Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment

Nancy P. Gallavan and Teresa A. Roberts

In the spring of 1942, nearly We supported our families; we hon- detained for almost three and a half years 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry ored our culture; we believed in at 10 WRA camps scattered across the 7 living along the west coast of the United our country. We never thought to western . The internees States were ordered to evacuate their display any civil disobedience. The were gradually released throughout 1945, homes and abandon their businesses. U.S.A. was our home too. the year World War II ended. For most These federal orders, giving Japanese , their re-entry into and Japanese Americans just a few days —Reflections from an 80-year-old the U.S. mainstream was a slow and 8 warning before being rounded up and Japanese American internment painful process. sent to internment camps, came less camp detainee than four months after Japan’s attack Honoring Fred Korematsu on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent One of the best-known Japanese United States entry into World War and Utah also were designated military Americans who fought the intern- II. Two-thirds of those evacuated from areas. ment orders was Fred Korematsu. their homes were American-born citi- Then, on March 18, President Korematsu, who was born in Oakland, zens. More than half were children, Roosevelt issued 9102 , was in his early twenties exiled only because their parents had creating the , when he refused to report for trans- been born in Japan.1 Evacuees were not (WRA) which established the orderly portation to an internment camp, even told how long they would be held, nor evacuation of designated persons liv- as his family and friends complied were they charged with any crimes.2 ing in the restricted military areas. Just a with government orders. Korematsu On February 19, 1942, President few days later, on March 21, Roosevelt insisted that “it was wrong to subject Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive signed Public Law 503 making it a fed- innocent people to this treatment with- Order 9066, giving the military com- eral crime for anyone to disobey General out trial or any evidence of criminal mander power to select certain parts of DeWitt’s orders.4 behavior”… and that the evacuation the West Coast as military areas. People Throughout the spring and sum- order “should be declared unconsti- considered enemies of war or a threat to mer of 1942, Civilian Exclusion Orders tutional.”9 Korematsu was found guilty national security were forbidden access directed all persons of Japanese ancestry, of violating Public Law 503; his case to those areas. On March 2, General both immigrants and U.S. citizens, to report was appealed all the way to the United John DeWitt, who had been named mil- to control stations or assembly centers, States Supreme Court. The Supreme itary commander, issued a proclamation consisting primarily of fairgrounds and Court decision upheld the exclusion designating military areas in the states of horseracing tracks.5 From there, Japanese order, and Korematsu was found guilty , , California, and Americans were transported to relocation of a misdemeanor. However, the case portions of . The proclamation, centers, essentially prisons or internment provoked strong reactions on all sides known as Public Proclamation No. 1, camps constructed of wooden framed bar- for many years to come.10 excluded certain persons from these racks situated in desolate, harsh, unsani- Over time, presidents Nixon areas, specifically Japanese, German, tary sites.6 The evacuees, separated from and Ford signed bills repealing the and Italian aliens.3 On March 16, the their extended families, former neigh- law for which Korematsu was con- states of Idaho, Montana, Nevada, bors, and well-established lifestyles, were victed. In 1983, Korematsu’s case

