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•

Bengt Hambrœus's Notion ofWorld Music: Philosophical a~d Aesthetical Boundaries

Per F. Broman McGill University, Montreal August 1997

A thesÎB 8ubmitted to the Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research in partial fultjJment ofthe requirements ofthe degree ofMaster ofArts.

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Canadl Table ofContents • Table of Contents ü Acknowledgments .ili Abstract iv Résumé v

Introduction...... 1 The Concept ofWorld Music 6 An Outline...... •...... :...... •••..•...•..•.....••...•....••.•...... •.•..•...... 6 Historical. Influences-Exotismus and EthnomusicolOlY 8 Ingrid Fritsch's Four Classes ofWorldMusic 10 Exotic Material-The Compoaen' Points ofView 12 The Meditative Concept-A Case Apinst "DevelopincVariation" 15 The Idea ofGlobal Unity 17 Avant-garde. Modemism. and World Music...... •...... 19 Critici.sm ofWorldMusic from the Neutral Level-Folk Music in Danger 28 Criticism ofWorld Music from the Poeitic Level--8choenberc. Nono. Femeyhough. and Adomo 33 Historical Background ofBengt Hambrœus 37 The Form.ative Years : 37 McGill University 1972-1996 _ 46 Bengt Hamb1'8!us's Notion ofWorldMusic 47 Nocturnals-"Hambrœus's Midsummer Vigil," Political Protest and a New Compositional Technique 55 The Poeitic !A!vel...... •.•....•...... 55 Compositional Technique ~ :.:...... •...... 60 Conc1uding Remarks 68 Appendix 72 Bengt Hambreus's Unpublished Liner Notes on Nocturnals...... •...... 72 Bibliography 74 Recordings 82 • Notes 83 ü • Acknowledgments 1 am grateful ta Professor Hambneus who opened thia whole tapie. 1 am also grateful for

comments by Sylvia Grmela. Nora Engebretaen-Broman apent much time editiDg my

English. Without her the text would have been far leas comprehensible. 1 am also most

grateful ta Krister Malm and Gert Olsson who helpedme with references and answered my

questions back in 1990, to Joakim TiIlman who read the entire manuscript at a late stace

and who made me avoid 80me embarr~1miatakes~ and François de Medicia who tumed

the abstract into un résumé~ Duringthe International SUDlDler Courses for New Music in

Darmstadt in 1996-as weUu in a conversation later via email-Brian Femeyhough

provided me with modemist view ofthe recent aesthetic developments. 1 round bis

comments very enlightenjngfor myproject. Stephen Incham provided with information

regarding bis work as we1l as provided me the musical example ûom bis Second Piano

Sonata. Wamer/ChappeU. Music Sweden-Nordiska Musi.Jdbrlaget kindly permitted the use of

excerpts from a Cew ofBengt Hambreus's scores.

Most of all, 1 would like to th~Mitchell Morris for bis liberating, olten

unrestrained, comments. sugp!stions. and encouragement without which this study would

not have been possible.

Stockholm August, 1997

• ili • Abstract The concept ofWorld Music is important for the explanation ofvarious twentieth

musical phenomena but ita application to virtuallyevery pore ofmusic creates an inevitable

confusion. In the 1980s. World Music was a term WIeful for describing popular music in

fusion with ethnie music. That ract huleadmany to an association ofthe term exclusively

with that new genre. In this study 1 denne World Music in Western art-music-from an

historical perspective as weil as with regardto Dlwrical style. ideololY. and aeatbetica and

give examples ofvarious composera' approaches. In the ideologica1 discussion, the debate

over "exotic" music and musical borroWÏDp turns out to have many points ofcontact with

the notions ofmodemism and postmodernism. 1 exemplify and test my ideas by using the

stylistic deve10pment ofSwedish-Canadian composer Bengt Hambreus as a case atudy and

discuss ideological and musical applications ta the concept ofWorld Music in relation ta

Hambrœus's piece Noctumals for Chamber Ensemble (1990).

• iv • Résumé Le concept de «World Music» estimportantpour fexplication de divers phénomènes

musicaux au vingtième sièder mais 900 application à la quasi totalité des genres musicaux

crée inévitablement une confusion. Dans les années quatre-viDgtr «WorldMusiot constituait

une expression pratique pour référer à la fusion des musiques populaire et ethnique. Cette

situation a favorisé rétablissement cfme association exclusive entre ce terme et ce nouveau

genre. Dans mon étuder je définis «World Muai~ daDsla musique d'artoccidentale à partir

d'une perspective qui tient compte à la fois du contexte biatorique, du style musical, de

l'idéologie et de l'esthétique, et je commente des exemples illustrant les approches de divers

compositeurs. Dans la discussion idéologique, le débat entre musique «exotique» et

emprunts musicaux révèle plusieurs similitudes avec les notions de modernisme et post­

modernisme. Pour illustrer et tester mes idées, futi1ise le développement stylistique du

compositeur suédo-canadien Bengt Hambreus comme étude de cas, etje discute les

applications idéologiques et musicales du concept de «World MusiOt en rapport avec le

Noctu11UJ.ls de Hambneus pour ensemble de chambre (1990).

• v Introduction

• There are no 'theories ofliterature,' there is no 'theoEY ofcriticism: Sueh tags are armpnt bluB: or a borrowing~ transparent in ita pathos, from the enviable fortunes and forward motion of science and technolOlY. [...) What we do have are reasoned descriptions of procesaes. At veIY best, we find and seek, iD tum, to articu1ate, narrations of felt experienœ, heuristic or exempluy notations of work in pmgress. These have no 'scîentific' status.1 (George Steiner)

This project was initiated.in 1990 ~uriDCBenet HambneU5~scraduate composition seminar

at McGill University which. was covering thœe divergent topies: the music ofBruee Mather,

the music ofKarlheiDz Stockhausen, and the concept ofWorld Music. The wide scope of

approaches in the seminar combined with the lively discussions that took place resulted iD a

paper investigatingthe concept ofWoddMusic iD an art music context. However, 1felt that

much remained to he clone. Indeed, thi.s topie is wide enough to offer a lifetime's worth of

research opportunities.

During the course ofthe seminar, 1 became quite fascinated with Hambneus's

broad outlook on a variety of tapies..1 was fSlmjJjar with bis vast erudition with respect 10

historical musicology and contemporary art music, but1 didn't expect 8uch deep lmowledge

and understandingofother kinets ofmusics. For HambneU8 everything seemed to be of

potential mterest. This attitude is ret1ected in bis articles for the 8wedish music dictionary

Sohlmans from the 1970s. He coDtributed on a wide variety oftopics, mch as "Avant-garde,"

"Braille notation," "Darmstadt,'" -(jallop," "Gavotte," "Habanera," "Klanparbenmelodie,"

"Organ," "The Oxyrhynchus-Hymn," "Reger, Max," and OlSamba."

The seminar was an eye-opeDÏDg experience (1 was then a classical violiDist with

hardly any lmowledge ofany music outside Westem art music). Traditional musical

dïscourses iD Sweden cover a wide variety oftapies iDdudiDg popular music from the

seventeenth century as weil as the twentieth eentury, ethnomusicology, and traditional • archivai studies ofart music. However, these cIiscourses never blend. Thus~ Hambneus's 1 open ways ofperceivin~music were enormously liheratillC. ail the more because at the âme

Hambrœus's reputation in Sweden still stressed h.is position as the leading modemist • composer and orgaDist during the 1950s. It was not until after a couple oflectures in Sweden. belPnnjn~in 1992, that Hambneus's wide acope ofperception became widely

known. This seminar then. wu not at an what 1 had expected. Eventually. 1 cot the stroDg

feeling that the concept ofWorldMusic--tbe merPnc ofstyles andimpulses offolk music

and art music that has oœurred throughout history--could provide answers regarding

altemative styles that othenvise exist onlyon the sicle ofthe b.ighway ofthe development of

art music. Theconcept ofWorldMusic aIao, inaome eues, provides an altemative canon

altogether.

The part ofthis text dealing with hiatorical implications ofWorld Music is a

rewritten and substantially expanded version ofmy paper for this seminar. A debate in

Sweden on aesthetic issues in today's art music during 1995 led me to read worb related to

criticism and critica1 theoryin other fields ofthe arts and to define my thoughts within the

context ofthe most recent contemporary music.Z 1 felt that 1couId contribute to this

discussion through these new sources that were free from the •Adom~modemist" discou.rse

prevalent in Sweden. These intluences are expressedin this text. During this relatively long

time-span 1have exten8ively developed my notions ofhow to work WÎth the concept ofWorld

Music. My initialidea was more or leu exclusively related to how exotic aesthetic and

musical elements came into being in art music and wbat moralimplications thatcouId have.

After havinginvestigated more thoroughly the historical consequences ofmodemism,

postmodemism, and recent European discourses, 1 see a far wider range ofapplications for

the concept ofWorld Music. For example, it couldbe considered. as an antidote to the

predominance ofAdomian dialectics in Germany and Sweden as opposed to Denmark for

example, where the CODÛontaûoDS between modemism and postmodemism were never as

difficult.3 World Music also resonates 8trongly with recent postmodem discourses. In these

two contexts 1 bave incorporated thoughts and ideas Crom tluee articles 1 bave published • during the lut two years in the Swedïsh journal on contemporary music, Nutida Musïk. 2 These articles could he seen as a trilOIY dealin~ with modemism, postmodemism and

avant-garde in the works ofthe controversialSwedish compoaers Sven-DavidSandstr6m and • Jan Sandstrtim (Dot related).~ Many composers have also di8cussed their DOtiOns ofWorld Music in print and1

have become aware ofhow they manipulate their conceptions ofcultural boundaries in order

to justify their own aesthetics. Laterin my text 1 will di.scuss such composers who condemn

approaches ta World Music other than their own (Pierre Boulez is a particularly obvious

example).

AIl these influences haveledme tG œflecton questions œlating ta canon.

formations: What characterizes the canon ofWestem art music sïnce. say. 1800? Is it Iinear

harmonie structure? Is it the concept ofthe autonomous musical work?5 Is there an idea of

an unbroken chain ofdevelopment? Duringthe twentieth century, Many have implicitly as

well as explicitly answered "yes" to all three questions.8 Some spokesper80ns ofthe

modernist tradition desperately seek to exclude all currents that could he seen as

contradictory to more traditional approaches. In particular. this seuch for the modern Grail

has consistently excluded popular music and the musics ofnon-Western cultures from its

domain. Donald Mitchell might exeJPplify this opinion in an illustrative way:

We bave seen, indeed, how the two greatradical masters ofthe first baI! of this century, Schoenberg and Stravinsky, cuaranteed a basis for continued comprebensibility, for continued communication, by holding fast to practices wmch might still be meaniDgfuI1y related to 'tradition' (tradition in the sense ofan accumulated experience of the past, against which, inescapably, we listen to, and compose, our music), 'critical' of tradition--calcified tradition-though tbeir innovations were.'f

A straight line iB beliéved to exist leading from Beethoven via Wagner and the

second Viennese School to the Darmstadt seri8Ü8ts sueb as Nono, Boulez, and

Stockhausen.'These assumptioDs form the underpinnings ofthe major thread of

contemporary musical aesthetics advanced by the spokespersons, including myself, ofwhat1

will hereafter refer to as The GrandModemistic Canon. This tacit privüeCÏllg ofbistorical.

continuity and progress has proven quite detrimental to our understanding oftwentieth· • century music, in that the role ofothercurrents and aesthetic impulses has more or less 3 been ignored. In this study then, 1 wouldlike ta present a contrastÎllc perspective by

investipting the concept ofWorldMusic. 1presuppose the correctDe8S ofRobert P. Morpn's • assertion that, during the twentieth. century, the musical work "[t)ransformedfrom an essentiallyautonomous. self-eontained. entity ta one susceptible to Comp insertions [...)

[and] became susceptible ta a broad rance ofnew stylisticiDfusions."'9 However, 1 have also

found that this almost Marxian notion ofhistorical continuity was prevalent as wel1. within

parts oC the ethnomWlicological community. This ratber Euro-œntric notion shines throucb in

the way ofdescri.bing bistary as acontinuing destruction ofdistinct musical (non-Western)

cultures. Oœidentalculture couldindeedchance over time butthat ofthe Orient shouldbe

protected from any extema1 influences whatsoever.

The extensive debate over Postmodemism-particularly as conducted outside the

musical sphere-is closely related to the matters at hand. One prevalent opinion (but

certainly not the only opinion) is that Postmodernism constitutes an aesthetic position

opposed to modernism.10 It tums out that there are Many similarities between

Postmodem.ïsm and the concept ofWodd Music, and, indeed, between Postmodemism,

World Music, and the avant-garde. By demonstratingconnections between these three

concepts two goals will be achieved;.First, it will be shown that the concept ofWorldMusic

could contribute 10 a meta-classification ofmusical styles. A World-Music Filter could show

relationships based on factors otber than musical structures: relationships based on to

ideology and ÏDtent on the one band and on perception and compositional technique on the

other. Second, new licbt will be shedon the old European debate between the "politische

Moderne" and the "Isthetische·Modeme"lL-with Baons Eisler advocating the Cormer and

Theodor Adomo the latter. Whereas Adorno believed that music's power resided in a

negation ofsociety through musical structure, ("Gese1Jschaftlich ent8Cheidet an den

Kunstwerken, was an Inhalt aus Îhren Formstrukturenspricht.j.12 the other side ofthis

debate involved the question ofhow to malte a more explicit criticism ofsociety tluouCh

music with texte The relation ofKurt Weill's music ta BertholdBrecht's texts is, ofcourse, • the ultimate example ofthat. In other words, the locus ofthe criticism. ofsociety resides in 4 different meta-cateprical domaiDs. This discusaion miptseem Iike a detour in the context

ofWorld Music; however. we are Dot dealingexclusively with borrowiDp ofmusical. material • alien ta The Grand Modemistic Canon but rather with a cultural, economic, ideoIogica1 complex ofissues.

1 willexemplify and test myideas by using the stylistic deve10pment ofBenet

Hambrœus as a case study and will di.8cusa the conceptofWorldMusicin relation ta

Hambrœus's piece Noctumals for Chamber Ensemble, completedin 1990. Since Hambneus

represents two ideological camp~e modemist (he was active in the Darmstadt circle

during the first halfofthe 19508) and the postmoderDi8t (bis styleunderwent a radical shift

around 1970 in the postmodem direction)-his music, supported by bis numerous published

discussions ofhis own worb, constitutes an ideal foundation for an investigation in this

respect and weil. illustrates some ofthe major issues at stake. 1 will conclude my work with

an analysis ofNoctumals. My methods involve "traditional" analyses andcritica1 readings of

Hambrœus's own texts relating ta this piece.

Although Bengt Hambraeus is well-Jmown in Scandinavia, Germany and Canada,

he has not received public recognition equivalent ta that accorded some ofbis European

colleagues from the same generati0ll. 1 must here point out that 1 am personally acquainted

with Bengt Hambr8!us. The advantages oflmowing the composer must be taken into

consideration. Hambraeus has on nwnerous occasions told me about bis artistic, scholarly

and personallife, andhas often provided me with information that otherwise would have

been concealed. 1 will. try ta avoid too Many personal ret1ectiODS with regard ta this

friendship, however. and will cÎearly indicate the persona! nature ofparticularcomments as

necessary.

The opening quotations remind us that we are in dit1icult waters where personal

opinions often pus as etemal truths. This is obviously not so and 1 will not pretend ta such

intentions in the text; on the contrary, 1 be1ieve that this topic is too large to encompass in a

systematic way. But, 1 a1so strongly believe that this project deserves 10 he undertaken • (although, for DOW, in the form ofa Muter'a thesis). 5 The Concept ofWorld Music

• An. Oudine

Andifthe word World Music me8DS anything at ail today it would be as a Dew recom-shelflabel.13 (peter Pannke)

World Music as a CODcept is important (or the explanation ofvarious twentieth-eentuy

musical phenomena butits application ta virtuallyevuy pme ofm1l8Îe creates an inevitable

confusion. In the 1980s, World Music was a term useful in describing popular music in

fusion with ethnic music. That fact has lead many to a pnerai association ofthe term

exclusively with that Dew genre. Aœording to Tom Schnabel, the temls World Music and

World Beat were coined in the early 19808 when record.company executives met in London

to figure out how to market the musical melange. "Vie were getting a lot ofletters from

people who, after hearing the music on the radio. were wondering where to find it," recaIls

Roger Armstrong, co-director ofGlobestyle Records in London. "Sa we decided to call it World

Music to indicate to both retai1ers aad consumers where you could find itin shOpS."14

Schnabel's definition ofWorld Music is "simply that which comes ta us from other cultures."

World Beat is "a modem version ofthe same music, studio-produced and more rhythmically

inc1ined."15

Another receDt use ofthe term treats World Music as synonymous with folk music.

A search over the Internet indicates that this Î8 absolutely the predominant definition. This

is also illustratedin record stores around the world where traditional folk music is round in

the olten large section ofthe store called"World Music."

World Music has also been defined within an art-music CODtext. Two main kinds of

distinctions are possible, one referring to the materia1, for example, the use ofnon-

traditional scales, rhythmical patterns (as round, for example, in some music by Messiaen), • micro intervals, or aesthetic concepts alien ta Western art music sueb as repetitive "DOD- 6 developing" struetwes (for example music by Steve Reich); and one ref'emng to an extra­

musical context, for example, the idea ofmakinc music for the _hole world (for înstaDce, • Stockhausen's Telemusik) or difl"erent CODBtellatiODS ofcombiDatioDS ofthese two distinctions. E88eDtiaIly, we are moving iDta the old territoryofautanomy iD music.

