International Journal of Heritage Studies

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International Journal of Heritage Studies Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713685629 Community, Connection and Conservation: Intangible Cultural Values in Natural Heritage - the Case of Shirakami-sanchi World Heritage Area Kumi Kato

Online Publication Date: 01 September 2006 To cite this Article: Kato, Kumi (2006) 'Community, Connection and Conservation: Intangible Cultural Values in Natural Heritage - the Case of Shirakami-sanchi World Heritage Area', International Journal of Heritage Studies, 12:5, 458 - 473 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/13527250600821670 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13527250600821670

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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 Kumi Kato,UniversityofQueensland. Correspondenceto:[email protected] tion fortheSafeguardingof theIntangibleCulturalHeritage(2005), Intangible culturalheritage, according tothedefinitiongivenbyUNESCOConven- Spiritual Connection Ke answer thisquestion. spiritual heritagetoday.Formsofcommunityinvolvement arediscussedinanattemptto cultural heritageisvitalinconservation.Thechallenge,then, ishowtocommunicatesuch World Heritagenomination,anditisarguedthatthe recognition ofsuchintangible connection andplace-basedidentitythathavesupported conservation,leadingtothe nity’s conservationcommitmentforShirakamirevealsthatitisthecommunity’sspiritual of aplacethatdoesnotexcludehumans.Anexaminationtheformationcommu- interactions withnature.Suchconnectivityisvitaltomaintainingtheauthenticintegrity community’s conservationcommitmentwasformedthroughtheirlong-termeveryday study ofShirakami-sanchiWorldHeritageArea,thispaperillustrateshowthelocal and insomecasesindividualsrecogniseaspartoftheirculturalheritage’.Usingacase representations, expressionsaswelltheknowledgeandskillsthatcommunities,groups Intangible culturalheritage,accordingtoaUNESCOdefinition,is‘thepractices, Taylor andFrancisLtdRJHS_A_182105.sgm10.1080/13527250600821670InternationalJournalofHeritageStudies1352-7258(print)/1470-3610(online)OriginalArticle2006 Taylor [email protected] Kumi Kato Area of Shirakami-sanchiWorldHeritage Values inNaturalHeritage—theCase Conservation: IntangibleCultural Community, Connectionand Vol. 12,No.5,September2006,pp.458–473 International JournalofHeritageStudies DOI: 10.1080/13527250600821670 ISSN 1352–7258(print)/ISSN 1470–3610(online)©2006 Taylor&Francis representations, expressions aswelltheknowledgeandskillsthatcommunities, wrs Community;IntangibleCulturalHeritage;Conservation;Commitment; ywords: 1

is ‘thepractices, Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 (spirit ofplace) terms as discussed inhuman–naturerelationship.Suchconnectivity maybearticulatedbysuch In recentyears,asenseofconnectionwiththe‘morethanhuman’ worldhasbeenactively Place andConnectivity Formation ofEnvironmentalEthics community’s connectionwithaplaceispresented. today. BeforeturningtothedetailofShirakamicase,abriefdiscussion paper alsoquestionshowspiritualconnectionmaybemaintainedandcommunicated place andwhichisinessenceaspiritualitythatmakesanordinarylife-placesacred.The local community’sconservationcommitment,formedthroughlongconnectionwitha is tobe‘aplainmemberandcitizenoflandcommunity’ with theirplace. human, essentiallyexcludinghumanpresence,includinglocalcommunitieswholive heritage tendstobesituatedinacontrastofnature–culture,nature–contemporary does notnecessarilycarrycontemporarysocialmeaning.Inthisrhetoric,natural Sites tendtoreferarchaeologicalandevolutionarysignificance;spiritualsignificance and developsculturaldiversityhumancreativity’. people withasenseofidentityandcontinuityitssafeguardingpromotes,sustains, their interactionwithnature,andhistoricalconditionsofexistence.Itprovides is constantlyrecreatedbycommunitiesandgroups,inresponsetotheirenvironment, tive, dynamicandcohesiveinthatitis‘transmittedfromgenerationtogeneration, and theuniverse,traditionalcraftsmanship.Intangibleculturalheritageisinterac- social practices,ritualsandfestiveevents,knowledgepracticesconcerningnature cultural heritagemaybearticulatedasoraltraditionsandexpressions,performingarts, groups andinsomecasesindividualsrecogniseaspartoftheirculturalheritage’.Such sanchi, rity ofaplacewhichtheyarepart.WithreferencetotheexampleShirakami- connection withtheirsurroundingnatureandcommitmenttomaintaintheinteg- conservation, asconservationcommitmentisinessencealocalcommunity’ssenseof ity. Thispaperarguesthatsuchintangibleculturalheritageplaysavitalroleinnature transmitted overgenerationsthatprovidepeoplewithasenseofidentityandcontinu- communities’ knowledgeandpracticesconcerningnatureinteractionswith sentiment, concern,warmth, loveandsacredness’ of ordinaryland’. may dolittlebyitselftocounter thedevaluation,degradationandinstrumentalization simply nominatingaplaceassacred.Plumwoodwarnsthat ‘(nominatingasacredplace) only begeneratedthroughordinaryandongoinghuman–nature interactionsratherthan described as spirituality. Cultural meaningsassociatedwithprotectednaturalareassuchasWorldHeritage 3

to liveinplace a naturalWorldHeritageSiteinJapan,thispaperexamineswhatunderliesthe experiential bonds 6 —an authenticityofplace,anintegritysustainedovertime, whichmay 2