S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 275 (Originally, only Quakers and the ACLU officially opposed the 1942 Executive Orders. Teachers may want students to consider if the outcome might have been different had more (AP (AP Photo/Dennis Cook) people and groups publicly opposed President Clinton these actions.) The Patriot Act of presents Fred 2001 has increased scrutiny of Arab Korematsu with a Americans and various foreigners in Presidential Medal the United States, placing limitations of Freedom dur- ing a ceremony at on liberties ostensibly to protect the the White House greater society, as allowed by the U.S. Thursday, January Constitution and Bill of Rights. 15, 1998. Korematsu’s legal challenges to Teaching about Justice civilian exclusion orders during World The study of the Japanese American War II helped spur internment provides the opportunity the redress move- to engage learners (in grades 4–12) ment for Japanese- designed for reflecting on fairness, Americans. freedom, and justice. Such exercises require today’s students and teachers to step back in time and view the past through a different lens, in order to examine the world of 60 years ago. The powerful lessons learned from studying this event strongly sup- port citizenship education, democratic was reopened and the conviction set lessons of Korematsu. If more principles, and social justice. While aside.11 In 1988, President Reagan attacks come on the order of 9/11, some information on the World War II signed the Reparations Act acknowl- all bets are off. It’s when the next Japanese American internment camps is edging United States responsibility shoe drops that we’re really going available for high school and university for the injustice to Japanese Americans to test the mettle of the nation.12 students, little is written for elementary and promising payments to all living and middle school students. Mukai has internment camp detainees. Ultimately, Jamin Raskin, another professor of identified six key components for teach- in 1998, President Clinton gave law, stated, ing the World War II Japanese American Fred Korematsu the highest civilian History makes clear that, when internment: award: the U.S. Presidential Medal of national security is at issue, civil Honor. Fred Korematsu died in the liberties—rightly or wrong- • Setting context through an exam- spring of 2005 at age 86. His case ly—are among the first casual- ination of civil rights; resonates throughout the legal events ties. What seems unthinkable at playing out in the aftermath of one moment suddenly becomes • Mapping the Japanese immigra- September 11, 2001. plausible at another … the notion tion experience in the early The events connected with the of collective guilt once aimed at twentieth century; Korematsu case offer historical lessons Japanese Americans might now on fairness and freedom with which to be expressed not as wholesale • Exploring various perspectives consider similar issues of justice that have internment but as a mandate for on Japanese Americans from the arisen since September 11, 2001. As law widespread profiling. People of media following the Japanese professor Jerry Kang declared shortly after Arab ancestry could be subjected attack on Pearl Harbor; the 2001 attacks, to increased scrutiny, surveillance, It [Korematsu v. U.S.] has never or suspicion.13 • Delving into the questions been overruled … the infamous related to the concept of loy- decision is still considered ‘good Today many U.S. citizens struggle alty; law.’ I think we have too eas- to protect minorities against discrim- ily said that we have learned the ination and to safeguard civil rights.

S o c i a l E d u c a t i o n 276 • Identifying the roles and respon- Responding to Literature These two books vary in for- sibilities associated with redress The research on teaching history using mat and difficulty. The combination and reparations; and literature is increasingly abundant and of texts offers students occasions to offers many suggestions for guiding stu- understand vocabulary, delve into con- • Analyzing diverse perspectives dents in making connections with fic- tradictory viewpoints, question intri- on the Japanese American intern- tion, nonfiction, and historical fiction. cate issues, and initiate comprehension ment experience.14 Students can read about people like of the complex events of the time, par- themselves, encountering events and ticularly in contrast and comparison These components are incorporated experiencing challenges in a variety of to today. Teachers are encouraged to into this unit, which investigates the events sociocultural contexts. preview texts, select an assortment of of this era through reading and responding This unit of learning requires stu- literature to cover the span of events, to the literature, collecting oral histories, dents to familiarize themselves with and facilitate a variety of appropri- participating in a moot court, and reflect- a multitude of events and juxtaposed ate reading response strategies (see ing upon a variety of independent writ- agendas. Students benefit by partici- Table 2). ing response strategies. The lessons are pating in open conversations exploring outlined in the accompanying tables, yet conflicting perspectives that influence Collecting Oral Histories teachers are encouraged to modify the society over time. To stimulate dynamic By incorporating oral histories, stu- suggested activities to meet the needs and discussions, this unit features two texts: dents discover a place or learn about interests of their own students, and, most Korematsu v. United States; Japanese- an event for themselves rather than significantly, to make the learning relevant American Internment Camps (Karen having teachers tell them about it. As to contemporary issues. Alonso) and Farewell to Cynthia Cohen stated, (Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston).