According ta IngridFrit8ch's compœhensive studyfrom 1981, ~ur Idee der Welt·

musik,"16 the German word "Weltmusik'" was introducedinto modern usage in the early

1970s by KarlheiDz StockhauseD and is usually asaociated with art music. The ADela­

American term "WorldMusic," althouch a direct traDslation, refers more often ta popular

music. Fritsch maltes a c:IiatiDctioaby usine -Weltmusir om)' in alUMJciatioD. with art music.

According ta her definitiOD, "WorldMusic" is used ta deDote the coexistence ofdiffeœnt

musical cultures, while "Weltmusik" has the meaninc ofa pobal new music, that is. a new

kind ofart music. usineelements ofCCexotie" musics aimine to become a cIobal music

culture.11 1 shall not follow Fritseh's distinction: reœnt use ofthe two terms iDdicates a more

liberal and thus more confusing interpretation. World Music tends more and more ta be

synonymous with folk music or popular music iD fusion with folk music. The German term

"Weltmusik" is also changing its meaniDg in public usage, becoming more synonymous with

folk music.la ,

Jean·Jacques Nattiez's image ofthe tripartition-the poietic level. the neutrallevel

and the esthetic leveI19-is particularly useful in this context: In which ofthese regions is the

World Music concept situated? As a deliberate ideaofthe composer, iD the aetual music in

terms ofrhythmical patterns or non·art musical scales or, in the listeners' perception ofthe

work? AIl three are possible as separate entities or in diJferent constellations and as such

are important for interpretation and analysis. • 7 Historicallnfluences-Exotismus and EthnomusicolollY

• The noise level increased on July 31 [1683]. when the Christian musicians were ordered to play wlUle the Turb were doinC the same thinC. with the battle rqingail the while and with each aide recisterinc scom for the muaic ofthe other. This ancien régime battle-of·the-bands seems to have establiahed the reputation for the noisemakinc. jangling inferiority of the TurJriù music in the European mind once and for ail. The Turkish musicians making a racket (to the European minci, at least) outside the walls ofViennaproved to be an unforpttable image of besieged Christendom. and it liDgered in the popular imagination for more than a century.m - (Jonathan Bellman)

Sînce the early twentieth century. the term -WoddMusic" has been used extensivelyin

Germanie speaking areas bycomposera and musicologists such as: Georp Capel1en (1869­

1934) in the early twentieth CeDtury; Karlheinz Stockhausen.21 Kurt Nemetz·Fiedler. and

Dieter Schnebel around 1970; and Bengt Hambrseus during the 1980s. Some two hundred

years before Stockhausen and Hambneus, Johann Mattheson found applications for the

term "Welt-Music." but he usedit as a synonym for BOêthius's concept ofmusica mundana.22

Capellen was the first to use the term in a way similar to Stockhausen's: in reference to

Western art music with influences ftom exotic music. Aœording to Peter Pannke, Capellen's

notion of Weltmusik was "an exotic romanticism, a mixed style, that is neither European or

exotic, where the exotic peculiarities were taken into account without forgetting about the

European foundation."zs However, World Music defined as the blend ofmusics from diJl'erent

cultures is. ofcourse, a much ~dE!r.phenomenon than the term itself. J. E. Scott provides us

with just such a very early example. In 204 B.C. the cult ofthe Great Mother, Cybele. was

brought ta Rome from its center in Pluygia. Their musical instruments. pipes. cymbals. and

tambourines. eventually became popular there. Scott refers to another. less successful.

cultural clash: In 167 B.C. Greek musicians who visited Rome were laughed offthe stage

during a performance.3& Indeed, the fOundatiODS for the present discussion ofWorld Music • were laid thousands ofyears aga. 8 DuriDg the eipteenth andDineteellth centuries thue was a sipWicantTurkish

influence in the arts, olten referred lo as alla turco. These influences could serve as a case • study for thi.s kind ofmusical blendin~. Examples ofallcJ tuTaJ are foundin the finale of Mozart's Firth Violin Concerto andin the ma.rch section ofthe lutmovement ofBeethoven's

Ninth Symphony. The Turkiah influence cives us a l'QOd illustratioD ofthe mecbanisms of

World Music in actioD. Inbis book 7Jae Style HOf'IIl1Ois in. lMMusic ofWestern Europe,

Jonathan Bellman deacribes the rise ofthe Turkish Style in Vienna, claiming that it

became, in the handa ofHaydn and Mozart, the first standardized longue for Exoticism.215

The Turltish Style eventually gave .way lo the Hunprïan Style which sharecl the propertyof

representing the ethnie Other and simiJar1y would ultimately become a part ofthe common

Viennese musicallancuage. These exotic influences were fashionable rather than authentic.

The Turkish iDfluence8 were, accordiDg lo Bellman, iDitially transferred during the Siege of

Vienna in 1683 andlater translormed according to the public fantasy, for veryfe." people

had actually heard the Turks-"the Turkiah Style was thus almost entirely the product of

the European imagination...• This example iIlustrates hoVi a soDic image could be

transf'ormed iota a lasting concept and as such could clarify fundamental notions relating ta

World Music which Fritsch calls "ExotismuS."27 Later during the nineteenth century other

exotic places received composen' attentions as exemplified by the "Chïnese melodies" in

Mahler's Das Lied von der ETde as weil as by many eighteenth and seventeenth-century

operas.2B

The concept of"Exotismus" is ofcourse not exclusively usedin musical contexts but

in virtually an discourses related to Westem cultural borrowings. In Edward Said's words:

"In the system oflmowledge about the Orient, the Orient is less a place than a topos, a set

ofreferences, a conpries ofc:haracteristics, that seems to have its oricinin a quotation, or a

fragment ofa teu, or a citation from 80me one's work on the Orient, or some bit ofprevious

imagining, or an amaIcam ofall these...• Inthe case ofalla turca the dominating feature

would he the march with percussive effects; reprding the impression ofChine. music, it • would he pentatoDicism. 9 The more measurable use ofexotie e1ementll durinrthe twentieth centwy

developed. accordine ta Fritach, under the umbrella ofethnomusico1ocY-the scientiJic • approach. Composera were usine more reliahle sources iDsteadofcleformed collective cultural memories. Bartôk and Messiaen are examples ofthis later approach-BartcSk tbrough bis

ethnomusicoloPcalstudies. Me88iaen's approach was similar in that he u.sed scientüic

sources but difJerent iD that he found the transcriptions in a music dictionary. 1 will retum

ta a discussion ofthe "scientific approach" later iD this text but DOW continue ta a closer

analysis ofthe dift'erent ideas suRoundine World Muaic.

Ingrid Fritsch ~ Four Classes ofWorld Music

1 start out by asking, Cao we continue to orpnïze...? The word implies that previously we couId orpnize these thinp.SJ (Jean-François Lyotard)

Ingrid Fritsch tries to c1assify dift"erent types ofWorld Music, with three ofher four categorizations comprising some aspects, ofthe idea ofusing music as a means ofuniting different cultures:

1. World Music as music for the whole earth. Global music as making all musical cultures become closer to each other.

2. World Music as a concept of unificatiOD. Included here are diiferent types ofsyntheses and symbioses:

a) the idea of an·outlandish style enricbed by exotie e1ements, represented by Capellen and, to some estent, also by Loeb.

b) the idea ofa trans-national and timeless music in wmch equal elements ûom all people coexiste StocJrhausen's concept in Telemusik, and also in Hym1U!1J, is an example of tbis utopia that also carries political implications.

3. World Music as a new musico mundona: many worb by Cap and bis followers, The Dream HOUIII! by La Monte Young, and also eventually Stockhausen's 7ierkreis-melodies or even Sirius are expressions of transcendental approaches, that 10 back at least ta Charles Ives. This • is also representativ ofa new reJicioaity with modest pantbeistic traits. 10 4. World Muaic as the music that will dominate the earth: the overpoweriDg fmeicn music, that by Nemetz-Fied1er very naively as an immanent criteria that lies far ahead, is aIso an economical Cact.:'1 • Frit8ch's catelOrizatiODS are challenlÏDg andindeed novel. However, her classification is, &om a methodololical point ofview, very confused., SÏDce categories one

through three aze connected through reference to the composera intention as well as by the

musical materials. Categories 2b and 3 focus more orleu exclusivelyon the composer'a

intention (the Poietic level in Nattiez's temlinololY), categories 1 and 2a on the musical

material (the Neutrallevel), andéategory 4 partly on the perception ofthe music (the

Esthesic level) andpartlyonthe Adomianideaofsocio-ecoDomic cultural COlltexL l would

like ta suggest a simpler classification dëparting!rom t'tVo UIlIDistakable notions: idea and

musical material. These DOtiOns aœ then combinedin düferent constellations: first,

regarding the composer's ÏDtent, UDÏDtentional process, and the neutrallevel and second,

what these intentions are and the audience'a reception. Naming and redefining might not

provide any immediate solutions at an but rather might serve as a preJiminary point of

departure. l will thus expand upon Bohlman's opinion that

[f)olk music appears in art music in t'tVo ways [...]. In the first or these, the integrity of the pieces or folk music remaiDs. [...] In contrast, the composer may seek not ~maintain the extemal integrity of a pieœ of folk music but rather to penetrate the essence of folk song style and to appropriate this essence for the composition ofart music."32

• Il Emtic Material-The Composer.-Point8 ofVJeW

• The internaivalidity of a cultural interpretation answer8 to demands­ our own demanda--of completeness, of fullneas. (.•.] Abo, siDc:e we can never become members ofthe cultures we study, that u, natives-since the foreipmess ofcultures distant lmDl our own always remains our interpretatioDS will always strive for greater completenesa. "Cultural analysis," Geertz writes, -g intrinsjc:allyiDcomplete."S1 (Guy Tom1inson) *** Los von der Tyrannei des Leittons!SC (Storckvon den Griechen)

From the compoaers' perspectives, the concept ofWorld Music couId simply he deacribed as

an infinite source ofmusical material and as a wayofescaping from comp08Ïtional dead

ends. The cri.sis at the end ofthe nineteenth century wu severe. Donald Mitchell sets the

boundaries tao narrowly when he asserts that the p088ibilities ·opened up by the

rediscovery offolksong, iD fact, must stand alonpide neo-classiciam and seriai technique as

the third and last ofthe 'answers' ta the question: 'How to go on?' (There Ï8 scarcely a

composer in the first hallofthis eentury who has not allied himselfto one ofthese 'schools: " sometimes ta more than one.)"315 For Friedrich Blume, the lOal ofmaking "a universal

language that embraces ailhumanity and erases all düferences in station and culture [...]"36

was accomplished during the Classical period with a great deaI ofhelp !rom folk music or

rather the image ofim Volkston. But folksonl' is only a small part ofthe Wodd Music sœne.

Even a conservative composer lik~ Camille Saint-8aêIU stated.:

Music has now reached its limit in regard to its development. Tonality and the modem harmonyis close to death. The old keys depart !rom the Cocus of attention, and they are followed by the teys of the Orient that oft"er an immense variety.~

The crisis had to he dealt with in some way, but no standard method was

available. Each composer had to find bis own personaI route. Debussy, for example, writes • in a ietter to bis teacher Emest Guiraud: 12 [1 have] DO raith iD the supremacy of the C major .cale. The tonal scale must be enriched by other scaIes. Nor am 1 mialed by equal temperament. Rhytbma are stif1iDg. Rhytbma cannot be contained within bars. It is nonsense to speak of 'simple' and 'compound' tïme. • There should be an interminable t10w of both. Relative keys are nonsense, too. MusicÏ8 neither major nor minore MiDor thirda and major thirds shouldbe combined, modulation thus beco~more flexible. The mode is that wbich one happens to choose at the moment. It is inconstant. There must be a balance between musical demanda and thematic evocation. Themes 8Ugeat their orchestralcoJorine.s

When an artist's creativity wu coineDowhere, the use ofsotieelements became one way

out. As Dale Caïge has noted: "By. aIlowiDe the various musics ofother cultures to rejuvenate

them composera can avoid compositional dead encls. New poasibilities are constandy before

them.W39 Three examples will illustrate how composera seem to bave conceived ofthis issue

and how di1Jerent parameters have attraeted differentcomposera.

Béla Bart6kis a twentieth-century example ofan ethnomusicologist whoae studies

determined the musical language ofbis own compositions. Unlike bis predecessor8, he chose

not ta set the Eastem European folk sonp he studied to nineteentb-century harmonies but

rather tried to make new harmonies usine the modal structure ofthe sonp themselv8S.«J

Most ofbis works did not use authentic folk tunes, but instead were based on newly

composed melodies. More recently. GyéSrgy Ligeti became attracted in particular to the , rhythmical aspects ofe:œtic music. In 1982 a student ofLigeti's presentedhim with music

from Central Africa. Today Ligeti considers bjmselfto have experienced something simj1ar to

Debussy who in 1889 heard a Gamelan ensemble..u Lieeti's 1982 experïence transformed bis

musical style radically. This is manifested in bis fifteen (as ofOctober 1995) etudes for piano

(1982-).c The MOSt fascinating upect ofthe African music for Ligeti was the way in which

complex polyrhythmic structures couldcoexiat with the belp ofa very quick basic pulse (up ta

600 beats per minute).43 Messiaen also learned about an exotie culture from the European

sail. The Indian rhythms, apparentin so many ofbis worb, were displayedin the

Encyclopedie dl! la musique et clictiontUJire du Conservatoire.fa The Japanese inspiration, as

expressed in Gagaku from the orchestral piece Sept HaÙUJi, was drawn from a recording • with traditional Japanese court music. 13 We are Dot omy dealing with the borrowiDc ofmusical material but also with the

borrowing ofinstruments. A promïnent example of tbia is the wayin which the use ofthe • instruments ofthe percussion family developed andexpanded during the twentieth century. Changingits function &om a providerofmilituyor festive connotations (suare drum) orof

extra emphasi8 ofthe bus (timpani), the percuasion battery Ift!w due ta the importation of

foreign instruments and pined a position as a seIf-su&icient group ofinstruments. Today,

the use ofChïnese blocb or a tam-tam does Dot automaticallycarry any foreign

connotations. These instruments have become part ofthe cultural heritage. There still exist

düfeœnt ways to approach folk·mWlic materialfmm thepoüaic 1evel

While Fritsch isolates two main groups ofWorld Music composers-tb.ose whose

music takes on the very essence ofthe music they study rscientificÎ, and those who merely

quote or imitate foreign music within their own Weatern tradition (Emtismus)-tbis

distinction becomes lesa useful coll5Ïdering that Bart6k's music is no more folk muaic than

Brahms's or Ligeti.'s. By separating NO types ofcomposers-the scientist and "exoticist"­

from the artist whose aim is to create new structures. we are dealing with the same kind of

phenomenon. In this respect, ail composera using emtic musical materiaL regardIess of

whether their sowces are actually defined by scientific SOlUCeS or exist as a transformed

collective image, are basically doine the same tbing. The major difference instead can be

found in the way the composers talk about their music and how the Art World. to use

George Dickie's very usefu1 term, perœives ofthe extra-musical content ofthe music.45 In

many cases, the way composers mer to a particular method ofselectinC matena! is simply a

justification oftheir own moraiand aesthetic stanclpoints. Itis DOW politically more

beneficial to claim ta iDclude "authentictl folk material instead ofpresenting a cultural

filtering ofemtic material. • 14 The Meditative Concept-A Case Against "Developing Variation"

• [...] the reason why 1 studied Indian music ia that 1 couder it as the highest ofaIl musical traditioDS. It seems tG contamso much. it occupies itself with ~ung:AD. these difl"erent ralU. ail these düFeœnt inteEva1a: it is an astoDiahing complex ofpitchea-dae hich standard of performance practice. theae vocal. traditions that they bave developecL are simply amazing-the uniDterrupted. cIrone notes, the tamboura. the aetuality, that these overtones bave [...] And when 1 Iistened to a tape \Vith Pandit Pran Nath. 1 felt complete1y clear that 1 had tG study with hîm.. Yet. 1 must here make clear that my study of this music is something difl"erent than: my own mU8Ïc.- (LaMonte Young)

The debate on Stravinsky versus Schoenberginitiated by Adomo has long since been

neutralized, althoulh it is still frequendy ref'erred to. In relation to WorldMusic. the

distinction between the two is still valid. Robert P. Morgan, for example. concludes that of

the two composers, Stravinsky was ahead ofhis time in the sense ofbreaking with the

Western tradition andiDtroducing new foreip aspects ofcomposition.t1 "With Stravinsky

one cannot speak ofthe tradition at all. but only ofa tradition [...]."41 This statement couId

be read against Fredric Jameson's proclamation ofSchoenberg's music as ~ovative

planification [sic)" andStravinsky'slis 'ûrational eclecticism:-Moqan's remark is

confirmed by the way composers mch as Schoenberg perceive themselves to he part ofthe

continuum ofart music as historical development and progresse One famous example is, of

course, Schoenberg's article ~ationalMusic (2)" from 1931 in which be lives a list ofhis

"teachers"!rom music history ~a~. Mozart. Beethoven. Wagner. and Brahms) and what

each ofthem taught hîm.1II

Music witbout clear formal harmonie development was quite a foreip concept

within the Western art-music tradition !rom the Renaissance tbrough the early twentieth

century. Schoenberg's comment that he had "[...] observed numerous negative merita [in the

New Music], such as: pedal points [...], ostinati, sequences. [...] and a kind ofpolyphony, • substitutingfor counterpoint"51 is really just a last call for a fading tradition. It is abo, 15 unfortunately, remjnj'Cent althe Oriental pbilolociat Emeat Renan's critique that "Indo·