The notionofintangibleculturalheritage,however,acknowledges 7

Connectivity achievedthrough ongoinginteractionhasbeen , reinhabiting , topophilia , insideness

or International JournalofHeritageStudies intimacy

and s ense ofplace 9

and maybeseenasaplace-based 8

expressed informssuchas‘care, 5

‘and tomaintain . 4

Achieving connectivity genius loci 459 ’ Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 ordinary everydaylifeandgeneratesharedmeaning. cal, whichrecognisesdistinctfeaturesofplacewiththeyinteractintheir nature’s stateanditsflow,tobuildacommunity,bothconceptualgeographi- and cultivateourownsensitivitytosurroundings—tobesensitivelyintunewith tionships. Inresponsetothischallenge,twodirectionsaresuggestedhere:recover ship. Byrecognisingconnectivity andcommitmentasintangibleculturalheritage emotive expressions,andnarratives, allinformhowwemayreconstructtherelation- sustained interactionwith the environment,ritualsandcustoms,theirsensitivity, and reactstochangesplace’. condition ofhomelessness’ rather thanthepassivesettingforarelationalmatrixamong people. the senseofplacegainedthroughsocialrelationsbetween humansandnon-humans focusing onthesocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.Rodman alsosuggestslocalityas biosphere. ingly difficulttodaywhenmanyurbandwellersarefarremovedfromtherestof How suchconnectivitymayberegainedremainslargelyunansweredandisincreas- Sensitivity andCommunity 460 existence isbereftofmuchitssignificance.’ as unavoidablecloserelationshipwithpeople:withoutsuchrelationshipshuman common identity—adeeprelationshipwithplace,whichis‘asnecessaryandperhaps becomes collective.AsRelphsuggests,placeandpeopleintheirmutualitydevelopa constructed throughinteractionsofhumanandnon-humanworlds. as thelandbelongstoyou’. and communicative:‘two-waytwo-place,inwhichyoubelongtothelandasmuch ence fromothersandthewaysinwhichpeopleexpresstheir attachmenttoalocality’, phy oflocalitywhichis‘anaccounthowpeopleexperience andexpresstheirdiffer- between apeopleandtheirplace’. only thesanctityandunchanging significanceofit,butalsotheenduringrelationship by cohesivecommunities,astheystrengthen‘attachment toplacebyreaffirmingnot may beritualandcustom—theconstructionsofstylised meaningdevisedandadopted common symbolsandmeanings.Onewayofresolving the human–natureseparation elements thatsupportourlives’ which shouldcontain‘acertainkindofcommunicativecapacitythatrecognizesthe history ofdialogicalinteraction’. of tellingitsstoryinwaysthatshowadeepandlovingacquaintancewithit ‘ownership outintheessentiallynarrativetermsofnamingandinterpretingland, defined asa conditioned placeconsciousness’ character ofaplaceisrelatedto‘continuityincommunalexperience,collectively With anemphasisonsensitivityandcommunity,thisreciprocalrelationshipalso The meaningofplaceevolvesthroughcollectiveexperience asacommunitygenerates Spirituality, inPlumwood’sterms,shouldresultbetterenvironmentalethics K. Kato 13

The remarkmadebySaidmorethan20yearsagoaboutthe‘generalized terrain ofconsciousness 14

11 has evenclearerresonancetodayforhuman–naturerela-

19 10 The communicativeparadigmsuggestedistomake 12

22 18 Cohen referstosucharelationshipastheethnogra-

and thekindofrelationshipgeneratedisdialogical

Land-based knowledgeofacommunity, whichhas and alsotothewaycommunity‘experiences , 16

where themeaningofplaceiscontinuously 17

As Relphsuggests,thestabilityof 15

Such acommunitymaybe 21 20 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 Park natural propertyin1993 Approximately 13%oftheentirerangewasinscribedonWorldHeritageListasa such asuntouched( peaks above1,000m Shirakami isamountainrangeextendingover50km(approx.130,000ha),withseven Shirakami-sanchi asNaturalHeritage Shirakami naturalheritageareas. section examinesthelocalcommunity’sconservationcommitmentthatunderlies relationships ratherthanthepuristorientationofhumanexclusion.Thefollowing Such anotionalsoenablespositiveorientationtowardsmoresustainablehuman–nature heritage startstomerge,addressingtheinseparableandmutuallydependenceofeach. an essentialingredientforconservation,theconservationofculturalandnatural between twoprefectures,namelythe Ministry oftheEnvironment); Nature ConservationArea—WildlifeProtectionZon characters— ( Hodgson’s hawk-eagle)andJapan’slargestwoodpecker, theblackwoodpecker mainland endemicspecies),includingendangeredbirds ofprey(goldeneagles, mammals (80%ofallmainlandendemicspecies)and68 avifaunaspecies(94%ofall in Shirakamiarerecognisedasahabitatfordiverse flora andfauna,including44 poorer durability,alsorepresentedinitscharacter(‘tree’ and‘no’).Thebeechforests beech wasregardedasalesserqualitytimberbecauseof itshighmoisturecontentand and steepnessoftheareamadecommercialtimber industryunviable,andalso plantations inthe1950s–1970s,Shirakamiwasleftmostlyintact,sinceremoteness Honshu wereextensivelyloggedandreplacedwithfast-growingcedarcypress Asia andoneofthelargestintactforestsystemsinJapan.Althoughnorthernparts ( precisely. Withthenomination,Shirakamihascometobeknownforitsbeechforest cultural properties( marine ecosystemsandcommunitiesofplantsanimals. processes intheevolutionanddevelopmentofterrestrial,freshwater,coastal an outstandingexamplerepresentingsignificantongoingecologicalandbiological properties. Shirakamiasanaturalpropertyfulfilsoneofthe listed asWorldHeritageSites,ofwhich628arecultural,160naturaland24mixed such asAustralia(15natural,1cultural,2004).Currently812sitesin137countriesare are predominantlycultural(10cultural,3natural),whichisincontrasttocountries pristine virginforests( ( areas ( kumagera Fagus crenata yama The nominatedarea,dividedinto60%coreand40%bufferzone,islocated

