsu. If more principles, and social justice. While aside.11 In 1988, President Reagan attacks come on the order of 9/11, some information on the World War II signed the Reparations Act acknowl- all bets are off. It’s when the next Japanese American internment camps is edging United States responsibility shoe drops that we’re really going available for high school and university for the injustice to Japanese Americans to test the mettle of the nation.12 students, little is written for elementary and promising payments to all living and middle school students. Mukai has internment camp detainees. Ultimately, Jamin Raskin, another professor of identified six key components for teach- in 1998, President Clinton gave law, stated, ing the World War II Japanese American Fred Korematsu the highest civilian History makes clear that, when internment: award: the U.S. Presidential Medal of national security is at issue, civil Honor. Fred Korematsu died in the liberties—rightly or wrong- • Setting context through an exam- spring of 2005 at age 86. His case ly—are among the first casual- ination of civil rights; resonates throughout the legal events ties. What seems unthinkable at playing out in the aftermath of one moment suddenly becomes • Mapping the Japanese immigra- September 11, 2001. plausible at another … the notion tion experience in the early The events connected with the of collective guilt once aimed at twentieth century; Korematsu case offer historical lessons Japanese Americans might now on fairness and freedom with which to be expressed not as wholesale • Exploring various perspectives consider similar issues of justice that have internment but as a mandate for on Japanese Americans from the arisen since September 11, 2001. As law widespread profiling. People of media following the Japanese professor Jerry Kang declared shortly after Arab ancestry could be subjected attack on Pearl Harbor; the 2001 attacks, to increased scrutiny, surveillance, It [Korematsu v. U.S.] has never or suspicion.13 • Delving into the questions been overruled … the infamous related to the concept of loy- decision is still considered ‘good Today many U.S. citizens struggle alty; law.’ I think we have too eas- to protect minorities against discrim- ily said that we have learned the ination and to safeguard civil rights. S OCIAL E DUCATION 276 • Identifying the roles and respon- Responding to Literature These two books vary in for- sibilities associated with redress The research on teaching history using mat and difficulty. The combination and reparations; and literature is increasingly abundant and of texts offers students occasions to offers many suggestions for guiding stu- understand vocabulary, delve into con- • Analyzing diverse perspectives dents in making connections with fic- tradictory viewpoints, question intri- on the Japanese American intern- tion, nonfiction, and historical fiction. cate issues, and initiate comprehension ment experience.14 Students can read about people like of the complex events of the time, par- themselves, encountering events and ticularly in contrast and comparison These components are incorporated experiencing challenges in a variety of to today. Teachers are encouraged to into this unit, which investigates the events sociocultural contexts. preview texts, select an assortment of of this era through reading and responding This unit of learning requires stu- literature to cover the span of events, to the literature, collecting oral histories, dents to familiarize themselves with and facilitate a variety of appropri- participating in a moot court, and reflect- a multitude of events and juxtaposed ate reading response strategies (see ing upon a variety of independent writ- agendas. Students benefit by partici- Table 2). ing response strategies. The lessons are pating in open conversations exploring outlined in the accompanying tables, yet conflicting perspectives that influence Collecting Oral Histories teachers are encouraged to modify the society over time. To stimulate dynamic By incorporating oral histories, stu- suggested activities to meet the needs and discussions, this unit features two texts: dents discover a place or learn about interests of their own students, and, most Korematsu v. United States; Japanese- an event for themselves rather than significantly, to make the learning relevant American Internment Camps (Karen having teachers tell them about it. As to contemporary issues. Alonso) and Farewell to Manzanar Cynthia Cohen stated, (Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston). Table 1: Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment Unit Components Curricular Content Teaching/Learning Strategies Assessments Oral Histories 1. Japanese American internment camp 1. Prepare appropriate questions 1. Summarize oral history data and share with class internee with photographs (docu- 2.