European is taken as the living, organic Bonn, andSemiticOrientallanguages are seen • comparatively to be inorgani,c...• Capellen's de8C1'iption olallowable novelties in emtic music could indeed be seen H Schoenberg's liat offaulty traits:

[...] UDison, orpn point aod omamented music, arpenio, glissando aod pedal efFects with shup dissonances, monotanous and stereotypical for· mulas, exotic rhythms, periodizatioD and phrasing [...Ju

But, contrary ta what Schoenbergbelieved, the principle ofdevelopingvariation WH

indeed challenged by a lasting altemative thatcouldbe related to World Music. Composera

such asLa Monte YOUDC andGiacinto Sce1si illustrate thia notion. Under the inspirationof

Indian philosophy, La Monte Young claimed that "timbre is God."16 The statement implies

the crucial importance oltimbre, produœd by a single tone with its overtone spectrum: "I Cee!

intuitively that these principles oftimbraI vibration correlate with the vibration of

universe."lm InterestincIy enough, Young does Dot seem to coosider slow meditative motions

ta be Asian musical traits:

Musicalinfluences 1 can divide mto American, Europeao, East European if you want ta place Bartok in a separate category, and Eastern-not just Indian but Gagaku and gamelan too. The American line begins with the slow harmonic movemeut of cowboy songs, then in bigh school American Indian music, wbich is very static as opposed ta the dyoamic, directïonal, climactic form ofela88Îcal Indian music.ss

La Monte Young's description is remarkable for at least two reasons: Fîrst, how is

it possible to group Indian and Japanese music together? The differences in aesthetics and

musical content between the two are vast.51 But they both represent the only acceptable

ethnomusicological regions seeJ!. ôom the Western perspective in their proper aesthetic

documentation in writing. Secondly, hi.s description ofIndian music sounds as ifitcould

constitute an ideal case ofDeveloping Variation. Any composers own views should be

approached with exueme caution. To conceive olYoun"s music as being intluenced by

Indian tbinkingis to oversimplify: "[...] my own music is my own music. Itis in aoy case Dot

Indian music. My studies ofIndian music is a ditferent matter. 1 want to keep these two • musical systems as pure as possible."118 16 The Italian composer Giacinto Scelsi alto coDfrontecl the treatment ofa siDcle tone

in bis works andreceived intluences from nUDlerous travels around the wodeL His travels ta • Tibet and India were ofparticular musical importance. The reaulting compositions, mm as Quattro pezzi chiascuno su Ulla nota sola for Chamber Orchestra (1959), focus on the

variation ofa sincle note orchorcLlIt As such bis later style hupinedita place in the hiatory

ofcontemporary art music, especiallyin terma ofita intluence onMusique Spectral

composers.80 Scelsi was devastatingly critical ofWestem music, particulady ofits primary

focus on structure and 8C8Dt heed of"the sonorous laws ofeneqy andon life itself."S1 Thus,

itis notsurprisinc that many ofhis worb ref1ect a complete lack ofa fonnal development in

the Western sense. With Scelsi's statements we are approachingmue's extra-musical

discursive pmperties.

The ldea ofGlobal Unity

The more one is able ta leave one's cultural home, the more easily is one able ta judge it, and the whole world as well, with the spiritual. detachment and generosity necessary for true vision. The more easily, too, does one auess o1\eself and alien cultmes with the same combination ofintimacy and distance.62 (Edward W. Said) *** [...) the musical. work is Dot merely what we used to call the "text"; it is not merely a whole comp08ed of "structures" (1 prefer, in any case, to write of ·configuratïoUÎ. Rather, the work is al80 coDstituted by the procedures that have engenderecl it

The use ofWorld Music related concepts did Dot only arise out ofthe quest for a new musical.

language however. Foreighteenth andnïneteenth-œnturycomposers, the use offolk music

elements wu also, as mentioned abave. a manifestation ofnationalism.6C Some composera • today are more CODCerDed with creating a global music. For manYt in faett UDifying the world 17 with a global music is the primuy motivation. The idea rather than the concrete product

(the music) begins to predominate within the diacou.rse ofcomposers and critics. Bart6k was • far ahead ofbis tilDe when he formulated. bis concern for pobal unification: "my true ideal is [...) the brotherhoocl olaD. peoples. the establishment of a brotherhood despite an wars and

contentions.... Beethoven's use ofSchiller's ·Ode an die Freude"in bis Ninth Symphony

exposed a similar approach some hundred. yeus earlier.

KarlheiDz Stockhausenis a crucial figure in the history ofWoddMusic. His

electronic pieee Telemusik combines dift"erent authentic musics. olten distortecl for example.

Japanese traditioDa1muaic andelectroDie m,1lSÎC- He rede6nespolyphony, as a "qualitatively

determinable concept-as a polyphony ofstyles. tUnes. and areas.... and describes

Telemusik as:

l want ta come doser ta a dream.: ta take a step further in the direction not to write 'Illy music, but iDstead mWlÏc for the whole earth. for an countries and races (...) Telemusik is Dot a collage any longer. Instead­ through inter-modulations between old 'diacovereci' objecta and new. created with modem electronic means--a bicher UDity results: A completeness mm pasto present. and futuœ. &am far distanced cOUDtries and 'raoms': Telemusik.8'2'

Stockhau.sen·s philosophy in Telemusik is very pretentious indeed. He actually

seems to consider bjmselfcapable o(making music for ail humanity by mixing ail sorts of

music together. thus creating a kind ofmusical redemption. The ideais admirable but

incredibly naive and raises many questions. Itis diflicult ta pt something ofStockhausen's

intentions out ofthe piece without lmoWÎl1g ofthis declaration. for the music itselfdoes not

commUDÏcate in any syntactic way. Stockhausen's deacription sounds like an attempt ta

justify some politically correct Dotions tbrough the World Music. In that respect heis no

different &om Bart6k. The three examples here, Beethoven. Stockhausen. and BartOk.

represent three düferent approaches to the musical material. but for ail three. the verbal

comments about the music or the notions expressed by the text are crucial. mat agencies

are in operation when a listener petteives any WorId Music content without statements mm

the composer or ifany direct quotations or more remote ïntluences are not audible? According • to Brian Femeyhoup. "there wouldhe at leutsome receptive vectors [indications in the 18 music] mobilised able to point this Cact out to the awan and re880Dably iDformed listener.--

This is not really the case in the worb referred to here exceptfor Beethoven'. use of • Schillers text. Stockhausen's and Bart6~scommenta seem ÏDstead to be motivated by a self-awareness paradiJm-in this case, the idea ofIlobal UDity-that ia DOt properly

addressed in the art work it8elf(Beethoven uses a text in bis symphony). In other words, the

comments are imposed upoo a work ofart in order to evoke a sympathetic reading of the

work in question-lackiDg ail connection to the petœptionor the function ofthe woù.

Avant-garde, Modemism and World Music

To reject a work ofthis kind, wbicb. May wellseem to he beautiful in the oldstyle. can be a painful experienœ for the critic, conacious as he is of the pasto But he must, in bis own smaIl 'lVay, malte bis stand, and say No ta the lie that is iJDplicit in the use, however masterful, ofa language which has lost the power of meaDÏDgfu). speech. One must say No to Richard Strauss's Alpen,sinfonie. for instance. 00 this ground aIone, and to many another ofhis worb, even the better ones, where a similar air ofcomplete unrealitypervades bis grandiose rhetoric.- (Donald Mitchell) *** (...) every position on postmodernism in cultuœ-whether apologia or stigmatization-is also at one and the same time. and neoessarily, an implicidy or explicitly political stance on the Dature of multinational capitalism today.1O (Fredric Jame80n)

In the 1950s the avant-garde piaDist David Tudor was ukine for a new notational system.ll

He felt that the aaditionaI mensuralsystem unreasonably limited the possibilities ofnew

music. Instead, he suaested a new system built from Chïnese ideogrammatic notation. A

certain complicated process or thought should be expresaible in terms ofa single 8Ï1D.

According to Tudor. Westem musical notatioD is only a pendant to written language, which

obtains meaning omy through more or less complieatedcombinations ofalphabetic umts. • The disadvantage in music is tbat wbat we heu as a unity is much more dü1icult to read on 19 paper. Are those ooly words mm the foremost avant-carde pialliat at the âme aiming at

further break with tradition? Are there fuDdamental similarities between the concepts of • avant-garde and WorldMusic? Since 1 bave spent 80me time challencml'the notion ofDeveloping Variation u the

ooly foundation offormalstructuœ by pvingexamples ofalternative procedures, a closer

look at the concept ofmodemism i.s justified. Musical modemi8m bu developed thmugh the

notion ofa contiDuous historical development. Musical modemism i8 al80 closely connected

ta Schoenberget son école. AndreaS Huyaen's deacription ofthe result ofmoderni.sm's

canonization (for example, the way modemiam bas pinedconualininstitutions such 88

universities and broadcastiDg companies in Eumpe)'7Z summarizes the ideological conflicts in

play:

Modemist Iiterature sinœ Flaubert is a persistent exploration of and encounter with lanl\Ulge. Modemist painting siDœ Manet is an equally persistent elaboration of the medium itaelf: the ftamess of the canvas. the structuring of notation, paint and brushwork. the problem of the frame. [...) Qnly by fortifyinr its bowularies, by maintaining its purity and autonomy, and by avoiding any contamination with mus culture and with the sipifying systems of eve~day Iife can the art work maintain its adversary stance: adversary to the bourpois culture of everyday life as well as adversuy 10 mass cultme and entertainment which are seen as the primary forms ofbourgeois cultural articulation.73 "- This clearly echoes the Schoenberc~'s"\Terein für m"sikalische

Privataufführungen" or Milton Babbi1rs aqument from bis article "Who eares ifyou

Listen?,"74 that the creation and reception ofart have little or DOthing to do with each other.

But today, in Most musical communities, Adomo's negative dialectics sound only ironie. They

reverberate in the description ofa·concert ofcontemporary music in Amsterdam in 1982

where the audience laughed at a pieœ featuriDg clusters "Dot because the c1uster was sa

modem and daring, but because it was so old-{rJshion«l."75 They also reverberate in the

wonderful scene in Woody AIlen's film Manhattan in which Diane Keaton describes a

sculpture-a steel cube--duriDg a visit at a museum: ~ati.s brilliant-it was very

textural-it had a marvelous kind ofnerative capability." It is particularly in context8like • this that Nattiez's tripartition become important: The modernist camp forcets about the 20 complicated relationahip between intention and reœption-between difl"erent levels of

discourse. Linda Hutcheon's important notion ofUDÏDteDtional irony also passes by • unnoticed.78 Ber definition ofirony ia not simply"to say one tbinC but Mean the opposite," but instead discusses Uony in terma of:

the makinr or iDferrjnr of meaDÎlllr in addition to and düfe:rent from 'Ilhat is stated, topther with an attitude toward. both the said. and the unsaid. The move is uaually trilpted (and then directed) by coDflictual textual or contextual evidence or by markera whicl1 are sociaJJy apeed upon. [...] irony Ï8 the intentional transmission of both information and evaluative attitude other than 'Ilhat is expJicitly presented..1'f

As an example Huteheon men to her own interpretation ofUmberto Eco's novel

Foucault~ Pendulum. which me interpreta as an ironization ofMichel Foucault's 7J&e Ortler of

Things. Eco ofcourse deDies this interpretation. Hutcheon continues:

Obviously ironists and interpreters of imny can meet on any number of diff'eœnt terrains: rhetorical, linguistic, aesthetic. social, ethicaL cultural, ideological, professional, and 80 on, but at the MOst basic and pneraI level, discursive communities are consûtuted by shared concepts of the norms of communication: "a set of rules preacribiDg the conditions for productions and reception of meaniDp; whicl1 specify who can claim to initiate 'Ilhat topies under 'Ilhat circumstances and with what modalities (ho•• when, why)."11

The situation ofmusical. modemism. gives cleu examples ofcontradictions

particularly DOW when the terrain hfS cl1anged drasticaIly. The following incompatible

notions ofAdomo's often appear in combination: i) The tendencies ofthe musical material

should determine the compositioDal process; ü) The concept ofStimmigkeit. that is. the

consistency or "correctness" ofthe musical ideas. as being important in determiDing an

a.rtwork's place in society (for Adorno, this was twelve-tone music); üi) Music, like a Monod. .. should negative1y miftor societY. Consequendy, music should mirmr societyin a negative

way by being composed in a manner up ta date with the Grand Modemistic Canon. This

only worked for a few yean in Europe during the 19508 and 60s. Instead, a later aesthetïc

has ta deal with the orthodoxy ofHich Culture. A meeting pointfor World Music and post­

modernism is in fact the clash with modernisme As expressed by Bellman, "The Style

Hongrois represents the tint wholesale and conscious embrace ofa popular music associated • with a lower societal caste by the composers andlisteners ofmore formal, schooled music."'79 21 Popular culture andfolk music have the same function in relation to Hich Culture--as its

negation. In the postmodem society this neption has developed iDto a new Higll Culture. • Brian Femeyhoup deecribes the situation as follows: [... the] pseudo-tolerant Postmodern allowa you to ÏDcorporate anytbing except explicitly 'Modemiat' traits. 50 the current state of 'Darmstadt New M~ mipt be seen as providiDg its OWD harmless COUDier­ balance to tbis·exclWlÏOD by assembliDc exclusively Mociemist elements into a quasi-postmodem fonn of non-te1eoloPcal assemblage ofsymbolic icoDS.-

Femeyhough seems to believe that Modemism today represents ouly a kind ofstylistic

entity for Hobby Cultural Critique-with no aim or power to chauge or even mirror society.

This is ofcourse an iDterestiDC pointbuthistorical1y iDadequate. The modemist hegemony

regarding the composition ofart music was expressed very clearly by Boulez: "I assert that

any musician who has Dot experienced [...] the necessity for the dodecaphoniclanguage is

useless. His whole work is irrelevant to the needs ofbis epocb."Il However the Modemist

camp·s incorporation ofoutlandi8h musies, which l hereafter will mer to as Token Mumes. is

indeed worthy ofstudy: The ultimate illustration ofthis is the wayin which John Cage was

accepted by the Darmstadt School in 1958 when he mst was invited as a teacher. Cage's

indeterminate anti.;music exhibited no structural simi1arities to the seriai music that was

"- then the prevailing style in Darmstadt.12 Although he was not appreciated by everyone in

Europe, some important European scholars. including Heinz-Klaus Metzger, provided him a

firm base ofsupport within the musical establishment. In 1958. for example, Metzger de-

fended Cage from a critic's attack by comparing hi.s development ofprepared piano

techniques with the invention ~ th~ violin mute. However. l become suspicious when

someone with a distincdy anti·establishment approach is embraced by the predominantly

intellectual community as bis approach to composition. Another example relates to how two

very different non-European musics-Indian music and Japanese music-have been

featured at the Darmstadt festivals and have become Token Ethnological Musics within its

canon. Ravi Shankar had already paid a visit to Darmstadt in 1957 and demonstratioDS of • Japanese traditional instruments were beinC given as late as duriDg the 199Os. Even the 22 very closed andconservative world ofDarmstadt-and thus the iDstitutionalized

modernism-needs an emerpncyexit in that theœ should he some music that is extrinsic.

This i.s done tG balance the important modemist aesthetics oftoday, New Complexity, Nea.

• modernism, Computer Music etc. But, wbat ia more important, the inclusion ofthis Token

Music should abo manifest the prevailing modemist concept ofcomposition againat the

aesthetic Other.

Indeed, it ia very important for a community to have a music ofits own and an incorporation

ofother musics vitalizes the prevalent dïscounes. One possible explanation for the process

ofincorporation has been proposecl by Brian Femeyhouch. IfWestern art music is "USUDl­

ing the dYDamic development ofmeana as a prerequisite ofseIf·ret1exivity, and further

assuming the utility ofseJf·ret1exivity in establishing a direct critical connection between

society and artistic means, then the Western art music.tradition seems (.•.) to represent the

sole adequate vehicle for this approach developed until the present."&1 Thus, uncfer ideal

cireumstances, postDlodemism, in the eyes ofFemeyhouch. becomes a continuation of

modemism through its ret1.ection over the musical material and muaical history itself-as

opposed to the interpretation ofPostmodernism as a break with Modemism. This notion

reealls John Cage's ret1ectiODS on the state ofsound and explains tG a certain extent

Darmstadt's fascination with Cage.

Emmple 1. beginningofIngham ~ Second Sonata for Piarw and Tape

• 23 It is vmy surpriaiDC thouch that a composer aasociated with the Most complex

modemist music today, Brian Femeyhough, couldprovide us with a wormemodel for a • pluralistic aesthetic by selec:tiDr a stylistica1ly clift'erent continuation ofModemism as bis definition ofPostmodernism and thus justilyinrPoetmodemism witbin the Modemist camp.