and ) canalsorefertoforests,nature andwildplaces.Althoughawordequivalentto hikyo Forest EcosystemReserve ). AswellashavingWorldHeritagestatus,Shirakami has sixothertitles: ) areoftenusedtodescribe Shirakami.InJapanesethewordmountain green forests ), buna Horyuji Temple 23 tetsukazuno

in Japanese,consideredtobearelativelynewexampleEast gensirin at thenorth-westendofHonshufacingSeaJapan. 24

along withanothernaturalsite( and ) doesexist,theforestsare generally either‘naturally autumn ricefields Quasi-National Park ), pristineforests(

as welldesignated

and Aomori Himeji Castle International JournalofHeritageStudies

and

Akita —represent thelocallandscape genseirin e (underthejurisdictionof , andeachprefecture’s ). Japan’sWorldHeritageSites Natural Monuments

prefectures, whosenamesin Yakushima Island 25 Natural ii ), andunknown/hidden

natural criteria: . ) andtwo 26

Natural

Words 461 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 north coast.Theword tity’. spiritual relationshipofpeoplewithnature,whichisalsoparttheircollectiveiden- communities’ beliefsandartistictraditionalcustomsthatembodyanexceptional ronment’. Thismayinclude‘landusetechniquesthatsustainbiologicaldiversity, that expressalongandintimaterelationshipbetweenpeoplestheirnaturalenvi- as ‘thelandscapesthatarerepresentativeofcombinedworksnatureandhumankind instrument knownas in Aomoriprefecture.Thetown isintheregioncalled inland fromthenorthcoast and immediatelyadjacenttothenorth-eastedgeofsite formed’ ( 462 Heritage contextisanideaofculturallandscapethathasemergedsince1993, against clearlyrecognisedculturalpropertiesandmonuments. nature–contemporary human,andthecontrastseemsevenmoredistinctwhenlisted Shirakami asanaturalpropertytendstobesituatedincontrastnature–cultureand icance’ doesnotnecessarilycarrycontemporarysocialmeaning.Inthisrhetoric, refer primarilytoarchaeologicalandevolutionarysignificancethe‘spiritualsignif- community herecentreson asmalltown, close associationwithShirakamiinvariousforms. Geographically, however,the a geographicalentity,includingbroadrangeofpeople whocontinuetomaintaina The Shirakamicommunityreferredtointhispaperisa conceptual ratherthansimply The ShirakamiCommunity commitment toconservation. which isexaminedinthenextsectionandwhatunderlies theShirakamicommunity’s stewardship orevenprotection. towards acollaborativerelationshipratherthanhumandominance—management, rather thanhuman,isused—peoplewhoexpressandseekidentity,withtheorientation to bere-nominatedasaculturallandscape. Willandra LakesandUluru-KataTjutaNationalPark,whichwasoneofthefirstsites World Heritagecriteriaconstituteoneofmanyexamplesdefining Cultural MeaningofNaturalHeritage may includeplantedtrees. erties, includingTasmania Shiretoko. Justasacomparison,fouroftheAustraliannaturalsiteshavemixedprop- criteria, Shirakamifulfilsnone,nordotheothernaturalsitesofYakushimaand definitions, althoughsomenaturalpropertiesalsofulfiloneormoreofthecultural culture One conceptthatmergesthisnature–culturedivideandrelatesittodayintheWorld Cultural meaningsassociatedwithnaturalpropertiesintheWorldHeritagecontext Such acommunity–naturerelationshiprecognisesintangible culturalheritage, 30 K. Kato

, yettheyprovideaframeworkforthedebate.AsseenunderWorldHeritage What isnotedinthesedefinitionsthattheword‘peopleandcommunity’, tennenrin ) orartificiallyformed(i.e.plantation— shamisen Tsugaru Wilderness , whichisoftenplayedagainst thebackdropofrugged