Table 1: Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment

Unit Components

Curricular Content Teaching/Learning Strategies Assessments

Oral Histories

1. Japanese American internment camp 1. Prepare appropriate questions 1. Summarize oral history data and share with class internee with photographs (docu- 2. Practice appropriate interview- 2. Determine which questions and responses provided ments) ing and listening techniques the most insight 2. World War II Navy veteran with photo - 3. Summarize interview informa- 3. Reflect upon importance of oral history interviews graphs and medals (artifacts) tion including insights and and primary sources 3. Constitutional rights lawyer/expert or limitations of personal experi- historian/expert on World War II ences

Moot Court

1. Access information related to the 1. Divide into groups and 1. Have groups submit five to ten important facts rel- Japanese American internment, the research information relevant evant to the case Fred Korematsu court hearings, similar to the Korematsu Supreme 2. Have groups submit a draft of a moot court for court cases, adult and children’s consti- Court hearing Korematsu case tutional rights, and moot courts 2. Divide into groups and 3. After reviewing the videotape, groups submit five design a moot court on the essential events from the moot court Korematsu case 4. After presentation, groups submit five essential 3. Videotape moot court for events from the moot court class viewing 4. Conduct moot court for other classes and/or family mem- bers

S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 277 Oral history is a way of learn- 80s, conveyed clear memories of these of the medal were the words: “Freedom ing about the present and past times and the impact on their lives. from fear and want: Freedom of speech by listening to the stories people The Japanese American internment and religion.” tell. Life stories represent one camp detainee spoke of her family’s loy- Students compared and contrasted approach to educating children alty to the United States and of their will- the experiences of the Japanese American about their own history and cul- ingness to volunteer for relocation. They woman and the World War II veteran. Both ture—about the lives of people wanted to support their country, and at no suffered as a result of having to leave their just like and much different from time engaged in civil disobedience despite homes. Yet the veteran was honored for his themselves. Oral history projects the disheartening camp conditions. She sacrifice, while the Japanese Americans provide opportunities for chil- emphasized the importance for today’s were humiliated and, in Korematsu’s case, dren to acquire the skills and sen- young people to understand the contextual convicted of a crime. Ironically, at the same sibilities they need for intercul- elements involved in World War II and the time as the veteran was fighting overseas to tural competence.15 internment camps. protect U.S. freedom, it was being denied The World War II veteran, whose to his fellow citizens back home. This unit highlights two oral history ship hit a mine and sank at the end of a large Prior to collecting the oral histories, interviews with different perspectives on invasion of the island of Palau, described students should practice crafting and pos- this historical era: a Japanese American his experiences and shared his picture and ing appropriate questions that demonstrate woman who was detained in an intern- artifact collection; he showed the class cultural sensitivity as well as knowledge ment camp and a World War II veteran his Victory Medal, awarded at the war’s of the historical context. An oral history who served on a minesweeper in the South conclusion to all military personnel who interview depends upon students’ abili- Pacific. Both individuals, now in their early served from 1941 to 1946. On one side ties to listen carefully to each question

Table 2: Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment Curricular Content Teaching/Learning Strategies Assessments

Reading Responses 1. Compare and contrast life inside and 1. Use graphic organizers (i.e., Venn dia- 1. Display and explain information using outside a camp grams, outlines, and concept maps) to graphic organizers 2. Note similarities and differences arrange information 2. Create and describe story boards showing between life then and today regarding 2. Record information garnered from causes and effects related to World War II our sense of freedom and rights for sources in reading response journals 3. Design and introduce due process flow adults and children 3. Illustrate due process through the chart 3. Graph due process or ways of achiev- court system and/or other institutions 4. Contribute a selected number of items to ing fairness with a flow chart a classroom display showing personal free- 4. Conduct a survey and chart personal 4. Record survey responses to most doms among the class, school, families, etc. freedoms afforded different members prized personal freedoms with charts of U.S. society and graphs Writing Responses 1. Write a letter of appreciation to each 1. Share letters in class and send letters 1. Design and apply a developmentally oral history presenter to oral history presenters appropriate rubric for letter writing 2. Prepare a chronology of events with 2. In small groups, explain chronologies 2. Assess own chronologies; exchange and map sites and maps assess other students’ chronologies 3. Create a sample journal entry from the 3. Combine all sample journal entries 3. Share book with another class perspective of a child in an internment and publish a class book 4. Create a developmentally appropriate camp 4. Read the paper with class members rubric for the two-page paper describing a 4. Compose a two-page paper describing 5. Discuss the medal design with class personal freedom a personal freedom members explaining honored free- 5. Determine criteria for designing a medal 5. Design a medal honoring the selected doms and selected symbols and presenting it to the class freedom 6. Present portfolio of entire unit to other 6. Design and apply an appropriate rubric for 6. Assemble a portfolio containing prod- classes and/or family members the unit portfolio ucts created throughout the entire unit