One ofthe most emphatic examples ofFemeyhough's notion 1 have encountered appears in

some music ofthe former Femeyhough student and profeuor ofcomposition at University of

Melbourne, Australia---Steve Ingham. There are two understandinp ofIngham's music and

how itis situated with respect to the coDtemporary music establishment in general. On the

one bandhe is the bad boy who maDages to SDeù iD tIlIourh the Darmstadtfestival's back

door under the auspices ofmusicians who like bis lDuaic. In 1996, for exemple, bis new

organ piece, Maroondah Merzbau, was not acheduled in the main program book but was

added to the Swedish organist Hans-Ola Ericsson's recital program at a very late stage. The

other, and less intriguinr. interpretation ofIngham's presence and aesthetic position. and

this is also Femeyhough's belief," is that he really represents avant-garde artin bis

treatment ofthe common musics-musics that surround us everyday-such that we are

forced ta ref1ect over these common musics while they are kept positioned as a music ofthe

Other. There is cleu evidence for bodl interpretaüoDS. His Second Sonata for Piano and

Tape (example 1, the beginnjng ofthe sonata) shows similarities with the organ work and

could easily be considered kitsch after a short listening session. The sounds on the tape are

standardcommercial, pre-fabricated SYDthesizer sounds. Butinterpreted in light ofthe

explanation presentedin the composer's liner notes. this piece could fit mto the classical

stance ofthe modernistic canon, in Andreas Huyssen's words: "adversary to the bourgeois

culture ofeveryday life as well as adversary to mass culture and entertainment"-butin the

music, this notion is so hidden that an ordinary listener might appreciate only the super·

ficial charms ofthis piece. The piano exposes tonal sequences remjnjsrent ofchiIdren's songs

accompanied by the tape that include8 standard. commercial synthesizer sounds. His own

comments about the piece clearly illustrate the Dew situation regarding progressive • composera' relatioDShips to terms such as modemism and avant-rarde. 24 What do we undefttaDd by -c:Iiacord- in music today? Suœly the larply middle-class audience for concert hall music in this COUDa,. [Britain] in 1992 is no Joncer aetually shocked or 05mcled by. say. a major seventh or, indeecl. bya tone cluster. ID lact. simple piŒh aarecate8 have had • their semantic potency pœcressively eroded over the paat decades. to a point where systems of composition based on atomistic pitch manipulations seem luply irrelevant to present needs. To take their place. many composera. myself inc1uded. have tumecl to pnre-baaed. or stylistic dialectics. in which hïstorical œCereDœs. pastiche and confrontations ofmuaicallanpap provide the drivinc forœ and supply the underlyiDc arpment. [...] ID the fint [movement]. stylistic clashes are perhaps at their MOst obvious; sudden dislocations of mood and texture are count:elpointed with the strunle of the "all-too-human­ performer to assert bis humanity apinst the relentless and totally determiDistic "machiDe- of the pre-recorded materiaL Ranns Eisler's song "Thoughts about the Red Flac: quoted towards the end of this movement. hu a special paipaDCyfor me iD tbia contest..·

Ingham's understandinC ofthe present situation is indeed worthy ofdeeper analysis.

The presence ofAdomo's dialectics between art andreallifeis important ta Ingham's

conception. However. theae dialectics do notrefer to the conflict between a notion ofan

abstraet, Monad-like, musical structure as opposed to the unfaithfulness ofreallife. Rather,

Ingham's notion could be seen as a critique ofmodemism from within music itse1f, at the .ame

time opposing the bourgeois life through its exanerations. This new understanding of avant-

garde corresponds to the definition given by Peter Bürger. Bürger maltes the important

observation that avant-garde is more function than style. According to Bürger,

[t]he European avant-garde movements (...] [can] be defined as an attack on the status of art in bourgeois society. What is negated is not an earlier form of art (a style) but art as an institution that is unassociated with the life praxis of men. When the avant-gardistes demand that art become practical once agaïn, they do Dot Mean that the contents ofworb ofart should be socia1ly significaut. The demand is Dot raised at the level ofthe contents of individual warka. Rather, it directs itse1fto the way art fwlctiona in society. a process that does as much to determine the efIèct that worka have as does the particular content.-

Ifwe accept this interpretation (to which 1 am. close to subscribing. chapter and verse)M it is

easy ta subscribe to the idea ofpostmodemism as neo-avant-garde. and likewise. to the

notion ofpostmodemi.sm as a necation ofthe institutionalized modernism.

Bürger himselfaligns the historical avant-garde with artistic movements such as

Dada and the neo-avant·garde with Andy Warhol's paintinC from 1962-100 Campbell's • Soup Cans. Regarding music. the iDterpretation must he sIightly different. Although 25 Stravinsky already used the term avant-carde in as eady as 1939-40~·the historical avant­

garde in music must he consideredto have developed. duriDg the 1950s and to have reamed • its height during the 1960s. John Cage, apin, is a key figure. Adinn Be-Rygg goes sa far as to consider Cage~s music from the 1960s ta be Deo-aVaDt-garde as .enas to he the point of

departure for postmodernism. DuriDg the 1960s, avant-garde andpostmodemism

represented, accordiDg to Be-RYR, a kind ofneo-avant-prde by breaking clown the material

and using -the heterogeneous sounds from daily life....This interpretatioD is highly

problematic. Ifneo-avant-garde and poatmodemism are virtua1ly the same phenomenon

what theD W88 the real avant-carde movement iD musichiatory? In a more important way,

Be·Rygg's assumptiOD is badly chosen: postmodemism as a style is Dot about

"heterogeneous sounds mm dailylife" but couldbe somethinglike '1leterogeneous musical objects &am mankind's musical heritage and the incorporation ofpopular musics into art

music." A set ofnoUDS associated with postmodemism would beuer justify Cage's position

as an early postmodemist: "violation, disruption, deœnterinr, contradiction, confroDtation,

and dislocation."90

To sum up the discussion this far, 1 would argue that one ofthe ways in wmch the

Institutionalized Modemism worb Ï8 through an narrowly circumscribed incorporation of

different musics within its canon. The predominant intellectual approach ta musical

discussion within the modemist camp provides us, in fact, with a way ofapproaching the

musical Other-and thus establishes the foundation for a pluralistic aesthetic opening-not

in a deeper contextual seD8e, butin an intellectual and musical. sense. However, the

ideological spinal system ofthis notion is based upon the assumption ofthe supel'iority of

Western art music as an art form. This interpretation May well work as a explanation ofthe

behavior ofmusical modemism. although it does not work as a explanation from outside the

cultural reference system. ofmodemism.

In Bengt Hambrseus's excellent article in the Swedish music dictionuy Sohlmans~

he describes avant-garde both as a social movement and as being struetura1ly modemist­ • thè avant-garde, as etymoloPcally derived from military terminology as the part ofthe troop 26 beingin the front.'l For my purposes, this question ofwhat miPt.be considered as avant­

garde has a greater sipificance than miptfirst be apparent: As noted above, 1 888UlDe • that there exists a canon ofEuropean ut music that has been iDstitutionalized as a bourgeois art form inthe miDd ofthe audience andthathas pinedstatua within the

academie inStitutiODS. This iDstitutiODal.ized art music includes the moderniatic canon as

well. Now, this institution bas been under challeDp, coincidentally (from popular culture)

and deliberately (from the avant-garde andthe postmodem). Postmodemism directs its

criticism at Modemism for its c1aims ofetemaltruth and etemal ·sublimi~with stylistic

and ideological me8D5. The nameitaelfpoints tothe Caet that Poetmodemism CODstitutes a

new cultural paradigm. (in the Kuhnian sense) iD the v~ process ofdilferentiating itself

from Modernism and Modemism's seJf-enclosed system ofsiens in which lancuap folds in

upon itself. This is also how World Music, in its denial ofthe GrandModemistic Canon,

functions, although its purpose iDitially reaided in the neutrallevel-ïn the demandfor new

musical material.

Raving establishedconnections between the postmodem and World Music, the obvious

objection arises: How can we explain the fsct that the political branch ofWorld Music taJ..b

about moral issues as ifthey were iadeed modemism's traits? This question is extremely

important. 1 suggest interconnections between postmodernism, avant-garde and World

Music which in different constellations challenge the Grand Canon from Machaut to

Schoenberg and Boulez.

• 27 Criticism ofWorld Music (rom the Neutra/. LeveZ-Folk Music inlJanger

• l see ail these gestures as ultimately beiDg derived from the tÏJDe­ honored -WIOng..note" principle of musical exotici8m, which was never limited to the Turkish Style: what our good music does not favor or encouraee, their (whoever -they" milht be, depending on epoch, contest, or opera plot) crr.u:œ muaic probably does, or mayas well do. This principle is the common thread rwmiDg tluoup. the poundiDg 2/4, the harmonic dullneas, the repeated.notes, incessant thirds and fiftbs, and janglingpassap-work. It procluced a kind of stylized noisemaking that was in direct opposition ta everythinc a delïchtful, elepnt piece of European music was supposed to be. Reporta mm the walls of VleIUla aside, Europe would still have had DO trouble attributiDg this sort of music to the distant Turb.9IZ (Jonathan BeDman) *** As much as we might feel that BartOk is demonstratinc homap to folk music. we must al80 wonder to what degree he is compelled to transpose the bellefin verticalcomplexity so characteristic of Western art music ta folk music. When he states that the simplicity of-Arabic peasant music" lends itse1f ta many harmonie possibilities, it seems likely that bis concept of classification derives more &am art music than from the folk music it seeu ta interpret.93 (philip V. Bohlman)

The mst quotation above nggests that,. non-Western music poses a threat ta Western art music. This is, ofcourse, not the most common version ofinter-eultural exchange-it i.s

supposed ta go the other way around. l would Iike ta explore in more detail whether or not

cultural interactions actually have a negative impact. l will describe some aspects ofthese

interactions within the ollly ethnomWJicolopcal territoryin which 1 am somewhat

knowledgeable-Swedish folk m~c.

The primary functiODS ofmusic are for rite or for work-to fuIfill the needs ofa

community. (Rite here refers ta social events in wbich music bas a more or leu important

function.) During the last decades, folk music has regainedsome ofits status and function.

Jan-OlofSchill, for example, emphasizes that duriDC the 1970s Swedish folk music re..

emerged from being a notable relie to having a function within the society.1M This is true. but • only for a very small part-of the population. The main function ofSwedish folk music wu for 28 dancing. That maltes the rbythmical aspect muc:h mette important than the melody.- Today

this function iB no longer associated with folk music in Westem society but rather with rock • music, Dot as a style but in terms ofits function. Without a doubt, what we call Westem popular music shares many traita with orally traDsmitted folk music. As Enc;yclopœdiD

Britannica formulatea thia issue:

Societies possessing popular music also have a folk music tradition-or remnanta thereof. The partial duplication of repertories and style indicates sueb cross..fertilization that a pven song may 50metimes be called either -Col][" or "popular." With reCereace ta music, the tenns folk and popuIar are two pointa on a musical continuum, rather than discrete bodies ofmusic. Li..kewi5e folk music has its written sources for transmission aa wen.s .

Folk music seema on the one hand ta he a tJueat tG the pure development of

Western music and 011 the other handit seema to have a certain attraction ta composers and

artîsts. To be associated with folk music is something meritorious. None ofthe composers 1

have come across who made comments about folk music or World Music have had anything

negative to say about folk music and they all seem ta DOW how to treat the material

without violatingits integrity. The cultural value ofwhatis acceptable is very solid.. Bartôk

composed real World Music but wbat Alfvén or Liszt did was Dot acceptable. Gert Olsson, a

Swedish fiddIerS7 and former musicdirector in Karlstad, daims that Swedish folk music is a

genre as weU as a "stylistic idiom." This distinCtiOIl is important Ilot as a qualitative

differentiation-genuine folk music is, according to Olsson. Dot better than the rhapsodies by

Hugo Alfvén or Franz Liszt-rather, the definitions must he made clear ta avoid

misunderstandings.-

Is the concept ofWorld Music then a daneer ta folk music? Alain Danielou strongly

believes that the concept ofWorld Music results in "a kind ofsynthetic and banal product for

tourist andcommercial consumption" made by "second-rate Brahms, second-rate Bartôk

[.•• ]"98 Gert Olsson's opinion düfers radicaDy:"As long as the source is kept pure," it is Dot a

danger to use folk music materialin other pues.Jœ This statement implies that the music • should he isolatedin a kind ofvacuum. But, as Bohlman argues, 29 [...) modemization and urbanizatioa impiDp more diœctly and profoundly on folk music than do many other inclusive procesaes of change; moreover, Most of the chances that folk music undeqoes in the modem world caa be measured as depees of moclemization and • urbanization.lDl It is only in a musical museum that the maintenance ofthe source remains important. Real.

functional folk music underpes constantchance. Jan LingbeJieves that the general CODcept

ofWorldMusic is a necessity, for "the isolation ofa muaica1 pme is heDce a kindof

amputation because ditYerent kinds ofmusic mter-react iD dift"erent ways."· How much can

folk music change ifthe source &hall remain pure?

EvHy year Swedenhuan audition for folk mU8icians who wantto eam the tit1e

"National Fiddler" [riltsspelman).In order to let the Zorn Badge, wbich is the proofofhaviDl

passed the audition, they have to mow a local tradition as well as he innovative and play

with personality. To be a duplicate ofa &ddler is Dot cood enough-the tradition must

deve10p through tï.me. 103 Can the Swedish folk music fusion bands Groupa, Filarfolket, or

HedningarTU:I he considered to be folk music?1OC In a way it is possible to say that the sources

are authentic, the problem is just that they use music ofmany origins. As an observer

outside the folk music traditiOD 1 have great difficulties evaluating a persoDal style and

determining how inventive a musician can be without exceeding the boundarles ofthe "pure

style." The music ofGroupa, Filarfolket, and H~represents a unique fusion of

different folk musies and popular mU8Ïes. The members ofGroupa are veq confident iD

Swedish traditional folk music-still their music does Dot sound Iike anything else. Their

impact on traditionaI tiddlin, music is probably Dot more harmful than that ofany other

music. One major threat to Swedish folk music comes iDsteadfrom inside the folk music

movement itself: Ooly seventeen years ago, DO ODe was allowed to play one or two row

accordion ta get the Zom Badge; today it is approved, although with a repertoire related to

the violin.1OlS PreseDtly itis DOt approved to pmona the Swedish form ofhurdy·gurdy, but it

seems likely that it will be eventually. What the impact ofthe new instruments will be on

traditional fiddling, we can oo1y l'lesa. Itis Dotions Iilte this that Philip Boh1man has iD • mindin the followiDg quote: 30 The conaervative nature of muc:h folk music 8Cholarsbip olten projects the patterns ofchance resultiDe mm modemization and urbanization in a negative IiPt. When transported to the city, traditions die away; the mass media impoveriah repertories and level style di1ferences; true folk • music exista cmly in an olcler, more innocent pIleratioD; modem society poses a veIY real threat of extiDction. Cloaer examination of the persï.steDce of folk music, however, does Dot justify thia necrolocica1 stance. More commonly, pattems of chance occur dialectically, with waaing repertories heine replaced by more vital ones and Dew, vibrant styles emerging when others lack the tlexibility to withstand chance. These dialectical patterns, therefore, accountfor change in a much more positive way, concentrating on the procesaes of onCOÏDr chance and acceptiDg the ossification ofsome products as a naturaI result of that change.-

When Bart6k expressed the notion that wrhi.s ideal 1 endeavor [the brotherhood or

all peoples] to serve in my music; this is why 1 shall evade no influences. whether ofSlovak,

Rumanian, Arab or any other orilin, provided only that the source he pure, &esh and whole-

some,"107 he l'las out1ining mum ofthe problematic issue at slake: what dift"erence does it

malte ifthe 80utte is pure and ifthe material will be used in a complete1y different context?

Walter Benjamin, the black sheep amongleftist thinkers, sURested that: "Even the MOst

perfect reproduction ofa work ofart is lacking in one element: its presence in time and

space. its unique existence at the place where it happens to he. This unique existence ofthe

work ofart determined the history to which it l'las subject throughout the time ofits , existence."lOl We are not dealing with the preparation ofsome high quality French cuisine of

music where there is a recipe that has ta he followed in ail its details and with the &eshest

ofingredients. This kind ofmoralistic statement is founded upon a Dotion ofmusic as

serving a Dormative force in society. Furthermore, what BartOk forcets is that he, by visiting

distant villages, mo maltes an.impact on the musical culture. He did Dot need to brine

recordings ofurban music in order ta do so-it could he as simple a detail as that he

imposed a self-awareness on the people whose music he studied and potentially changed

their repertoire. Thu, the notion of"pure source" rinp hollow.

Cultural polities seem to be governed by easy solutions. The musical heritage

should he treated as ifit were an old buildingfrom an ancient period-it should remain • intact and he kept pure. Unlike a European Renaissance house in dowutown Prague or 31 Krakow it should DOt even be restored in order to be livable apiD, that is. to fùnction

musically within todays !IOCÎety. Why is the notion ofpurity aproblem with reprd to folk • music when it is not problematic with œprd to the litureical music ot: for example, the Catholic Church? Western hïah· art communities are allowed to chance but folk art is not.

The main intention ofthe Counder ofthe Zom Badge, the painter Anders Zorn, was ta

preserve the traditions ofthe nineteenth century. That concept stronpy resembles the

institutionalization ofart mWlÎc which has become a musical museum 88 well. Iffolk music

is going to have a functioll within the society then it must develop. For the purpose of

preserviDg a cultural hisfory, recozeliDp will dojusttille.

Real functional folk music is 88 alien to an urban composer as is filtered oriental

music. By importing non-art music e1ements, the reault doesn't tum ÏDto decorated or

improved folk mUBic, it tums into art music, but olten with projectiODS ofthe "Other" 88 non­

urban, non-Western, or non-educated. Or maybe more olten, sa in the case ofSteve Reich,

Arrican and Balinese musics turn mto a collection ofmusical materials.UIJ For my purposes,

an extended preJiminary definitioll ofWodd Music in the context ofart music must

consequently be formulated: The incorporation offolk music or non-European art music

material, either as musical materialor with regard to aesthetic content, into a composition

ofWestem art music.