is typicallyassociatedwithapples andthethree-string

World HeritageArea, 28 Ajigasawa , 31 Tsugaru Plain

located approximately30km 27 jinko-rin

Kakadu NationalPark, , extendingtothe ); the nature 29 tennenrin

defined

and Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 terms ofeconomicrankinginJapan’. quick toquoteanationalcensusthatshowed‘Aomoriisthesecondfromlastin products frommountain,riverandocean.Thelocalresidentsagree,butarealways and Yokkaichi lations wereissuedinresponse topollutionandpoisoningincidentssuchasMinamata 1970s. Thefirstenvironmental erawasthetimewhenaseriesofenvironmentalregu- often referredtoasthesecond environmentalerafollowingthefirstof1960sand would generateemploymentforyoungergenerations’. ture byfacilitatingcooperationofthetwoprefecturesand tourismdevelopmentthat Writers suchasAriyoshidrew attentiontotheenvironmentalhealthrisksinher traditional activitiesallyearround. small animalshasbeenpractisedbyhunterscalled Yamazumi weeds forfertiliserandcattlefeed.Thesetraditionalpracticesarereferredtoas and fungi,small-scaleloggingforfirewood,charcoalburningcollectingleaves/ Traditionally, theyalsoengagedinriverfishing,harvestingediblewildplants( conceptual community’smainlivelihoodconsistsofricefarmingandapplegrowing. tion activitiessuchastreeplantingtakeplace.Thegeographical(subsistence)and some ofwhomevencommutetoparticipateinthecommunityorvisitwhenconserva- photographers (anon-geographical/non-subsistenceandconceptualcommunity), administrators andfacilitatorsofavolunteergroup,researchers,journalists subsistence andconceptualcommunity)aswellconservationvolunteers,townoffice has beenthestrongestbecauseofitsproximity. eleven trailheadsisHitotsumorivillage(oneforest),whoseassociationwithShirakami barren landandtheroaringwintersea.Thefarendoftownleadingtoone cils, connecting thetwoprefectures,whichwould,according tothecoalitionoflocalcoun- proposed in1982.Theroadwastogothrough thecentreofShirakami, landmark incidentwasaprotestagainstplanforanother forestryroad( Shirakami Line forestry road( economy. Thefirstinstancewasanunsuccessfuldispute overtheconstructionofa environmentalism, triggeredbytheneedtorevitalisethisremotearea’sdeclining The originofthisShirakamicommunitycanbetracedbacktoitsearlierhistory History ofEnvironmentalism—RevivingEconomy development inthe1970s. commitment isthehistoryofenvironmentalismthatstartedinrelationtorise and thecommunityitself.But,mostimportantly,whatunderliesthiscommunity’s omy andpopulationclearlyunderlietheShirakamipeople’scommitmenttoplace Just toput1993(thenominationyear)incontext,the 1980sonwardsinJapanis The areaisrichinhistory, The communitymembersreferredtohereincludethelocalresidents(geographical/ 35

‘revitalize thedecliningeconomy,declineoftimber industryandagricul-

(mountain inhabitation).Thehuntingofblackcrescentbearsandother 36 , thatrunsalongthenorthernedgeofWorldHeritage Area.Another Kosai Road

(1955–late 1960s).TheEnvironment Agencywasestablishedin1971. ) completedin1972(1962–1972),andnowknown as 33 naturalbeauty,goodrice(i.e. 34

Remoteness andisolation,adecliningecon- International JournalofHeritageStudies matagi , sake 32

who alsoengagedin ) andabundantlocal Seishu Rindo) sansai 463 ) Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 included naturalmonumentsofacademicvalue ( protection ( Ministry oftheEnvironment(1999). Environment Lawwasissuedin1993,andtheAgencybecame include intangibleculturalproperties. (1931), andsuchnaturalmonumentsarepartoftheculturalheritagethat landscapes. Examplesincludethenow-extinctToki(1934,1952special),Akitadog including 191fauna(21special),536flora(30),221(20)geographyormineralsand23 als, andlandscapes.Currently,981arenominatedasnationalnaturalmonuments, housing demand,manyoftheforests( collapse ofthetimberindustry(1970s–1980s)During1950–1970s,inresponseto constructed nationallyfrom1975andthepromotionofresortdevelopmentafter and of excessiveconsumerism(termedthe3Cs—cooler/airconditioner,car,colourTV) by TheoColborn(1996).Itwasatimeofrisingawarenessandfeartheconsequences rable toRachaelCarson’s newspaper columnandlaterabook, 464 domestic industrywasseverelyaffectedbycheaperimports. fast-growing cypressandcedarplantations.However,intheperiod1970–1980 members, onestrongsentiment carriedthroughwasasenseofmutualityandreciprocity of thecurrentcommunity. essence ofcommunitycommitment inordertounderstandtheoriginofstrength Japan’s environmentalhistory, andtriggeredtheauthor’sinterestinlocating This smallruralcommunity’sactofprotestisregardedas oneofthelandmarkcasesin Mutuality andReciprocity—theSpiritualitySacredness ofaPlace abolished onitsformalnominationin1990,leadingtothe 1993inscription. Shirakami wasrecommendedasaForestEcosystemConservation Area vation Society(1950)’.Theconstructionplanwas stoppedtemporarilywhen according tooneoftheleaders,‘anewconceptintroduced bytheJapanNatureConser- once labelleduseless.Over13,000signatureswerecollected nationally,whichwas, well ashabitatsfordiversespeciesdescribedabove,giving anewvaluetothebeechtrees civil volunteers,arguedfortheimportanceofbeechforestscatchmentas against forestryroads.Theleadingfigures,including Shirakami (360,000haintotal).FollowingtheRioSummit(UNCED with theForestEcosystemConservationAct(1990)thatnominated26sites,including awareness aboutecosystems,biodiversityandhabitatprotection,seen,forexample, late 1970sand1980salsosawmassdevelopmentsuchasthe23 hozon A moreholisticviewoftheconservation( Through protestdocuments aswellviewsexpressedbytoday’scommunity This conceptofconservationsupportedtheShirakamicommunityintheirprotest With thisasabackground,thesecondenvironmentaleraischaracterisedbyrising tsukaisute-shakai K. Kato ) thatoriginatedwiththepreservationofculturalproperties,andwhichlater hogo ) ofhabitatsandspecies.Evenearlierwastheconceptpreservation