S o c i a l E d u c a t i o n 278 and response, and to be able to adapt their on Korematsu v. United States. The rights and freedoms denied to Korematsu questions accordingly, thereby guarantee- teacher should provide each student and to discuss whether they believe denial ing a smooth progression throughout the with copies of the Constitution and of these rights is justified. The justices make interview process. It is helpful if students the Bill of Rights. In a group discus- a ruling for or against Fred Korematsu and are encouraged to summarize the interview sion, students are asked to consider share their justifications. orally and in writing immediately follow- the experiences of Fred Korematsu or The monitors facilitate the debate ing their data collection. any Japanese American detained in among the justices. Justices sit in a semi- an internment camps as well as that of circle with their respective advisors sitting A Moot Court members of the U.S. armed forces fight- immediately behind them. All advisors are Participating in a moot court enables ing to protect the country. (Students equipped with small pieces of paper and students to gain a deeper understanding will relate to this assignment easily after pencils for writing notes to hand to their of the legal process by reviewing and reading the literature and collecting justices. Justices are allowed to speak only reenacting particular cases. Students several oral histories.) one at a time and must wait to be called become familiar with the context and The teacher should divide the upon by the monitors. Once the debate has conditions of a case; they also learn class into cooperative learning groups concluded, the justices confer among their specific legal language and procedures, with three students in each group. Each advisors and render their decisions sub- dispelling myths that may have been group elects one member to act as the stantiated by their debate and reasoning. acquired from television and films. Supreme Court justice; the other two A whole class discussion can center Additionally, their involvement grows students act as advisors. One group on how the student justices’ rulings when they must dress the parts and are is selected to narrate and monitor the related to the actual ruling and what asked to role-play using the requisite overall proceedings. (A variation is to might account for any differences. The dialogue.16 A variety of valuable guide- select two groups to present oral argu- class also may wish to discuss the case’s lines and resources for teaching the ments for and against Korematsu.) aftermath and the circumstances that U.S. Supreme Court and Law-Related After reviewing their detailed instruc- finally brought U.S. leaders to over- Education are available online.17 tions, the narration/monitor group presents turn Korematsu’s conviction and to As a culminating in-class learn- the facts and instruct the justices and their honor him, as well as to apologize and ing experience for this unit, students advisors to discuss the case among them- make reparations to interned Japanese participate in a moot court based selves. Each group’s task is to identify the Americans.

Table 3: Enduring Lessons of Justice from the World War II Japanese American Internment Curricular Content Teaching/Learning Strategies Assessments Cultural Competence 1. Show sizes of internment camps and 1. Create a drawing or model of an 1. Explain drawings or models to students rooms that housed entire families internment camp and compare with detailing the use of space for various tasks 2. Identify typical items taken to the average living conditions of the time and activities camps; compare to items one might 2. List typical items taken by Japanese 2. Share lists of items in small discussion take today Americans to the camps; identify items groups describing the significance of the 3. Compare and contrast foods repre- that might be taken today various items (both then and today) senting various tastes, beliefs, and 3. Describe foods typically eaten by 3. In a small group discussion, describe a time cultures Japanese Americans before and during when food served was in conflict with one’s 4. Show similarities and differences internment; discuss cultural implica- personal or cultural beliefs between life in the 1940s and life tions 4. In class, create a bulletin board of lists and today, particularly in the areas of tech- 4. Contrast various forms of transporta- illustrations depicting life in the 1940s nology and entertainment tion, communication, and entertain- 5. Add charts of costs to the bulletin board 5. Show similarities and differences in ment of the early 1940s with those of illustrating life in the 1940s today the economics of the 1940s and life 6. Share findings resulting from discussions 5. Construct charts comparing 1940s today about stereotyping and discrimination 6. Discuss forms of stereotyping and costs of household goods and services discrimination evident in the 1940s with today’s costs through today 6. Share personal experiences related to stereotyping and discrimination

S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 279 (AP (AP Photo)

This 1942 photo shows the evacu- ation of American- born Japanese civil- ians during World War II, as they leave their homes for internment, in , California. The sidewalks are piled high with indispensable per- sonal possessions, cars and buses are waiting to transport the evacuees to the war relocation camps.