• 32 Criticism ofWorld Music (rom the Poeitic Level-Schoenberg, Nono, • FerneyhoUllh, and Adorno (...] Schoenberl and Adomo offer structural 1iateDing as notbing leu ambitious the a method for definjng and assessing the moral soundness ofevery relationship that beau on music.110 (Rose RosenprdSubotnik)

***

There is no loncer any ~ left whoae .onlS and cames could be taken. andsublimated by art. The openingup ofthe markets topther with the efJect of the bourpoil rationalization process have put the whole of society~en ideologically-under bouqeois categories, and the categories ofcontemporuyvulpr music are altocether those ofbouqeois rationalized society, which, in order ta remain consumable. are kept onIy to within the limits ofawareness which bouqeois society imposes on the oppressed classes as well as on itself. The material used by vu1gar music is the ob80lete and degeneratedmaterial ofart music.lU (Theodor W. Adomo)

The concept World Music bas a1ways met with some strong resistance during the twentieth

century. Schoenberg, for example, states bis opinion very c1early: "[F]olklore and art music

'\ differ perhaps no more than petroleum and olive oil, or ordinary water and boly water, but

they mix as poorly as ail and water."112 Interestingly enougb, BartOk aIso had a very distinct

notion ofwhat was possible and what wu not, cJaimingthat "(f]olk music (is] always tonal,

and an atonal folk music (is] totally unimaginable. One could therefore not base an atonal

twelve-tone music on tonal foUç 1DUBÎC."u.s This is ofcourse a somewhat odd statement

consideringAlban Bergs quasi·tonal twelve.tone woru. There are further commenta:

Danielou's conviction was that it was "absurd ta think thatfrallllents ofraga or Koto

melodies can he usedin Western compositions";1l4 Luip Nono betieved that "the collage

method originates from colonial reasoDing";l15 ScbiJJincer. in tum. formulated the idea that

art must be innovative and Dot imitative at ail. He did Dot believe it was possible to be • inDovative by creating new music outofold: -Artists will have to forego tbjnking in terms of 33 imitation, and even in tenDs ofcreation baaedon the primitive systems ofthe creat extinct

civilizations ofthe past."·· Althouch these cli1feœnt commenta Cocus on ctiJferent aspects of • World Music, a nucleus ofcommon criticism exista. This is the central objection, not only to World Music but also to Postmodernism.. There seems to he a desire to maïDtain the

waterproofwal1s between genres and cultures, between innovation and depictinc.

In 1967, Boulez stated:

1 find that people form a too sentimental and emotional idea of Oriental music. They now dive into itlike tourists settinl off to visit a land8eape that is about to vaDiah. (...) There is a cnat foolishnes8 in the Westemer who goes to India, and 1 dete8t this idea of a 10st paradise.' Itis one ofthe moat odioua Conn ofaffectation..U7

Surprisingly enoup, six years earlier, in 1961, Boulez made refereoces to Andean peasants

in Peru in regard 10 the use ofthe harp in bis own Improvisations surMallarmé. ua He admits

that

[...) there is a lesson to be leamt from Oriental tradition. Our Western instruments have tended to become standardized and to have specialized uses. They all produce a pure sound and give the same C in aIl registers. There is no individualization of sound. In the Orient, however, an instrument has no absolute tuning."119

Alain Danielou was even critical ofethnomusicology, which he claimed"has created a

sort offetishism oftraditions in whid1 music i.s treatedin the same way as are archaeological

remains which one must put in storage.nlal On the other han~ one could argue that without

the studies, one would perhaps lack interestin the music ofother cultures. Here 1 am

suggesting that Fritsch's two catecories, ethnomusicology and Emtismus, lack practical

significance in another way as weB: The context i.s lostin both cases. The dift"erence8 relate

more to aesthetic categories within art mWlÏc. Boulez's incoosistent commenta regardingbis

own relationship to the use ofexotic in8.uences in art music retlect the dichotomies involved.

Fust, while it is morally advantageous to be coonected to music from other cultures, the

modernist canon asserts that art music should develop within its own &amework. Secondly,

firm aesthetic statements made by a particular composer are olten a complicated web of

restrictions designed ta fit the composera own aesthetics. To Boulez, World MWlÏc is • unacceptable when applied by anyone other than bjmself. Boulez's contradictory statementa 34 reftect a se1f·justifyinc, seIf·ripteous approach ta the cultural situation, rather than a

thoroughly thought-tbroup aesthetie stance. Even Nono, who was very critical ofaspects of • World Music, usedBrazilian rhythms inbis PolyfOniœ monodi4 rytmica-though this is not audible.l2l

The notions ofBoulez, Danielou, andNono are ofcourse DOthing less than a

critique fmm the Left-the left·wingideolOlY as religion-and were expreasedmore openly

by Cornelius Cardew in 1974:

Some May criticize Stockhauaen on the pounds that he presents mystical ideas in a debased and vulpr from. This is true, but it is Dot enough.. To attack debaaement and wlpDty in tbemaelves is meaningless. We have to penetrate the Bature of the ideas that are being debased and vu1garized and ifthey are reaction&ry, attack them. What is this mysticism that is heing peddled in a thousand pises, lofty and debased, throughout the ÏJDperiaJiet woriel. At bottom, the mystical idea is that the world is illusion, just an idea in5ide out heada. Then are the millions of oppressed an exploited people throucbout the world just another aspect ofthat illusion in our mincis? No, they aren't. The world is real, and 50 are the people, and they are struaJinr towards a momentous revolutionary chanp. Mystici8m 8ays 'everytbing that lives is holy,' 80 don't wallt on the grass and above all don't harm a haïr on the head of an imperialist. It omits ta mention that the ceDs on our bodies are dying daily, that Iife cannot ilourish without death, that holiness disintegrates and vanishes with no trace when it is profaned, and that imperialism has to die so that the people cao live.122

Cardew later withdrew so.e ofthese hush comments,I2S but they show some of

the ideological issues at stake particularly so from a European perspective where the public

political discourse has a much wider spectrum than in North America.

To conclude this section, 1 strongly question the notions expressed abave by Nono,

Schillinger, Boulez, and Danielou. Why should musical material be "invented'"? Why would

this interpretation ofWodd Music he ideologically correct? Why should the source be Jœpt

pure? How can anyone question the Dotion ofbringing music out ofits original context?

AIready in 1936 Walter Benjamin wrote the following words: '1"or the first time in world

history. mechanical reproduction emancipates the work ofart €rom its parasitical

dependence on ritual."u. We should indeed have become aceustomed to these mattera offact

by now. On the other hand, l find Femeyhough's notions very consistent tluoughout. He • composes modernistic music without glances toward any oth~ repertoires. In bis 35 statements, he defenda bis position. There He no bidden apndas such as tboae aunested

by the conf1icts between the music and worda ofcomposera such as Nono andBoulez. Bengt • Hambrœus recognized thia chancmc world and the needfor new diacourses early OD. Already in articles mm the 19508, he had becun to adche. many ofthe important issues raised

above. In the followiDC sections 1 will examine Hambneua'. notions ofWorldMusic and how

they fit into the CODtexts discuased above.

• 36 Historical Background ofBengt Hambrœus • The Formative Years

Bengt Hambraeus was bomin Stockholm in 1928. Lite many other composers~Hambrseus~s

first compositions weœ inspiredby bis instrument-the orpn. He came iDto contact early on

with one ofSweden~smost prominent orpniata and pedalOlUes~AlfLinder (1907-1983) in

Stockholm. Hambneus studied the organ and counterpoint privately with him between 1944

and 1948. Hambr&!U8 alao studied the violiD. for tell yeus. His violin studies do Dot aeem to

have left any d.eep traces in bis œuvre, exceptfor &citotiveand ChotUl for violin andpiano

(1950) and bis virtuosic way ofwriting string parts in bis chamber and orchestral music.

Linder's teachingfocusedpartieular1y on the German organ tradition: J.S. Bach,

Ernst Pepping (1901-1981~a German composer iD the Repr-Diestler contrapuntal

tradition), Günter Raphael (1903-1960~ a German compœer and orpDÏ8t whase

contrapunta! compositions were inspired by the Reger tradition)~ Hermann Grabner (1886­

1969, a German composer in the Reger tradition)~ and~ above all~ Max Reger. These

influences are particularly apparen.in Hambl'leus~searly works~ written mostly for the

organ and the piano. Hambraeus did Dot receive formai. instruction in composition as part of

bis university training~ but he did have counterpoint and composition lessons with Günter

Raphael, who was a wu refugee in Sweden~ between 1945 and 1948. With Raphael,

Hambrœus composed bis organ worb op. 3.

In 1947 Hambneus began bis academic studies at Uppsala University, SwedeD.

His MOst intluentialprofessors were Carl-Allan Moberg iD MusicololY, Sven E. Svenssonin

Counterpoint~and Gregor Paulssonin Art History andTheory ofArt. He graduated in 1950

with a degree in MusicololY~Art History and Relicious Studies. His thesis "Timbrai

Problems in the Art ofOrgan During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries- was

publishedin 1950.1215 • Hindemith's book The Croit ofMU8iotJl Composition intluenced a vast number of 37 composers in Sweden during the yean around 1950. In Sweden, Hindemith's book 'lias used

mainlyincounterpoint studies as a continuation ofPalestrinacounterpoint (as formulated • by Knud Jeppesen). PalestriDa countupoint had a strongposition inSweden due ta Hilding Rosenberg (1892-1992), the Most influentialcomposer and teacher ofcompositioD in Sweden

from the 1930s and onwarda. Rosenberc's student, Karl-Birger BlomdahI, who also became

a higbly influential teacher, followed Rosenbera's method but eventually developed a method

ofhis own relating Palestrina to Hindemith. The studies ofBindemith in Sweden at the

time should be seen ooly as an expansion ofthe prevailingemphasis on the compositional.

craft, and Dot as aD attempt to iDcorporate IOme ofhis philoaophical ideu. It 'lias the Deo·

classical Hindemith, the composer ofLudus TotrDlis, who was the Cocus of attention, Dot the

composer ofCardillac. Hambraeus had already read Blomdahl's review ofThe eTait of

Musical Composition in 1946 and read the book in 1949. He 'lias undoubtecDy influenced. As

a musician Hambreus performedHindemith's secondorgan sonata andbis first piano

sonata. As a composer, he found interestin the concept ofStu(engang and the independence

ofeach melodic line. One cleu example oftbis influence is found in bis Concerto for Organ

and Harpsichord (1947).

In 1949 Hambraeus met the German composer and organ theorist Ernst Karl

Rossler (1909-1980) for the first tîme. RéSssIer's inventive ideas recarding organ stop

registration and pipe buildinghave been ofvital importance to Hambl'8!us's harmonic

tbinking ever since.138 His attraction ta the trïtone interval originates, according to the

composer, from RlSssler's Ueberblasende DoppelroluflOte 2' organ pipe in which the odd . overtones-that is, overtones 3, 5, 7, Il, etc.-are emphasized, The ratio 5/7 produces the

tritone interval. The tritone plays a significant role in virtual1y an ofHambreus's music.

appearingin a vast majority ofthe choMs as well as in bis melodic writing. A significant

piece is bis first ~acouaticwork Doppelrohr II (1954) in which he electronically creates

organ-like sounds.

The 1950s became the decade ofbœak-through for Hambr8!us. He became famous • for being the most rebellious and experimeDtal young Swedish composer, drawiDg bis 38 inspiration from the Central European avant-prde. The summercourses for new musicin

Darmstadt, (West) Germany were ofpartieular importance to bis development. There he • met with the new generation ofyoung procressive compoaers such as Luigi Nono, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Camillo Topri, andKarel Goeyvaerts. Olivier Messiaen, the major composition

teacher in Darmstadt in 1952 and 1953 (when Stravinaky and Beethoven were the Cocus of

attention), also played a major mie in HambrEus's development.12'1 In certain respects,

Hambrœus and Messiaen had a Kreat deal in common: They were bath organists, composed

music with a re1igiOWl purpose, had extensive ÏDterest8 Cor non-European music, and their

music wu occasionally modemiatic. In a letter toSwectiah composer Bo NilsBon, Hambreus

described how he overheard a conversation in wmch Stockhausen and Goeyvaerts di.scussed

the permutation technique in Messiaen's Mode ~ ualeuTS et d'intensités in 1951.-

Hambrœus later used parts oftbis technique. Hambraeus wrote a number ofarticles on

Messiaen, the two earliest ofwhich appeared in 1952.128 In "Sty1i.stical traits in Olivier

Messiaen's Music· Hambraeus cl:i.scusses Messiaen's Turangalîla-Symphonie (1948) with an

emphasis on the inftuence ofIndian and PolYDesian musics. The article also includes a

discussion of general traits ofMessiaen's style and an overview ofhis MOSt important warka,

including Quatourpour la fin du tentPB and Cinq rechants. "The Mystical Messiaen" is a

presentation ofMessiaen's organ music for the church musiaaDS in the Lutheran Church of

Sweden. He discusses aspects ofregistration and compositional technique and emphases

that although Messiaen is a Catholic it sbould be perf'ormed in the Lutberan church.

HambrEus wu Dot impressed by Theodor Adomo, who replaced Arnold Schoenberg

as the main teacher in Darmstadt in 1951. In interviews and the very few articles and

letters in which Adorno is mentioned Hambreus is verycritical ofAdorno andbis cittle; for

example Heinz-Klaus Meu,er's lecture in Darmstadt in 1956 is described in a letter as

"sublimated Adorno-style nonsense."lSJ In a radio interview1 conducted with Hambneus in

January 1995, he recalls two annoying episodes: During one ofbis seminars Adomo

criticized Messiaen's student Karel Goeyvaerts's pointillistic Sonata for Two Pianos, asking • fo~ thematic and formal development. The YOUDg KarlheiDz Stockhausen stood up in the 39 audience to defend Goeyvaerts and asked Adomo ifhe was Dot lookin~ for the wroD~ aspects

of this composition-~errProfessor, you ue lookin~for a feather ofa chicken in an abstraet • painting." AIso the German composer Hans Ulrich Enplmann (1921) was taken &Sicle br Adomo, who toldhim that today every composer should write aerial music; EDge1m8.DJ1'S

neo-classical music WH no longer appropriate. Althouch these episodes did not directly

involve Hambneus, he claimed that they reflected the atmosphere and Adomo'a approach in

1951. The re8BOD for Hambœus'a negative reactiooa are obvious consideriDg Adomo's

dogmatic orientatioD. Adomo'a cateprically abstraet theoretical systems and bis buüt-in

conf1ict between SchoenheqandStraviDsky, for example. WHe UDacceptable to him (asit

was even to SchoenberglS1). In an earlier article, Hambreus sugested that the reader of

Philosophie der neuen Musik pts the impression that"Adomo distances himselffrom the

music itselfin bis sociological reckoDÏDg and pts stuckin quaai-philosophy andtrivia

[adiafora)." He also cliscussed Adomo's ÏD8uences on Thomas Mann's Doktor Faustus and

mentioned Schoenberg's remark that Thomas Mann does not mow more about bis theories

than the small amount Schoenbergonce taught Adomo.132

Adomo's method ofexaneration andcontradiction is, as we will see, very far !rom

Hambrœus's be1iefin unification. Htmbneus was also critical ofAdorno's proDounced impact

on musical discourses in Sweden-the predominance ofwhich continues even today. In the

fall of 1994, Swedish composer Sven-David Sandstrtim's High Moss was premiered in

Stockholm. Itis a large-scale saered work almost two hours in Iength. A couple ofweeb

Iater, a long article entitled '"The Vulgarization ofthe New Art Music" by the Swedish

composer Jan W. Morthenson appearedin Svenska Dagbladet, the leading daily Dewspaper

for musical discussiOD in Sweden. In this article MortheDSOD ref1ects upon what he believes

ta be the decline ofSwedish concert music throulh a set ofdialectics in which the mst

represents the present condition and the second the desired one: Imowledge,

craftsmanship/art; ovationslhealthybooinc; empathy/resistance; regular audience in philhar­

monic environmentslaudience with special interesta in Dew music; and Stravinsky, • Schnittkel Webern. Many composers and theorists participated in the debate that followed. 40 Hambraeus again discussecl Adomo as he condudecltbis debate iD May 1995, presenting an

alternative reading ofthe Stravinsky--8choenberg dichotomy andclearly confrontînc • Morthenson. For many, Adomo's Die Philosophü! der Neuen Musik (1949) became a bible by its paradipn·like expoaure of Arnold Schoenberg versus Igor Stravinsky. The partly trqi-comic part ia that this, h:ia most famous book, with a peat deal of dialectical focus. could be described as the cont1ict between a couple of Deichbon in the literary sense. Topther with a couple of other artists and authon from Central Europe, Adamo lived as a politicalrefupeiD Los Anples dUl'ÏDC Word War U-his dose allies 'Nere, &mODg others, Thomas Mann and Arnold Schoenberg (although this relatioDsbip was DOt unproblematic). Years before the book was published. Adomo had akeady prepared the sections on Sclloenberg. But, at that -time~ StraviDaky lived. in Loa Anplea and he represented a düferent musical style. wbich, accontinc to Adomo'a view, was lacking the values and moral murap that should charac:terize a composer ofthe post WH era. Consequendy, it was easy ta use Schoen­ berg and Stravinsky as the main examples in a dialectic declaration that bad sta.rted in Europe and temporarily had been moved to Califomia.1»

He continues OD to point out the dominant position accorded Adomo and describes the

functioning ofthe Swedish musical discounes "almost as a normative actuality and not as a

phenomenon typical ofits tilDe (and Darrow cultural society)." But he gives three alternative

texts all published the same year as Philosophy ofModi!rn Music, 1949: René Leibowitz's

Introduction à la musique de douze "ms Hans Mersmann's Nezœ Musik in cU!n Stromungen

unserer Zeit and Rena Moisenko's RealistMusic;

Their levels and goals respective1yare very ditferent and olten lack the classical exactness and superior use oflancuap that Adomo deve10ped in bis dialectical authorsbip (what bas been characterized as a synthesis of 'Marxiam, aesthetic modemism, mandarin cultural conservatism, an anticipation of deconstruction and a self cooscious Jewiahness). But tagether, they live an interesting contrast ta the Swedish debates in 1957 and 1994--95.136

An interesting fact here is that Hambraeus did not read Moisenko's book until

1989. It was Dot discussedin Sweden at the time ofita publication. However, by referriog ta

this obscure book, Hambreus points at the arbitrariness ofthe canon formation within the

modernist histari0P"8pby. Leibowitz's book wu infact the very reason Hambreus applied

to the Darmstadt Summer Courses in the fint place. Sïnce Leibowitz claimed that there are • only three modem composers-&hoeDberg, Berr, andWebem-in contrast tG those three 41 who were commoDly believedin Sweden at that âme to the important ones--Bart6k,

Stravinsky, and HiDdemith-Hambr&!U8 decided10 10 Darmstadt 10 study with Schoenberg. • Another example lives us a further understandingofthe real problems with Adomo's view mm Hambr&!us's perspective. In a conversation with the author, Hambr&!us

stated that the Frankfurt Sc:hool-inspired ideolOlY maDilestediD the worb byMetzpr and

Adomo represents a pre-Copernican paradicm- two-dimensional wodd view. Apart from

these comments, Hambrœua was fairly quiet with recard to Adorno's worlL. This brier

discussion ofHambneus's re1ationship 10 Adomo's writiDp illustrates Dot only Hambrseus's

very pragmatic attitude (as weU_a lack ofdeeper understandinC ofAdomo's work) but

also bis independence ofthoucht.