(throw-away society)andthetwooilcrises(19731979).The Silent Spring Complex Pollution 41

(1962) andthemorerecent gensei-rin hozen 40 ) wereclearfelledandreplacedwith —fauna, floraandgeologicalminer- ) ofbiodiversityemergedfollowing matagi

(1974–1975), whichiscompa- 38

hunters, journalistsand Super ForestryRoads Our StolenFuture 39 ), theBasic 42

and was 37 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 These activitiesaremaintainedthroughacommon-usesystemsuchas more criticalthanmainsubsistenceactivitiesinforminghuman–naturerelationships. rituals, languages,taboosandlanguage. ily. Ittookany tion asagroup. nically primitive,requiringgreaterskills,knowledgeandexperiencealsocoopera- minor subsistenceactivitieshavelesseconomicimportance,theytendtoremaintech- economic stateofthegrouporotherswhosharetheirlivelihood’.Itisarguedthatsince by agroupwithcommitmentandpassionalthoughitslosswouldnotdirectlyaffectthe scholar. Minorsubsistenceactivitiesaredefinedas‘activitiesthathavebeencarriedout loosely relatedtoHardin’stightlocalcommons. has aninternalself-regulatorysystemratherthanexternallyimposedregulationsandis rare fungiwerereadyforharvest, their commonterritory.One to ensurefutureharvestsandrespectforthemountainratherthansimplyobserving knife), location,harvestingseasons,amountsandmethods,species regulations appliedtoalltraditionalpracticesinrelationtheuseoftools(hand/ of eightorso.Workrequiredcooperationandanequalshareallharvests.Unwritten strict rules.Itwasalsoa structural reinforcementforwinter. activities aswellconstruction,restorationofroads,canalsandtrailsaftersnow, has beenobservedwidely.Shirakamiresidentsalsocooperateintheirsubsistence exchange offavours,goodsandlabourisanecessityisolatedrurallifeonethat with Shirakamiasnature,whichalsorelatestocommunityintegrity.Cooperationand subsistence sions areinfinebalance;that is,‘natureasresource’isnotdenied,andspirituality is trees, caringforthemountains andrunningeducationalprogrammes’. to takefood(e.g.plants)from themountains,andsonowIwanttoreturnbyplanting ment withShirakamiandthe community.Afounderofavolunteergroupsayshe‘used join. Suchreciprocityandsenseofconnectionwaswhat theysoughtintheirinvolve- thinning, weeding),whichvolunteersand‘commuting’ communitymembersalso restoration andconservationwork(e.g.collectingbeech seedandseedlings,planting, allowed accordingtoself-regulation,andalsoinaform ofwhatmaybedefinedas favour andblessingbyshowingdeepappreciation,making thebestuseofwhatis dict nature;infact‘themountainneedsus’andthey know howtoreciprocatethe land’. Thecommunity’sintuitionwasthattheirexistence andactsshouldnotcontra- because itisalwaysthere’and‘simplywanttoreturnthe blessingwereceivefromthe Shirakami wasexpressedbycommunitymembers,who ‘feelsogratefulforthisplace if notwearemeanttohaveany.’Asimilarsenseofrespect, aweandaffinitytowards tain. Ifthemountaingodallowsustobeblessedwithharvest,wegratefullyreceive,but Traditional activitiesinShirakamialsorequiredcooperationbasedonunwrittenbut A Many oftheactivitiescarriedoutinShirakamimaybedefinedasminor In thisreciprocalnetworkwhich includesnature,thespiritualandpragmaticdimen- matagi 45

said thatthey‘areblessedwith

activities, asoriginallycoinedbyMatsui,aJapaneseenvironmental matagi 46

These activities,althoughlessseriousorevenfun,areinfactmuch

at leastfouryearstolearnallthesepracticesaswellrelated matagi matagi traditionthattheywentontothemountainasagroup 43

and wouldneverdisturbthemountainunnecessar-

said theywouldknowexactlywhereandwhen 44 49 International JournalofHeritageStudies