Conclusion students’ understanding of democratic 5. Jim Carnes, “Home Was a Horse Stall,” Teaching At the end of her book Farewell to principles, social justice, participatory Tolerance 4, no.1 (Spring, 1995), 50-56. 6. Rogers Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Manzanar; Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston citizenship, and constitutional rights. Americans in World War II (New York: Hill and recognizes the importance of revisiting Wang, 1993), 66. the camps to make the traces of the Notes 7. Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H. L. past comprehensible.18 Similarly, inves- 1. John Armor, and Peter Wright. Manzanar [photo- Kitano. Japanese Americans; From Relocation to graphs by Ansel Adams, commentary by John Redress; revised edition (Seattle, WA: University of tigating World War II and the Japanese Hersey] (New York: Times Books, 1988), 3-4. Washington Press, 1991), xxi. American internment camps makes the 2. Karen Alonso, Korematsu v. United States; Japanese- 8. Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston. American Internment Camps (Springfield, NJ: (New York: Bantam Books, past more salient for young learners to Enslow Publishers, 1998), 10. 1973),149-203. understand their present and prepare 3. Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H. L. 9. Alonso, Korematsu v. United States; Japanese- for their future. The injustices of the Kitano. Japanese Americans; From Relocation to American Internment Camps (Springfield, NJ: Redress; revised edition (Seattle, WA: University of Enslow Publishers, 1998), 11. past are less likely to be repeated by Washington Press, 1991), xv-xxi; Michi Nishiura 10. Ibid., 70-88. informed, reflective citizens who value Weglyn, Years of Infamy; The Untold Story of 11. Ibid., 95. constitutional rights and civil liberties America’s Concentration Camps (Seattle, WA: 12. Eric Rich, “Arab-American Liberties Could Be University of Washington Press, 1996), 29. Casualties of War,” The Hartford Courant Co. for all people. Teachers should model 4. Alonso, Korematsu v. United States; Japanese- (October 15, 2001) www.newsday.com/news/nation- inquiry and sensitivity while delving American Internment Camps (Springfield, NJ: world/sns-worldtrade-liberties-hc.story Enslow Publishers, 1998), 31. into lessons that enhance and extend 13. Ibid. 14. Gary Mukai, “Teaching about Japanese-American Internment,” ED447066. Nancy P. Gallavan is an associate professor of Teacher Education at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville whose 15. Cynthia Cohen, “Oral Histories,” Cultural Arts research specializes in social studies and multicultural education. She is an active member of ATE, NAME, and Resources for Teachers and Students 3, (1999): 1, 3-4, 14. NCSS, and has served as chair of the NCSS Teacher Educational and Development Committee. She has authored 16. Kathy Bell, “Using Moot Courts in the Classroom,” more than 50 books, chapters, monographs, and articles. Teresa A. Roberts is a middle school English teacher Social Education 66 no. 1 (January-February 2002): at St. John School in Encinitas, California. She has bachelor’s degrees in journalism and psychology, a master’s in 42-45. theology, and a teaching credential from California State University, San Marcos. A former Jesuit volunteer and 17. Charles F. Williams, “The United States Supreme development editor for high school teaching manuals, she is active in social justice issues. Court and the World Wide Web, Social Education 66, no. 1 (January-February 2002): 51-51. With special recognition and appreciation to Sandra Switzer-Chapman, a kindergarten teacher in Carlsbad, Cali- 18. Michael L. Cooper, Fighting for Honor; Japanese fornia, for reading and reviewing this integrated unit of learning. Americans and World War II (New York: Clarion Books, 2000).