As a result ofthe summer courses in Darmstadt, Hambneus became more

modemistic tban any other Swedïah composer. A8 early as 1953 he composed Spect10gram

op 34 (for soprano, Bute. andtwo percussion, performed 1953 in Darmstadt with soprano

nona Steingruber and Bruno Maderna as conductor) andin 1954 he wrote Giuoco ciel cambio

op 33 for flute, EncJish homo bass clarinet, four percussionists. harpsichord. and piano.

Nothing like these pieces had ever been heardin Sweden. Hambrseus made the Darmstadt

Modernism ofthe 1950s bis own mUficallanguage to a much greater extent than did other

prominent Swedish composers such as Ingvar Lidholm135 or Karl-Birger Blomdahl. Joakim

Tillman applies Hermann Danuser's three categories ofmusicalModemism: "radikale

Moderne," "gemABigt Moderne," and -rr&dition"136 and finds that during the 1950s iD

Sweden the epithet IOIradikale Moderne" couId be applied only to Hambraeus and ta the nine

years younger Bo Nilsson.13T

Hambrseus's early worb during tbis Second Period were aphoristic andserial­

works in which timbre was the Most strikingparameter. Hambrseus was particularly

attracted to the ltalian twelve-tone teehDiques wbich were pelœived as beinl freer and more

vocally oriented than their German counterparts. Duringbis first Darmstadt yeu he became

particularly good friends with "abunch ofyoUDI ltalians; Camillo Topi, Luigi Nono, Franco • Evangelisti, andBruno Madema"131 His affection for ltalian aesthetics is ret1ected iD two 42 works that made a lutineimpact on him in 1951: DaBapiccola's opera IlprilliDnioot la

(performed at ISCM iD FranJâurt) and Luili NOllo's chamber work PolifrJnica-mol'&Ollia­ • ritmica (performed iD Darmstadt).I. In the article -reclmique and Aeathetics iD the POÎJltillistic Music: Some Thoughts

OD Giuoco deI cambio and Crystal ~wHambreus lDacle one ofhis few teelmical

analyses ofhis own worb, describine bis use ofseriaipermutation technique. Aa:ordiDg to

Ferenc Be1ohorszky, these are the tint examplea ofseriai technique iD Swedell.1G By

referring ta the portion ofthis article dealing with the second movement. "Frequenze," of

Giuoco del cambio, 1 would.like tG- pmYide thereader with aa impression ofHambraua's

style duriDg the 1950s.

The ensemble consista ofthree croups ofthree musicians each: 1. woodwinds (Bute,

English hom, bass clarinet); 2. twe1ve percussion instruments (4 suspended symbals, 3

temple blocks, and 5 drums ofdifferent sïzes); and 3. keyboard instrumenta (vibraphone,

harpsichord. piano). In ~requenze,·the pitdlediDstruments' rhythms are given according to

the principles ofMessiaen's Mode de valeurs etdUUensités---each pitch is connected to a

chromatic rhythmic value (c=l=one time unit) and the basic twelve-tone raw is permutated

according to the principle ofpitch DUUlber becolDÏDl' order number.

• 43 Example2 . • • • ~ " • • ta • I- I~ f- 1 1. .,. • ,z- • • • .. • la i i • • ~1 ,. i • 1 • j • j. -,4 i ; l' Il t 5 js. , 1 1. i • ,~ i , • l' f~ 1 • 4 ' . • 1 i 1 i =fI- li • ! b ,. , 1 ij ~9. 1 1 i ~ ~- 1 1 , « 1 " 1 One difl'erence from Messiaen's piece is tbat the dynamics are u8ed freely rather

than being tied ta any numerical consideration. Many years law. he described bis

fascination with the ordered musical structure ofseriai music as beingsimilar to bis

fascination with medieval and Renaissance enigmatic canons as was Webem. The widely

spaced Melodie writing shows similarities with Webern's serial music.

Example 3

• 44 The last example !rom this pieœ musuates the cluomatic rhythm (&om the text

CODA) in which the rhythmic values increase by one thïrty-second note for each note in the • cymbal part. Exampk4 "~p(""''''''_J t.~;:E':- ~ l_' 1 rr;': ~COOA:Ic .....ti'lr ""1'" rh '~Ill ..,Ji t '·~-:e::r:::f*l'

t".,

But regarding the twelve-tone technique, Hambneus has emphasized that it i.s a

working method. Dot a style and. as sueb. it is the composer's private business.1.., Twelve-

tone technique cannot replace talent any more than functional or modal barmony cano That

twelve-tone technique has been interpretedin public dïscoUl'Se as "'cerebral mathematics.

numerology, musical alchemy, or even art ofborror" is due to amateur journalists and

writers.

For Hambraeus, the 1950s were significant Dot ooly in terms ofbis experïence8 in

Darmstadt and bis own compositional experiments, for hia studies in musicology and ethno-

musicology during this period Yloald also exert a profound in1luence upon the compositional

style ofhis later period. His continued studies in musicology at Uppsala led to a completion

of a Ph.D. [Fil. Lie.] in 1956 on Renaissance music, Code% Carminum Gallicorum.l44 In 1957

he was h:ired by the Swedish Broadca.sting Corporation where he enpgedin numerous

activities serving, for example, as a producer, an admjnjstrator. and, in 1968, as the head of

music production. Hambraeus described the yeus at the radio as "the best post doctoral

education one could let."I-ll5 Today. Hambneus is surprised that no one in the scholarly world

• 45 takes into account bis years at the radio siDce these yean meant ao much to him in terms of

contacts. trave18 and an extensive trainingin making pedqoPcal presentations ofa wide • range ofmaterials.* In addition to bis administrative duties during the broadcasting years. Hambreus

was occasionally active as a composer ofincidental music for radio and TVplays and for

Stockholm City Theater. He was attracted to the radio as a medium and made a vast

number ofeducatioDal radio programs. Later he composed Sagan (1979). a Radio Opera in

ten scenes for the Swedish Broadcasting Corporation.

McGi11 University 1972-1996

Hambrœus's yeus at McGill proved to he most en:riching. Hia engagement was the result of

an eight week lecture tour in the United States and Canada in 1971. He was iDitially invited

to McGill University in 1972 on a one yeu appointment as a visiting professor and head of

the electro-acoustic studio. The Collowing yeu he was appointed associate prof'essor andin

1975 full professor-a position he held, until he was Damed ProCessor Emeritus in 1995. The position at McGill presented Hambreus with opportunities that are Don·

existent in Sweden, where the practical study ofmusic Ï8 separatedfrom the academic (as in

most ofEurope). At McGill, he could divide bis time among bis Many di1I'erent interests. His

position inc1uded the option to teach Dot omy composition. but also organ improvisation,

electro acoustic music. music theoiY, and musicololY, as wen as affording him the

opportunity to pursUe bis own scholarly aetiviti~. His encounters with the highly multi-

cultural society in Montreal and with students €rom an over the world became a continuation

ofbis earlier intemational activities at the radio.

As a pioneer in electro·acoustic music. Hambreus was involvedin the creation of

the new electro-acoustic studio at McGiIl together with alcides lanza durinl( the 19708. He • also composed three pieces, Ticla (1974), lntrada CaUs (1975), and Tornac1D (1976) (all three 46 ofwhich have been recorcled on McGilI. Recorcb) ..wen asMinors (1987).

His graduate and undercraduate couraea during reœnt years have included: • "Twentieth Century PerConnance Practice"-aaemiDar covering a wide ranee ofareas of performance practice includiDC etimomuaicololY. and avant-garde art mU8Ïc as weil as

historical art music (this semjnar also provided Hamb1"ll!us with material for bis then

forthcoming bookAspects ofTwentieth-Century Per{ormtll'&œ Practiœ); •Advanced.

Counterpoint"-8hiatory survey course combiDed with writingskills. covering repertoire from

the fifteenth œntury to the 1980s; -semïnarin Twentieth CeDtury Music"" having dift'erent

topies each year. for example. "Wodd M1I8ict" (1990). -rhe MuaieofLmp. Nono" (1993),

"Italian Music Alter 1945- (1994), "Swedish Music 1945-95" (1995).

A couple ofyears 8eo the concept ofWorldMusic tumedup in virtually all ofBeDgt

Hambrœus's writinp on bis own music.

Bengt Hambrœus's Notion ofWorld Music

l often consider myselfas one stage-hand at a huee World Seene where l prepare a performance ofWbich we doD't mow anything about yet.1n (Bengt Hambrœus)

An essential trait in virtually all ofHambrœus's writinp is bis interest in stylistic. cultural

and historical inter-eoonectioDS. This is clearly illustrated, for example. iD bis book On

Notation: Pa1eography-Traditiori-:-ReMWal in which he discusses the development of

notation &am Ancient Greece to the avant-garde durinr the 1950s and 60s but. very

importantly, the examples are not presented chronoloKically or cu1turally. Instead they are

grouped accordiDg to their system ofpresentingthe information: tabulations. accent

notations, and mensurai notations.!· For Hambr8!us tbis book seems to amalgamate

virtually au. bis previous experienœs andideas, iDcludiDg bis experiences with folk music. In • one review ofthe book, Folke Bohlinis mostly positive but arpes that Hambreus comes 47 close to the -unfavorable comparative musicolOlY."w This critiqueis UDfair.lutead. On

NotatiDn should be seen as an attempt tG widen the canon. Iftraclitional comparative • musicology is dealing with etlmomusicolOlY, Hambreus's book focuses on medieval and avant-garde Westem music showiDg connections with other notational systems.

The year of 1954 was probably the Most important and artistically entiching for

Bengt Hambrœus, a result ofintensive trave1andvaried musical activities. During the

summer he joined a team &am the Swedish BroadcastiDg Corporation ta make recordings of

indigenous music from the Dalecarlia region in the middle ofSweden. At the time. this

tradition was veqinc on extiDction.. Hambreus's encounter witàtraditionalmuaic pvebim

a deeper understandingofits orilÏDal functional context.18O One episode &am this occasion

keeps tuming up even taday in bis teaching and discus8ion ofbis own music. The story

represents a major event in Hambneus's understanding offunctiODal music. Alter the

recording team had asked an old woman ifme could singin front ofthe microphone. me

suggested that they should listen to her sister instead. Sbe ran away and sanga signal

melody that hersister across the valley would he able to hear. The recording team ap­

proached her asmgher to repeat that melody but now in front ofa microphone. She stared

at them and replied: "Why should1<ïaIl another time? She's coming."151

Hambrœus was Dot only focusing on Swedïsh folk music. As a childhe used to

listen to BBC's World Service and its programs featuring Arabic andIndian music. He later

intense1y criticized the notion that folk music was only the Nordic peasantry's mllSic.la/Z In as

late as the mid 1980s. the course in folk music required at the State College ofMusic at

Ingesund did not include any tYPe ofmusic other than the traditional Swedish fiddling. This

fact is ofcourse a scandaI.

The significance ofHambreus's experiences during the 1950s became evideDt

severa! yeus later. During the festival Stockholm New Music in 1990, Hambneus met with

Japanese composer TOril Takemitsu (1930-1996). Although they had never met before, they

were very famjJjar with each other's work. Takemitsu experienced the musical. secrecatiOD in • Japan during the 1950s and 60s. In art music, the traditional Japanese music had ta cive 48 up territoryin favor ofthe more intemationallyfocuaecl style idem. This wu a natural

reaction alter World Wu ll. But, as Takemitsu stated, bis Japanese mots were deeply • founded in the soil. This encounter reminded Hambrœus ofhis own childhood summers at the Highlands ofthe Dalecarlia rqion and the recordiDg sessions for the radio ofDalecarliàs

particularsonic environment-eilence JDixecl with functional music lilœ herdingcalls and

fidd1e~s dance mU8Ïc. That environmeDt represented a nucleus for allbis comp08Ïtiooa,

according to Hambrœus. This notion has, for Hambl'&!us, muchincommon with George

Crumb's enYironmental tuDiDg ofthe euand Mumay Schaefer's concept of"Soundscape."

Recently HambranlS has composed.aeveral worka related to Dalecarlia. for example, hia

piano piece commissioned by the "Internationale Ferienkurse fUr Neue Musil(' in

Darmstadt, Klavidar (1996), in which he incorporates dear references to omamented

traditional singing.

Hambrœus has writteD many articles focusing on folk music and its relationship to

art music. 1 will discuss three ofthese articles chronologically. In 1955, he published an

article, "Folk Music and the Modem Musical Art,"lM in which bis opinions on folk music are

clearly expressed. First, he presents the problem ofdefining folk music-folk music is not an

autonomous concept. Hambneus ref.trs to recent research in which a traditional Swedish folk

tune tumed out to have its roots in the twelfth or thirteenth centuries. Second, he discusses

the folk music idiom ofinterpretiDg given melodic materia]s, in which the sound and

persona! expression are important rather than followiDg a "text.n lta function is aIso of

importance and Hambreus compares Roger Sessiona's16l discussion ofthe old ceremonial

function ofWestern art music~econtext rather than the music is ofgreater importance.

..Although a herding song performed outside its real context, the /àbod culture [the peasant

culture ofthe highlands ofDalecarlia and other non-urban regions where the herding ofcows

and goats occupies a dominant position], creates a suggestive atmosphere but it lOBeS com­

pletely its function when performecl as a concert piece."· He then maltes a typical

Hambraeusesque tum-a reference to twentieth-century art music, in this case to worb of • Bart6k and Varèse. Contemporary musiés obsession with timbre cives it traits similar to 49 folk music. "the value oftimbre (as funetion or malÏC) and the atmosphere.-IIIHe concludes:

Leave it alone. Let the melodies be alone. Let them live their dyioc liCe of their own and record the licht oflite so that we can remember what we are losing. But make use of the atmosphere, of the unique vibratiDg • timbre in this music. There, on this most elementary level, the possibility Cor chance resides. There are no short cuts to cet beyond style, eeocraphicalboundaries. behind what we Bee amODr tiddlers. But it is worth the trouble aiminr at the center of the labyrinthe One micht then find aDother patb that is leacling out.157

In 1960-61 Hambreus wrote an article entitled. "Communication East-West:

Reflections on Some Current Musical Problems."· Here Hambraeus expresses the Dotion

that many traits ofcontemporary music have been consïdered exoticism without any

justification. For example. the use ofdift'erent percussion instruments that could be 8een as

inspired by Balinese Gamelan music could more often be 8een as a composera'

dissatisfaction with the instruments ofthe West:

A quartet for vibraphone. celesta. piano. and percussion does Dot by Decessity bave 10 be more exotic than a string qu3rtet movement that is composed. from themes mm a country beyond the horizon. The Dew music worb with a Dew scale ofcolors-in the same way that medieval and renaissance music had other. richer nuances than the gray scale in the symphony orchestra from the Classical era (where melody and harmony dominated on timbre's expeDses).UI8

Later in the article he declares "It is peculiar tbat the new timbres [in

contemporary art music] have become" [sol convincing that ODe is Dot tempted anymore ta

speculate about "exotism" (e.g. when Mauricio Kagel uses a vocal teclmique in bis choral

composition Anagrama tbat one earlier considered ta he characteristic ofJapanese stage art

[.••])."100

One ofHambrœus's lO:0st femarkable articles is '1leceptive Time-Capsules? How

Do We Handle Traditions, Musical Notations, and Recordings in the Contemporary Music

History?" from 1993.181 The author considers this article a prolegomenoD ta bis book, Aspects

ofTwentieth-Century Performance Practiœ. 182 Hambrœus begins with a section dealinr with

contemporary art music: how to iDterpret graphie notation from the 19509 or how ta recreate

elecao-acoustic music from the saBle time when the electronic equipment exists only iD • museums. He coDtinues on to describe the World Music aspects ofhis graduate semiDar, 50 Twentieth-Century Performance Practice. In thia aemiDar there were studenta from

throughout the world. Hambreus let the students give presentations OD their own cultural • heritages. One important lesson for Hambreus was that -the exotic recordinp can. display only fifty percent ofthe music: what is mi-mCd, amoDg other thinp, the visual experience

ofthe performance and, Dot least, a real insight on the cultural and socialfunctiOD in a

luger context.If He d Dot only iDterestedin the traditioDal muaics ofthe East andtheir

stability; rather, through bis interestin the social context, the changinc world ofmusic

becomes a reality, Dot a sentimental memory.-Thïs opiDiOD wu coDÛrmed by a Chinese

studentwho pve a presentation 011 a coDtemporary Chïnese violin concerto. Although the

non-Chînese students in the seminar thought this work W88 tlacrandy iDauthentic in terms

ofits use ofWestern harmony, the Chinese students instead focused OD the treatment ofthe

fairy tale motive in the concerto:

A lut question: how can we Westemers really evaluate the Chîneae violin coocerto about Liang San Po and Chok Ym Tai. Cau we, and do we have the right to talk about iDauthentic style iD a case lilœ this when East and West have met? Which tradition are we talking about? Which tradition should have been kept, which one should change in order ta live with its time?