rather thantakeharvestfromthemoun- 48 Iriai , 47

which 465 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 the extensionofTasmanian WildernessWorldHeritageSite(1982/1989)strict A conflictbetweentraditional useandregulationsisnotuncommon;forexample,with Conflict betweenProtectionand Community of theseason.’ weeks andmonthsinthemountain.Oncewegotwhat couldcarry,thatwastheend over-hunted, nevertookmorethanwhatwecouldcarry ourselvesaswespentdays, problems arecausedbyhumans.Beforetheintroduction ofanyrestrictionwenever formality inthatofabout500applicationsperyear, restricted to27designatedroutesinAomori.Thisrestriction,however,isonlya the coreareaisnotallowedandentrytoprohibitedinAkita their regulations, by itsverysuccess.Shirakamiisregulatedanumberofexternalmanagingbodiesand saved theareaandwashailedas‘atriumphofenvironmentalism’hasbeenthreatened is the community’scommitmenttoplaceandideologyofconservationthat The ironywithShirakami,however,andperhapsmanyotherprotectedareas, Irony ofProtection—theNature–CultureDivide and thatminor-subsistence-likeactivitiesneedtobepromotedintoday’ssocialcontext. practicality isnotaddressedsufficientlyinWesternbio-centrismsuchasdeepecology the 57th not localresidentswhosepurposeisharvesting. they needtobeself-sufficientastherearenofacilitiesortrailsignage)allowedbut was alwaysourordinarymountains.’ go outsideatall.Shirakamihasneverbeenuntouched.Peoplealwayslivedwithit.It saved excludesus.Forus,notbeingallowedinthemountainisliketoldto Heritage; asonesaid:‘wefoughttosavetheareafromdestruction,butnowwe betrayed, andquestionedtheconceptofprotection,verynominationWorld With this,thosewholedtheconservationmovement,especially mental scholarsincludingKito,who,inhisSocialLinkTheory, cality informingenvironmentalethicshasbeenonemajorthesisofJapan’senviron- not separatefromeverydaypracticality.Suchalinkagebetweenspiritualityandpracti- 466 harvest. August andSeptemberareregardedasthepest-control seasonbeforetheautumn has beenstableoverthelast20yearsorsoafteradecline due toacoldsummerin1986.’ (as agroup)everhuntedwassixorsevenyear.‘Wehave afairideathatthepopulation explained, asbearsneverusedtocomethevillage.He explainedthatthemostthey areas. Thisisnotonly‘outrageousbutseriouslyworrying’, asanother killed underapest-controlschemeinAkitawhentheycamedowntotheresidential is nopenaltyfornotcarryingapermit.Thismeansthat‘tourist’walkers Most controversialofall,however,isthenominationentireShirakamiareaas To illustratethecontradictionofprotectionfurther,in2003about450bearswere K. Kato 56 Wildlife ProtectionArea

He said‘monkeyscauseproblemstoorchardsbut never bears.Bear 51

which nowrestricttraditionalpractices;harvestingofanykindin , whichineffectimposedacompletebanonhunting. 55 52

none hasbeenrejectedandthere matagi 50

suggests such

53 hunters, felt

(although matagi 54 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 Tsugaru dialect);practical—indoor (seasonalcooking;woodcrafts;wood-cutting; forest ecology;historyofShirakami, ation, theschooloffersanextensive rangeofprogrammes,includinglectures(beech based lifestyles,andtointeract witholdergenerations.Afteroneandhalfyearsofoper- urban schoolgroupswhohave littleopportunitytoexperiencenatureandnature- tourism—in theformofenvironmentalandoutdooreducation cateringspecificallyfor now onpermanentleasefromthetown.Theschoolpromotes developmentofgreen school buildingthatbecameavailablewhenitcloseddue topopulationdeclineandis which humansocietiesareinextricablyintermeshed’. suggests, canbeproblematicasitreaffirmsthe‘externalityofanaturewithandwithin of savingandmanagingnature,suchas‘protectedareamanagement’,Smith ing, hunting,horseriding,andoff-roadvehicledrivingwereprohibited.Theconcept as itinerantgrazing,commercialhuntingandsnaring,recreationalusesuchfish- regulation ofestablisheduseintheCentralPlateauwasimposed.Commercialsuch people inidentity’. tradition, whichisplace-based’ based environmentoftrust—Kinshiprelationship,localcommunities,cosmologyand place thatissupportedbyahumanconnection,whichmayequatetoGiddens’‘aplace- ment. WhatcanbelearnedfromtheShirakamicaseissenseofconnectionwith to communityandlandwithinthehuman–naturerelationship,ratherthanmanage- tion–development, urban–rural,global–localoverlapbutthediscussionhereislimited What underliestheShirakamicasearecomplexconflictsofhuman–nature,protec- Community CommitmentasCulturalHeritage that boundthecommunitytogetherinanextendedinter-generationaltimeframe? communicates irretrievableknowledge,skills,senses,language,ritualsandnarratives community networkthatformedthisreciprocalrelationshipwiththeland,whichalso other destructivehumaninterference.Thequestionis:whatwouldbecomeofthe new regulationscanreplacethecommunity,whichissimplycategorisedtogetherwith with Shirakami.Itisclearlypartofoverallsocialchange.However,itunlikelythat divide onacommunitywhohadmaintainedmoresustainablerelationship. protection, almostsimilartodesignationofthesacred,imposedanature–human ‘ordinarily sacred’. sense ofconnectivitywherecultureandnatureareone,whichmaybetermedas such aconnectionarecertainlynotof‘outstandinguniversalvalue’yetformdeep earlier protest,including At Shirakami,aNatureSchoolwasestablishedin2003 bysomeoftheleaders Communicating SpiritualityToday communicated today? and a‘questforsocialrelationshipmeaningoflife’. This isnottosaythatitonlyregulationshaveweakenedthecommunity’stie 59 61

It isthevitalroleofsocialrelationshipstoformasenseplace How cansuchintegrityandrelationshipsbemaintained and matagi 58 .