S o c i a l E d u c a t i o n 280 Print Resources

Alonso, Karen, Korematsu v. United States; Japanese-American Shigekawa, Marlene. Blue Jay in the Desert. Chicago: Polychrome Internment Camps. Springfield, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1998. Publishing Corporation, 1993.

Banim, Lisa. American Dreams. New York: Silver Moon Press, 1993. Sinnott, Susan. Our Burden of Shame; Japanese American Internment During World War II. New York: Watts, 1995. Brimner, Larry Dane. Voices From the Camps: Internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. New York: F. Watts, 1994. Stanley, John. I am an American: A True Story of Japanese Internment. New York: Crown, 1994. Bunting, Eve. So Far From the Sea. New York: Clarion Books, 1998. Takashima, Shizuye. A Child in Prison Camp. Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Chinn, Steven A. When Justice Failed: The Fred Korematsu Story. Austin, Books, 1989. TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Books, 1993. Taylor, Sandra C. Jewel of the Desert: Japanese American Internment at Denenberg, Barry. The Journal of Ben Uchida, Citizen #13559, Mirror Topaz. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993. Lake Internment Camp. New York: Scholastic Inc., 1942. Tunnell, Michael O. and George W. The Children of Topaz: The Story of a Dudley, William. (ed.). Asian-American: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, Japanese-American Internment Camp. New York: Holiday House, 1996. CA: Greenhaven, 1997.

Fremon, David K. Japanese-American Internment in American History. Uchida, Yoshiko. Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese-American Springfield, NJ: Enslow, 1996. Family. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1982.

Hamanaka, Sheila. The Journey: Japanese Americans, Racism and Uchida. Yoshiko. Journey Home. New York: Philomel Books, 1978. Renewal. New York: Orchard, 1990. Yancy, Diane. Life in a Japanese-American Internment Camp. San Diego, Houston, Jeanne Wakatsuki and James D. Houston. Farewell to Manzanar. CA: Lucent Books, New York: Bantam Books, 1973.

Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.). The Japanese American Internment Experience. New York: Heyday, 2000. Online Resources Inada, Lawson Fusao (ed.). Only What We Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience. New York: Heyday, 2000. americanhistory. www.janm.org/ www.nps.gov/ si.edu/perfec- main.htm manz/expanded. Kodama, Tatsuharu. Shin’s Tricycle. New York: Walker & Company, 1995. tunion/non-flash/ Japanese American htm justice_court.html National Museum Manzanar National Lutz, Norma Jean. War Strikes. Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour Publications, A More Perfect Historic Site 1998. Union: Japanese Americans and the Levine, Ellen. A Fence Away from Freedom: Japanese Americans and U.S. Constitution www.lib.utah.edu/ World War II. New York: G. P. Putnam’s, 1995. spc/photo www.sfmuseum. www.children-of- Japanese-Americans org/war/evactxt. Means, Florence Crannell. The Moved-Outers. New York: Walker, 1993. the-camps.org Internment Camps html Children of the During World War II. Museum of the City Mochizuki, Ken. Baseball Saved Us. New York: Lee and Low, 1993. Camps – documen- of tary Morimoto, Junko. My Hiroshima. New York: Viking, 1987. www.cr.nps.gov/ www.memory.loc. Nishimoto, Richard S. Inside an American Concentration Camp. Tucson, history/online_ gov/ammem/ www.uwyo.edu AZ: The University of Arizona Press, 1995. books/anthropol- aamhtml American Heritage Ansel Adams’s photo- Center Primary Oe, Kenzaburo. Hiroshima Notes. New York: Grove Press, 1965. ogy74/ Confinement and graphs: Born Free Sources in the and Equal Classroom; Heart Okada, John. No-No Boy. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, Ethnicity: Overview Mountain Relocation 1976. of World War II Japanese American Center Otsuka, Julie, When the Emperor Was Divine. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Relocation Sites 2002.

Savin, Marcia. The Moon Bridge. New York: Scholastic Inc., 1992. Law Related Education Say, Allen. Grandfather’s Journey. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. www.legalexplorer.com/education/education-mock.asp

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