Hambrœus's aesthetic development in these articles is Dot completely clear to Collow. , Does he imply in the first article that we shallleave the folk musicians alone in what they are

doing but try the best we can to understand their music and, at the same time, that this

music could serve as a way out for a composer at a dead-end by "mak[ingl use ofthe

atmosphere"? Or, is it a recognition ofthe fact that folk music is as much function as itis

music andifthe function grad~al1]!looses its importance, the music mightjuat as well existin

a sonic museum? 1 believe that the latter question comes closer to Hambrœua's intentions. But

there is still a problem. IfColk music is transferredinto an urban context, it pins another,

although dislocated, functioD. This new context might he as important as the old one. The

question posed in the second article as to whether a lïstener associates a work with a

particular culturalcontextis ofcourse a dü1icult one. • For Hambreua, there are other aspects ofthe concept ofWorld Music involved 51 which have a cleu aftiliation with bis activities as a scholar in the fields ofWestem art

music and ethnomusicololY. The technique ofquOtatiOD, as maDifested in the worb of • Bemdt Alois Zimmermann and Luciano Berio, becomes in Hambr&!us's worle a symbol of unity between ail cultures and epochs due to the blend ofart mWJic andetbnolopcal

quotatioDS and relerencea. Thus, Hambneus's World Music takes place in a multiple

dimensions-World Music in time 88 well as in space. ItMay seem pretentious at 6rst

glance, andindeed it shows similarities witb. Stockhausen's commenta on Telemusik above,

but for someone like Hambr&!us without ideoloP:al or pnre-related restraïnta, this is

naturaI. One important example is the orchestral pieœRenœn.tres (1~71) in which the

composer, as the tide suggest&, has a meeting with coneaeues from the put: Reger.

Beethoven, Mahler, and others are represented. The work wu composed durinC the

Vietnam War and the quotation from Mahler's Adapetto representa the ideaof Weltschmerz

and confronta traditioDal music lrom Vietnam. Hambneu8 wu Dot fightiDg on the

barricades during 1968. His engagement wu more 8ubde. Renœntres is ofthe greatest

importance both in terms ofbis further styliBtic development andbis emerging political

engagement. This particular case raises a question though: Why malte a claim ofany

politica1 statementin a particular plece twenty-five years alter its completion?

In another statement, Hambneus clearly expresses this opinion in expanded

form-the Medieval allegorical picture ofthe seven Cree arts in a book by Herracl. abbess in

the Landsberg Monutery during the twelfth century,uw beIong among Hambneus's favorite

conceptions (see picture 1).

The article, "Between·Ivory Tower and Shopping MalI," expresses Most c1early

Hambrœus's conception ofthe dichotomies between music theory and practice, and between

art and entertainment. The conclusion ofthis article is worth considering at some length: • 52 The discussion on the t\mdion andpwp08e ofmuaic will pnbably never cease to exist. Science orentertainment? AccordiDc to a famous medieval alleeoric picture ofthe seven Cree arts or philoeophy. muaic Ï8 situated between dialectics and arithmetics, &hua between a loP:al formulated rhetoric (content) and a mathematical predictability (formai structure • and time); expreaaed ctifl'erendy, between humanities and Datura! science. At that time, DO one could, of COUDe, predict the immeue development that now, aome thousand Jean later, should strike mankind on t;echnicaUy advanced super mpways, with a commerclaJjœd music market and with a disablinC mass hysteria as a weIl. calculated result (Dot omy reprdiD, Michael Jackson!). [...) UndoubteeDy. this meca-market is a result of Cree enterprise on a free market (tha~ even CODœmiDC music, could he as corrupted as in other businesses!). But, at the same tîme. we must Ilot !orcet the important counter argument: ifthere are no windows, doon and emerpmcy nits !rom the academically correct ivœy tower, there is a risk that the phüoaopher folpta that he is a hUDl8ll beiDC amonc other human beinp.1lIS

It is Dot very euy to trace Hambneus's intent within this section ofbis article.

However, l will retum to the ÎntupretatioD ofHambaeus's texts in my concluding remua.

• 53 Picture 1: The medi2val allegorical picture ofthe Seven Free Arts, acoording ta Herrad, • abbess in the LandsbergMoru:zstery, 12th Century.

-~

... . ~ -.

• 54 Nocturnal~'Hambrœus's Midsummer Vigil,"166 Political • Protest and a New Compositional Technique The Poeitic Level

A more explicit example ofMany aspects ofWorld Music is the composition Noctumals

(1989-90) for Chamber Orchestra (t1uteJpicco1o, oboelEnglish horn, clarinet, b88800Dldouble

bassoon, baritone saxophone, horn, trumpet, trombone, harp, percussion (timp~ tom-tom,

large bass drum, crotales, larp tam-tam), and string quintet).lIT Thia work bat manifesta

the ethnomusicological as weU as the political aspects ofWorld Music. Noctumals was

commissioned by the Swedish BroadœstingCorporation and premiered in Stockholm in

December 1990. The three movements of this work-which is some twenty minutes in

duration-are Incantation, Figures Fugitives (disappeal"ÏDg fipres), and Chorus (ring dance).

Hambneus wrote two texts about this piece. Both are important in terms ofrevealing the

composer's ptm:eption ofthis work in particular and his approach to composition in general.

The mat text is !rom the Engl:ish manuscript for the liner notes Hambrseus wrote ta

accompany the CD that was released shortly alter the premiere. The priDted text was

heavily edited andhas very Iittle in common with the original version.

For many years, 1 have been seriously involved with problems related to the concept of "World Music"-a term which. is both controversial and difticult to explain!-andils various relations to different ethnic cultures in an interdiscipliDary context. One of the key questions is of course not re1ated to merely etbnomusicology. or anthropololY. sociology, "westem music tradition," or &0 the iDtricuinc network of multinational media distribution. Itis rather the issue of moral responsibility and praematic ideololY which is a challenge to &DY artïst, author or composer today. When 1 composed Noctumals, 1 had also become very much conœmed about the situation of native people and their human rights in Canada-an issue which became sharply focused during the summer 1990 in Mohawk areu quite close to my home. And once acain. 1 wu reminded that we olten Coqet some fundamental aspects on communication: languap and expression (which olten become obacured in high-teeh-manipulatedc:i.IclesO. F.i.: lanCUages in Canada are Dot just English and/or French (plus numemua other ones within the Dumerous Greek, Chinese, Spanish, Jewiah, PortuCUese, Italian... commUDities all • across the country!). There are also the more than fifty distinct Inc:lian or 55 Inuit lancuaps, which represent the oriciDal cultural traditions, bef'ore the Europeans took over many centuries 810... My intention wbich Noctumals wu ofcourse Dot to imitate certain non-western trends. But many native foœip cultures have inspired me and enhanced my understandinC of essential. problellLS iD. "orld m.usic" richt now. And • ever sinœ 1 wu a youngatudent wer Corty years aco [and] studied some central questions in Polyne8Ïall reJicion, Tabu [taboo] and Mana, my music bas alwa,s been related to mch ritual and m.qical ideas which represent ioDate common trends iD. many diffeœnt religions in the worId...lM The tJuee subtitles of NoclumtJlB (Incantation; DiBappearing figures; Chome) reflect some of these primeval ceremoDies and may speak for themselves. At least, they repœsent to me 80metbing which Î8 more global, trans-cultural and UDiversal than anythingelse...

Hambraeus's other text on Noctumols was the liner notes writtenin Swedish for the

premiere ofthe pieœ (the entire testcan befound inthe appendix):

Noctumal was a term. for a Dichtlyliturgy pven by the ancient church. In . a wider context it reCers 10 acta ofcult and ceremoDies in other cultural context8 as welle My composition NoclumtJlB 'lias inspired by ritual and social traditions in different parts ofthe wodd andin d.ifFerent centuries; in the final section impulses from Greekfolk dance and Nordic Medieval ballata are joined.

There might be an east-west path in. NoclumtJlB, from Indonesia and Greece to northem Canada's original muaic; maybe eveD a narth­ south communication between the functional sïpals in Swedish fiibod culture or Kvad [dance] &am the Faroe Islands and African rhythms. Naturally, it 'lias not my intention ta make a collage from ethnomusicologica1. curiosities or hï.storical quotation; neither do 1 intend that the listener should need a musical trave! guide but yet get 100t in my noctumal landacape. On the other hand. maybe the term Wortel MusiL; could pve a more dirèct approach ta understanding Noctumals as well as several other ofmy recent compositions.

• 56 1 have always been mterested in alternative musical traditions, partieularly such traditions that developed outside the traditiona1 Western repertoire. 1 reœived the earliest and most important impressions in that respect while very young, in the becinninc of the 1930s, in the peculiar "Soundacape"" up in one ofDalecarlia's deserted • fabod forests, where silence was interrupted ODIy by the sound of the wind in the pme trees, by the chirping soud fiom the birds and âom the timbre ofthe co.. beUs, by mooiDg and herding calls Dom close and far away. Soudfrom cutting axes but no chain 8aws. Working horses, but no cars or tractors; no aiqJlanes, no electricity, telephone, radio or TV. It wu Dot until many yeus later that 1 became colUlCious that ail this, that what 1 coDSidered to be environmenta8y natura! sounds, rather wu an acoustic triger to all my compositions, [and] bas guided me tluoup eIectro acoustic studios, new organ sounda as weil as traditional forma ofenaembles iDcludiDC voices and instruments. During that time 1alao gat in touch with worlds ofmusic, rich oftraditions, from ABia and otherautbenticColk musics tiom di&"erent parts of the wodd:­ Asïa, Africa, Latini SouthAmerica; Sweden, Spain, Balkan; Geoqia and Tibet; Japan, Korea, Vietnam. An this was an eDricbinC complement to the plentiful EuroPean tradition €mm early Mediaeval time to the present. Probably, 1 was faidy early in takinC the direction on a road that later. particuladyduring the 1980s, became intemationally mown as World M~ where diiferent ethnie traditions, instruments and performance practice8 flew over the boarders in a cosmo-political symbiosis and in Dew acoustic enVÏronments (as, Cor example, in the Swedish group Filarf'olket).

When 1 was asked to write commentaries for the premiere of Noctu1Tl4ls. 1 decided (due ta various reasoos) Dot ta talk about matters regudingcompositional details a am pleased to leave that usignment ta some theoretician who might want to analyze the pieœ and investigate what the construction 100b Iike inside). At an initial stage, ta take a work apart inits segments does not help the listener; a precise report seldom reaches outàide a seminar of experts. And what 1 have mentioned about dift'erent SOlUCes ofinspiration is intended more as a general description of that environmeDt in wbieb NoctunuJls was created, rather than as an exact description ofdiJferent ingredients.

(...)

NoctunuJls was composed in 1989-90 as a commission €mm the Swedish Broadeasting C.o~orationCor KammarensembleN. "We have a fantastic baritone saXophone player" one the admjnistrators from the ensemble told me when we were discussing the commission. Of course, the baritone saxophone became one ofthe fifteen partsl (...]110

The texts are very representative for Hambrœus, for example, bis discussion ofthe

"issue ofmoral responsibilitY' combined with "prallllati.c ideololY' in wmch the former

notion is represented by his critique ofthe Canadian govemment and the latter byhis

fascination as a composer with diiferent musics' social contexts and abilities to creste • "magical ideas." His interpretatioDS ofbis OWD music and ofthe music ofothers almost 57 always focus on compositional intentiOIUl and, ta a lesaer estent, on specifie modes oC

reception. It worth noting that Hambreus does not discusa the technical and structural • aspects ofthe piece at all-particularly so considering this pieœ's very novelfeatures (see the following chapter). It is, ofcourse, difIicult to dmw any PIleraiconclusions as to whether

the avoidance ofthe neutrallevelis a reaction tG the structurally focused inspiration he

received in Darmstadt or ta the striking dominance ofAmerican academic music theory at

McGill University. In fact. only a few ofHambrœua's articles deal at all with compositional

technique (one oC these was discusaed in the previous section).

Hambneus œDSÏden the ethnomusico1ocica1 inflUeDces -as an enrichjnc

complement to the plentiful European tradition mm early Mediaeval time to the present."

From the perspective ofthe criûes ofthe World Music concept, this statement couId he

thought ofas a confirmation ofthe Ethnie Other simply as a spice to the Westem canon.

This is an unfaircritique considering the major 80UIœ oC inspiration-the Indian riots.

Hambneus started to compose the pieœ in August 1989 and finished in April 1990. This

was actually before the Oka riots (which were situated between Hambneua's home in

Ontario and Montreal) broke out. However. there had been previous Indian uprisings around

Canada and Hambneus claims that,he wu impressedby the drummïng he could hear on televisioD. The connectioD to the Oka crisis is instead a ret1ection ofHambneus's wish to

contribute to a public discussion and commUDicate with extra-musical commentaries.

Instead bis comments on "enriching complement" must be read as Hambneus's balanced

view ofthe world ofmusic. Hambr&!WI also points out the important faet that the French­

English debate on the Canadiailluguage agenda constitutes on1y a small part ofthe

Canadian language scenario. The French versus the English language has been an ongoïng

political issue in Canada with recurring demands for referenda by militant Quebecois

separatists seeking to turn the Quebec province into an independent state. When, du.ring

the last referendum in 1995, the question was raised as to whether communities ofcitizens

ofthe First Nation residingin Quebec then couldcall for a referendum oftheir own andleave • the "Republique de Quebec" (üthe separatÏ8ts had won), Parti Quebecois gave a negative 58 answer.

Hambr&!us gives two indications ofwhat Noctunu:Jls is not: "Myintention [...) was • ofcourse not tG Unitate certain non-westerD trends"; "[...] it wu not my intention ta malte a collage from ethnomusicolopcal curiosities or historical quOtatiOD [...J." matis Noctumals

then? Sïnce Hambr&!us continues the latter sentence by pointing out that neither should the

listener "need a musical travel guide but yet ptlost in my noctunlallandacape," an

interpretation ofthe piece as educational seems remote. Yet, it is essential to the composer

that the listeneris aware ofan. ethnololical content: "maybe the term WorldMU8ic could cive

a more direct approach ta understand Noctum4l8 (u.)" Which. problems is he talJring about

in the sentence that follows in his text ? "But many native fOMp cultures have inspiredme

and enhanced my understanding ofessentïal problems in 'world music' right now." It seems

obvious that Hambraus communicates with the audience. However the message from the

composer is not completely clear-the communication takes the fOral ofriddles. NoctunuJls

seems ta derive €rom personal elaborations on the composer's musical paat as well as on

recent political circumstances. The question ofthe western canon is also raised. indirectly

through the references to the traditional musics as "an enrichingcomplement ta the plentiful

European tradition from early Mediaeval time ta the present," that is, the issue ofexpansion " ofthe European canon.

There are a couple ofother details in bis text. Hambrœus never mentions music

nom India and as far as l DOW, he didnot use Indian quotations or allusions in any ofhis

pieces. as so many others did. Hambreus took bis own path and discovered bis own sources

ofinfluence as opposed ta musiéiaitS who weœ intluenced by the Most recent ethnological

fashion within the avant-garde community.

A1so apparent in this text Î8 Hambrœus's immense need ta communicate not only

with the audience but also with the performers. Vutually all ofbis pieœs from the last thirty

years have been commissions and have been mtten with a particular artiBt or group in

mincll71 This needfor communication aIso influences which aspects ofthe work that • Hambrœus chooses ta discuss. As opposed to composera such as Stockhausen and Messiaen 59 who often focus their commenta on their own worb on tecbnical aspecta ofcomposition aneL

in the case ofStockhausen, on acoustical aspects ofperformance, Hambneua diacusses • extra-musical pmperties. Autobiographical details are an important feature of Hambneus's texts. In some

ways, bis texts become vehicles for puttiDg the compoeer as a hume beingin the

foreground. The sentence regarding the "fantastic baritone saxophone play~ ret1ect8 thi.s

human interest.

Coinpositional Technique

At the time ofits composition, the techniques usedin Noctumals were very oriciDal for

Hambreus.l72 The &nt two movements use only one hexachord each-d-sharp, e, C, a, b-flat

and b (6-7[012678]) in the first movement and the remaining six notes in the second (same

pitch-class set). The pitch material in each movement is limitedexclusively to its respective

hexachord. Since this is an all-combinatorial hexachord, one might suspect that Hambneus

is back on the seriaI track: Hambraeus's idea couid he to take Schoenberg's hexachordalstyle

Many steps further-pursuiDg 80me form oflarge-acale hexachordal combinatorialityin

which the orderofthe pitches has no significance. This is not the case though. The referenœs

are instead ethnological and significant Cor Hambneus's harmonic writing. Through virtually

the whole ofHambneus's career, the tritone ÏDterval has played an important mie in his

compositionallanguage. The 6-7 Irexachord is, in that respect, ideal. There are maximally

three tritones within the set. Although only six notes are used, the harmonie language

becomes "Hambneusesque."