62 and, inJolly’swords,an‘inseparabilityofplaceand

The schoolishousedina125-year-oldprimary Matagi International JournalofHeritageStudies

traditions; floraandfauna; folktalesin 57 60

Ironically, theconceptof

The meaningscarriedby 467 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 ism, of culturalmaintenance. their regionallydistinctivefeaturesthroughtheconservationofforestsforpurpose social contexts,particularlyurbanincludecommunityinitiativesindefining tity ofaland-basedcommunity.Practicalapplicationsthiscaserelevanttogeneral of subsistencecommunitiestoalternativewaysmaintainingtheintegrityandiden- positive outlook.Theschool’sdevelopmentpresentsausefulmodelforthetransition maintain theirassociationwithShirakamiinaverydifferentformbutcertainly and hosts,receivingfacilitators’training,workshopsseminars. community alsobenefitsfromtheprogrammesbyparticipatingasinstructors,guides with participantscomingfromprimaryandsecondaryschoolsalloverJapan.Thelocal lengths anddifficulties—halfdaytotwodays).Itsannualenrolmentisnowup2,000, fishing; tree-planting;orienteering;cycling;snow-shoewalking);andtrekking(various straw-crafts; charcoalmaking);practical—outdoor:(wildplantharvesting;river 468 steep mountainswheremountain godsreside: situate ourselvesinthisworld, assimplyexpressedbya paradigm shiftinwhichasense ofmutualityandreciprocityquestionshowwemay over long-termdailyinteraction, whichposesagreatchallengetodayanddemands a yet stillundervalued,innature conservation.Suchconnectivitycanonlybedeveloped natural surroundingsbutalsowitheachotherasintangible culturalheritageiscritical, nature. Whatisemphasisedherethatvaluingasense ofconnectivitynotonlywith management strategywhoseorientationisnecessarilya separationofthehumanand a necessity.Itisnottheintentiontodenyconcept ofprotectionnatureasa humans andnaturehaveexistedinsuchawaythatco-existence hasbeenmoreorless The discussionsinthispaperarelimitedtoasmallcommunity andJapan,where Conclusion the naturalheritage. less connectionstooneanother—intangibleculturalheritagebeinganintegralpartof biodiversity, habitatandecosystembutalsoourlanguages,senses,emotionstime- Matthews’s term. regionalist’s term.Itisaprocessof‘reinhabiting’by‘lettingthingsbe’,touse features ofplaceastheiridentity,takingthembackto‘toliveinplace’,coinabio- consciousness andawilltowardlife.’ Rather, countryisalivingentitywithyesterday,todayandtomorrow, sorry orhappy.Countryisnotageneralisedundifferentiatedtypeofplace… suggests: ‘peoplesaythatacountryknows,hears,smells,takesnotice,care,is articulate thehuman–naturerelationshipthataresooftenoverlooked.AsRose sense ofbeauty,appreciationandcelebrationcommunitylife,positivewordsto also highlightstheimportanceofcreativityandimaginationinpromotiona involved andpromotingacommunity-basedself-regulatorysystem.Thisapproach The schoolprovidesanewformofcommongroundwherethecommunitymembers Building aconceptualcommunityforconservation,onecanusethedistinctive 65 K. Kato

to besensitivelyintunewiththestateofnatureanditsflow,whileactivelybeing 64

This mayalsoresonatewiththeideaofenvironmentalpassiv- 63 66

What isinterwoveninthelandnotonly matagi

who haslivedinthe Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 2]Thecriteriafulfilled byeachsiteare:Tasmania(82/89,N1,2,3,4;C-3,4, 6);KakaduNP(81/ [27] 27 Tsugaru-QuasiNP—Special Zone(0.624—Buffer),SpecialProtection(0.344—Core & [26] UNESCO(2004). 26 [25] 25 Theyear1993wasthefirstinwhichJapan hadanomination,havingbecomesignatory [24] 24 Shirakami(1,232m),Mukai-Shirakami (1,243 m),Manase(988Futatsu-mori(1,086 [23] Relph, 23 [22] Rodman,‘EmpoweringPlace’. 22 [21] Cohen,‘Belonging’,2–3. 21 [20] Relph, 20 [19] vanEyck,‘AMiracleofModeration’,109. 19 [18] Relph, 18 [17] BergandDasmann,‘ReinhabitingCalifornia’. 17 [16] SchechandHaggis, 16 [15] Said,inGuptaandFerguson,‘Culture,PowerPlace’,37. 15 [14] Seetheauthor’sfurtherdiscussioninKato(2004). 14 [13] Ibid.,230. 13 [12] Ibid.,229–30. 12 [11] Plumwood, 11 [10] 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Notes generous supportfromthecentre. Australian NationalUniversity,in2005.Theauthorgratefullyacknowledgesthe This researchwascarriedoutthroughafellowshipattheHumanitiesResearchCentre, Acknowledgements 9 Seamon,inHay,‘MainCurrentsWesternEnvironmentalThought’,157. [9] TermsusedbyRelph(1976). [8] Plumwood, [7] Norberg-Schulz,inHay,‘MainCurrentsWesternEnvironmentalThought’,156. [6] Leopard, [5] TermsusedrespectivelybyThayler(2003);BergandDasmann(1990);Relph(1976); [4] [3] Inthispapernature,environment,placeandlandreferbroadlytoacommunity’ssurrounding [2] ConventionfortheSafeguardingofIntangibleCulturalHeritage,UNESCO(2005), [1] receive frombutalsogivetonature… everything else—animals,plants,trees,water,mountainandsky…wherehuman nature iswherenohumanexistsorintotalharmonywith C-5, 6). 887/92, N-2,3,4;C-1,4);Willandra Lakes(81,N1,C3);Uluru-KataTjutaNP(87/94,N-1,2; (Forestry Agency,2002,2003;Agency forCulturalAffairs,1997). Buffer). PreservationArea(Core, 10,139),Conservation&UtilisationArea(6832—Buffer) 2002). state oftheWorldHeritageConventioninpreviousyear(Ministry ofFinance,Japan, Kodake (1,042m),Ashika(1,000m)andTengu(958m). Clifford (1995). Shira natural areas. TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Available fromhttp://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16429&URL_DO=DO_ =while, Place andPlacelessness Place andPlacelessness Place andPlacelessness A SandCountyAlmanac Environmental Culture Environmental Culture kami = Culture andDevelopment divinity,spirits,deities,and , 32–33. , 34. , 41. , 204. , 220. , 220. International JournalofHeritageStudies , 27. sanchi =mountains. 469 Downloaded By: [University of Queensland] At: 00:22 29 November 2007 5]Kito,‘Environmental Philosophy’,12.KitosuggeststhatSocialLinkTheory consistsofthree [50] 50 [49] Hardin(1968);Tsuchiya (2004). 49 [48] 48 [47] Matsui,‘TheRealm ofMinorSubsistence’,169. 47 [46] 46 Minorsubsistence(e.g.ricefarming)asthemain subsistenceactivityissurroundedbya [45] 45 Pers.comm.Early [44] Somesaythesesecretsarenottobetoldeventheirsons. 44 [43] 43 Asstated,followingtheRioSummitin1993governmentwasunderstrongpressureto [42] E.g.performance,craftworkskills,festivals(AgencyforCulturalAffairs,1997). Naturalmonuments,aconcept 42 [41] 41 Preservation,protection,andconservationare [40] 40 UNConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment,Human [39] 39 Manyunattended [38] ForestryDevelopmentPublicCorporation,latertheGreenResourceAgency. 38 [37] 37 LawsandregulationsissuedbytheEnvironmentAgencyincludingWaterProtection(1957), [36] 36 ExtremeageinghasbeennotedgenerallyinruralareasJapansincetheearly1980s;manyof [35] Allparticipants’commentsaretheauthor’stranslationfromJapanese. 35 [34] AnexampleisaJomonarchaeologicalsite,SannaiMaruyama,uncoveredin1995. 34 [33] 33 Thecurrentnumbersintheregionare8(Nishimeya4,Ajigasawa1,Fukaura2andMinehama [32] 32 Totalpopulation13,616(2005):M6,443,F7,173;65+1569,2437,under15834, [31] UNESCO(2004),WHC,Article1,Section38. 31 [30] ICOMOS(1993);Phillips(1998);Rössler(1993a,1993b,1997). 30 [29] 29 Tongariro,NZ(1993,Natural2,3,Cultural6);PhilippinesRiceTerraces(1995,C4,5); [28] 28 470 K. Kato main components—environmental sustainability,socialequity,andontologicalrichness—and Sazukaru field) mainlytocollectplantsand firewood. Iriai Inoue, M.,2004;Y.,1997,1999;Suga,1999,2004). gathering, riverfishing,waterbirdhunting,carpfarming)(Matsui, 1998;Kito,1996,1999; diverse rangeofrelatedandperipheralactivities(e.g.mountain vegetableandmushroom eight orsoindividuals, for itscomplexrituals,taboos,ceremoniesanduseofspecific languages.Asagroupof promote environmentalconservation. erties (flora,fauna,geographicalfeatures,naturalreserve)(Numata,1998,1994). 1931 Akitadog,Toki(NipponiaNippon,1934,1952special).1950Protectionofculturalprop- historic sitesandnaturalmonuments(nationalmonuments,850,special72), proposed byvonHumboldt(1800),wereintroducedMiyoshiManabu.1919Protectionof (1972), WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment(2002,Johannesburg). (1968). Itai (1955),Minamatamercurypoisoning(1956),Yokkaichiasthma(1961),andKanemioil Anti-smog (1962),Anti-pollution(1967),andNoisePollution(1968)wereissuedafterItai- 1995, withthoseaged65+exceeding20%. the communitiesinregionsawtheirpopulationdeclinemorethan30%between1960and (pers. comm.). 1). Blackbearsarenotregardedasendangeredatthisstagebutlocalnumbersdeclining the Shirakamicommunity. 838. Theauthoracknowledgesthegeneroussupportandwillingparticipationofpeople Sintra, Portugal(1995,C2,4,5). cedars arecausingserioushayfeverproblemsnationally. mountain guides). Japan. Today,theirmainsourcesofincomearefarmingand tourism (e.g.guesthouses, Only twopeoplearerecognisedastheregion’s the summer,andrabbitsfirewoodinwinter,spendingabout 1–3monthsatatime. winter whenthehibernationseasonends),mountainvegetables inthespring,riverfish —the rightofagrouporlocalcommunity toaccesscommonproperties(e.g.mountains, , itadaku . jinko-rin Sazukaru matagi matagi

practice isdocumentedfromabout500yearsagoandknown

ismostcommonlyusedasin‘bless withachild’. are nowaffectingcatchment(e.g.erosion),and40–50-year-old

enter themountaininsearchofblackbears(atend matagi

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