The mst movement has an E-pedal funetioning as a fundamental note. The note E

(Mi) is, according to the composer, a reference to Hambneus's family (Enid, Michael, and

Elisabeth). The use ofpedal tones also relates to Hambreus's own instrument, the organ. • Through the instrument's immense potential for the creation ofdift'erent timbrai 60 combinations. Hambneus was iDspUed to free the instrument from what the German

organist Wemer Jacob calls -rhe Contrapuntal Ghetto" byconsiclerine timbre to he a • parameter as important u rhTthm or pitch.l13 (Hambr&!us's Constellations 1 was the direct source ofinspiration Cor Lipti's Volumina, acoording to Lipti bimMlf..) The fi.rst movement

of Nocturnals is a '1Qanpamenmelodie." The hexachord appears both in the strings and

winds and the two groups play theirchord apinat each other as ifthe work was an organ

piece on two manuais. usine difterent relÏStratioD. The chardis c1istributed in a simjJar way

in the two groups with fS on top and E in the basa regi.ster andvaried through difl'erent

articulatioll8 and ditl'erent dynamics (example 5).

Exnmple 5, beginning ofNoctumals (nenpace)

• 61 , -~"

Ft ~" H" :::-: • • ~- r." J:=-: ~ ~:;.:=-:: ::::: : : ::: ::. :: : :; :: : 1 JT ==-1'

1 " r : J • 1

ft 1 T J , • 1

ft r 1 ! J • 1

J i 'r t : g.ï3ï

Ë- i A "': "'~-, - -' 1 1 1lIln.-p ~. 1 Id 't"" 1

~ .. - ~" 1Hi_! 1*-.-~"--a.-A-a."'!":."=====A--A ,."-a.--o---a.-- 1 A t= - 8- 8 • • VIn. 1 t-' ------JIll J1.1' l' .1' l' JIll ." .,~., jI.- ~~ A a. a. a

YrLI/ -' dZ , l' l' .1' JIll ..". JIll , iu : i .. j IC ! - ~e l J f:: A: li: • e l' .1' l' l' , JIll JIll ----- ." ~ Yk 1 1 u_0 1 8= be ! e te =e I:e: ~ l' .1' l' l' .1' .". JIll 1 "" j Ob. l? I! @ ;: li ~ j e =L :::: B:~ J1/I' l'-----.1' l' ---.1' JIll .".

• 62 A prominent feature here. andofcourse aD importalltcWference from the orpD. is

the timpaDÏ's funetion as the rhytbmic motor. The leacline procesa ofthe introduction is civen • in the timpani in its continuousl,. increuiDC activity (example 6). Example 6. measures 44-46

Tlmp.

The score i.s filled. with foreground activities such as the lout!. hïch-pite:hed -"erdingcaI1"-like

gesture in the clarinetin measure 25 (example 7).

Example 1, measura 2~21 ~ ! ~" F 1 1 ! .JT =

The forty-eight measure introduction gives way to a calmer section with juxtaposed

arabesque-like woodwind solos-reminiscent ofvirtuosic Asian windmusic-in the English

horo (example 8), saxophone. trumpet. oboe, baritone saxophone.

Example 8, measures 66-69

This formal procedure. wmm 1 caU -rhe Interrupted Proces8," is very typical for Hambraeus:

An intensified section ofactivity getting close to a climax is often followed by a chain oflong

sustained chords building up to a new peak.114 In the first movement ofNoctumals. the

substructure is always determined by the increased activity ofthe timpani. Mter the ïntro-

duction, there are four such ahorter processes.

The whole composition is to be performed attacca; consequently the "modulation"

between the two different hexachords in the first and second movements is ofparticular

interest. The piteh collection f, a, and e played pianjssimo with a cre!Cendo to forte in the

• 63 flute, oboe, and clarinetis superimpoaed. over the whole Dew pitch collection playedpiano

pianissimo in the striDp which creates a s1ide in our peftePtion ofthe modality. One

possible interpretation ofthis is 88 a refereDce to Hambreu's piODeering work with electro-

• acoustie musie.lllJ Some ofhis worb, such 88 Roto. H (1963), which was createdin the

Siemens studio in Munich, explore the possibilities oftheae sorts ofslidingpitch and timbrai

transformations, moving between düferent prerecordedben aounda.

H the first movement Ï8 statie, the secondmovement has more motion. There is no

timpani in thi.s movement. The percUs8ion section consists inatead oftom-tom, bass drum,

tam-tam, and crotales. They functïon more to add tone color rather than in a rhythmic

capacity. A steady sixteentb.-note rhythm, perf'ormed pianiMjmo, shifting over 10 quintuplets

and using all notes in the hexachord, ia instead maintained. thmup virtually the whole

movementin the strings. ACter four introduetory measures, we arrive at the main feature of

this movement: HambrEus here arranged the hexachord 50 it forms somethingclose ta an

Indonesian Pél06-scale (although using only four notes, l, a-flat, Cr d in quarter-note rhythm,

example 9), thus increuin( the level ofexpression andpreparingfor the "ethnologie

outbreak" in the last movement as in the initial harp and folloWÎDg piccolo f1ute. English

hom, and harp melody. The development ofthis movement occurs through variations ofthe

Pélog melody through four "Interrupted Processes." The interruptions are achieved by

sustained chords.

Emmple 9, measures 130-132

The harmonie background textures are achieved throup small scale movements in the

different parts, often in the fonn ofCree imitation andin heterophonie movements. Consider,

for example. the piccolo, clarinet. trumpet. andcrotales in measure 190 (example 10).

• 64 Ezamp1e 10, mealuru 190-192 • - -

a.. .. Ham l'

Tp.. ~ ..p. ~ (- r l'

The tbird movementis one ofthe Most peculiarin Hambreus's whole production.

That movementis Dot built âom one hexachord but from dilFerent modalities with "G-minor"

as a prominentkey area thmughout the whole movement. Again. the modulation between

the second and the tbird movement is very chaDengingfor the eu. Although Gis partofthe

second hexachord, none ofthe other notes in the triad are. Hambrœus therefore gradually

introduces the new pitch collection in a slow introduction: The timpani returns and

introduces E·flat again as a leading·tone to the new"Dominant," D. The timpani gradually

increases the ambiguity by oscillating between D and E·t1at. Eventually D takes over by

modulation through repetition and the introduction ofthe melody can then take place in G·

minor, mst appearingin the piccolo tlute's lower regi.ster in octaves with Eng1.ish homo The

melody keeps returning tbrou~tb.e whole movement. Itis very "catchy," reminding one of

Balkan folk music butis complete1y Hambraeus's oWQ. Itfirst appears in a heterophonic

version in piccolo, EncJ.ish hom, and harp. Theœ are severa! ethnie references pointed out by

the composer, for example, Kvad·IJanœ from the Faroe Islands-the antiphonal ballad,

danced by men and women in ring. The Kvad alludes 10 this movement's title, ring dance,

but also to the wayin wmm the melody is omamentedin an improvisatory soundingfashion

(example Il). • 65 Ezample Il. measuns 27~286

.--- 1 • - • Eng. hom - v v p ... ~!7f ~.

;> . _ ....;> - • - .- --.--- V 1 "-7- ~ ~~ f " ,. .. .. - _---... ~ --- -- ,.....- ~ v '1Iff~~ v. ~ ./ .. - tJ ;i. • ~ ~ "i' ~::::>

ë.... t, ~.-- .... ~. - ~ :-

v .,. J ~ 1 1 .. .. - 1 The heterophonic variations ofthe melody, intermingled with allusions ta Swedish fiddle music

through extensive use ofopen strings, (example 12) make up the body of tbis movement.

Example 12. measures 31~321

The center of this movement is the saxophone solo which is somewhat reminiscent ofCree jazz !rom

the 1960s (or as the composer indicates in the preface, "the llard sound' corresponds ta a raucous

Be-bop style") but is still in the idiam ofthe Balkan influenced melody (example 13).

• 66 Emmple 13. maJaUra 313-318 •

The eontrapuntal. web is 90 complicated. that it takes Many sessions oflisteDing ta grasp the

piece. Eventually the dance Ï8 over and the work ends much as itbegan witb longsustained

chonis.

There are a couple oftraits common ta Noctumals as a whole: the notation of

steady meter (4/4) but with a flexible approach ta meter; the melodic writing for the

woodwinds; sections ofstatic harmony with the strings carrying the chordal structure; and

"The Interrupted Process." These charaeteristics are also very common in Hambneus's later

style in general but are also found in some ofbis earlier worka. He has, since bis

immigration to Canadain 1972. found a very persona! style in which he incorporates

influences from bis two earlier ages: hia organ and counterpoint studies on the one hand and

bis harmonie invariance and avant-garde techniques on the other, are blended with World

Music. Every new piece features some innovation. In NoctunuJls, ethnic counterpoint and a

new, very successful approach ta modality constitute a new direction in Bengt Hambneus's

œuvre.

Hambrœus's discursive and rhetorical strategies are extremely effective. The clear

reference ta the Indian riots complements the music. In faet, these references were made a

dominant feature in a TV documentary produced by the Swedi.sh Television in which news

reports and pictures from the riots accompanied music from Noctumals. This mixinrof

sound and picture achieveda powerful dramatic eJfect.

• 67 Concluding Remarks

• [...] Orientalism is DOt a mere political subject matter or field that is ref1ected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions; Dor is it a large and düIuae conection of text8 about the Orient; nor ia it representative and expressive of some DefariOua -Western" imperialist plot to hold down the "Oriental" world. It ia rather a distribution of geopolitical awanness into aesthetic, acholar1y, economic, sociological, historical, and pbilological texts; it is an elaboration Dot ooly of a basic geographical distinction (the world is made up of two UDequal halves. Orient and Occident) but also of a whole series of "interest'" whicb, by such means as dalmy diacovery. pbilolopeal reconstruction, psychologica1 analysis, landscape and socioloP:al cle8cription, it DOt omy creates intention tg understand. in some eues to controL manipulate. even to incmporate, what is a maDifestly dift'erent (or a1temative and Dovel) world; it is. above aIl, a discourse that is by no means in direct. corœsponding re1ationship with political power inthe raw. various kinda of power. shaped tg a delft!e by the exehange with power politica1 (as with a colonial or imperial establishment). power inte1lectual (as with reigning sciences like comparative linguistics or anatomy. or any of the modern policy sciences), power cultural (as with orthodoxies and canons oftaste. text8. values), power moral (as with ideas about what "we" do and what "they" cannot do or understaDd as "we" do). Indeed, my real argument is that Orientalism is--and does Dot simply repreaent-a considerable dimension of modem political-intellectual culture, and as sueb has less to do with the orient than it does with "our" wodd.l16 (Edward W. Said)

In an earlier paper, I tried to show that the Dotion ofauthenticity is Dot only highly

problematic but also impossible.ln Although my discussion ofBaroque music seems remote1y

connected to World Music at first Pance, there are a number ofsimilarities relatine tg the

idea of"pure music"-pure meaning several things: non-eclectic Western art music tradition;

"ethnic" folk or art musicfree ~IJ? ~uence8-Dame1y,traditions free &am interactions.

Briet1y, 1 expressed the idea that any attempt to recreate Baroque music in the way in which

it was conceived and performed during the eighteenth century should he considered ta be

grounded upon false assumptiODS and thus ta he "fake." But, since this notion of

authenticity has gained 50 much attention and represents today's idea ofauthentically

performed Baroque music. this notion has become real. Thus I established the concept of • "Real Fake." Real Fake represents in a truly P08tmodem fashion the deniaI ofdaims of 68 "truth," "'sublimity," and "'the etemal"l1a-with the clear recopition that these Cake notions

are the best we have at a present stage. In thi.s diacwlsion, the notion ofReal Fake could • apply to the preservation ofauthentic folk muaics as Museum pieœ8 iDstead ofas a living tradition or to the representation ofavant-sarde music 88 an unchanling came ofmoving

etemal Monada ofmodemi8tic sonie elements around on a sheet ofpaper, di8cussed by and

performed for a smallinitiated audience.

A the end ofthe DÎDeteenth century, when the campositional medium seemed to Many

to have been depleted, the aet ofcomposition involved a questfor new musical concepts. At

that time, it was Dot nec:essarny materialfrom. a whole new culture to wbich tbey turDed; iD

faet, it was mostly toward the folk mues oftheir own homelands or the art music ofprevious

centuries that their quests lead. 1 have become certain that this distinction is not as important

as Glenn Watkins seems to believe: "The notion ofExoticism-the infatuation with foreign

cultures-is one that was we1l de6ned in the Romantic Age, and as a viVÜyiDc factor should be

distinguished at the outsetfrom Folldomm, which traditionally speaks ofthe study and use of

one's native musical heritage. Importation is central to the idea ofExoticism and the source of

its appeal."1'79 But for Bartôk, studyingbis non-urban surroundïngs was justas exotic as ifhe

had gone to Alrica, and for Takemittu, retuming to bis culture was as exotic as Hambraeus's

sonie retum to bis childhood. 1 am probably more familiar with rndian music than with the

local folk music tradition where 1 grew up. Central ta my basic theoretical foundation is the

notion, held by Many, ofan art-music tradition thatis free from popular content inc1uding folk

music of any kïnd. Arnold Schoenberg's music is, as 1 have stated earlier, the ultimate example

of this idea. He believed in the'possibility ofinnovation within the traditional Western

boundaries:

Most critics of this new [atonal] style failed to investipte how far the ancient 'eternal' laViS of musical aesthetics were observed, spumecL or merely adjusted to changed CÙ'CWDStances. [...] 1 maintained that the future would certainlyplOYe that a centraliziDC power comparable ta the gravitation exerted by the root is still operative in these pieces. 1ID

Schoenberg makes it fairly clear what he means by'"etemal' laws ofmusical aestheties." His • notion-and my initial assumption-is ofcourse a Chimera, a pure western art music does 69 not exist. His descriptions are only means ofexplaininC bis own aesthetic heritaee and how

hest ta experience bis own music-andthis notion is real Cor Schoenberg. This notion. as [ • hope [ have shawn here. Î8 detinitely Real Fake. We have to 10 back in the history of twentieth-century art music to &nd where the modemistic ideology went wrong. Somethingof

a lost Postmodern attitude beginnjngin the late nineteenth century was described by Bans

Werner Henze:

[ think that the most important composer ofthis century is Dot Webem. but Mahler! It is true that he made Iittle contribution to &eeing music from iu grammatical impasse, and did liUle to invent new systems; yet he was a witness to bis time. His poraayal or frustration and su1ferinC. in an UJUDistakable and. direct muaica1 ~ seems to me more interestiDC and more important than the achievements of the [Second] Viennese SchooL [...] One micbt think that the ditl'erenœ lies in the techniques employed. but 1 would maintain the diff'erenœ lies in the eftèct which the compoaer wanted to malte. Beethoven regarded. bis whole enterprise as a contribution to human progress.lIl

The radicalization ofthe romantic lanpaee was Dot a problem in and ofitself;

rather, it was the institutionalization and the intellectualization ofWestem art music that

provided the foundation for th.is aHenation ofsaDic material from the cultural context.- [

hope to have shown that this artificial division bas resulted in the contradictory statements

ofcomposers such as Nono and Boulez when their discourses try to regain a societal

legitimacy. In this respect. Bengt HambrEus" shows a way out tbrough bis pragmatic but

also enigmatic view ofmusic in combination with a radical muaicallanguage.

Ideological fluctuations are constantly striving for balance, but there Bever is any

balance. Alter postmodem "disorder" there will be calls for order again. jWJt some years alter

the fall ofcommunism in Eas~·Europethere will he renewed requests for communist

regimes. Bengt Hambraeus is constandy aware ofthïs. He eschewed any particu1ar

ideological stance during the Swedish debates from the 1950s through the 90s; rather. bis

standpoints were founded upon a tr8Dsient notion. Ideologies come and go but Dot

Hambrœus's fundamental aestb.etic views-although be continuously problematizes the

issues at stake. They are deeply establishedHambrœus·s notion ofhimse1fas a vïsitor, for a • short while, in the continuum ofbistory. This is one reason why bis texts are di8icult to 70 interpret-they ref1ect Hambne\lS~a awareneas ofa too compl:icated reality. There are never

any simple black or white solutions. Hia own music remains virtually the same as well. A • tritone filled harmony combinedwith WorldMusic ofHambr&!us's own detiDition­ everything that cames ta him from ather sources. cultures, and time periods.

In yet an earlier article- 1 made reference to the phenomenon mown 88 Magic

Eye-the term for computer constructed pictures tbat are blurredon the surface but alter

some moments offocus beyondthe plane ofthe paper turn mta colorful tJuee.dimensional

pictu.res. Byfocusing on a piece ofart beyond the aetualaurfSlce level (not inSchenkerian

terms butin terms ofthe-musïçitaelt' andita cultural CODtext)~ fa9cinatiDg patterns can

appear that neither we Dor the artist were aware ofin the tint place. This is a profitable

approach in the case ofWorld Music andin the present musical situation as well

• 71 • Appendix Bengt Hambrœus's Unpublished Liner Notes on Nocturnals

NoctunuJl was a term for a Diptlyliturgy pven by the ancient chmclL In a wider context it refera to acts ofcult and ceœmoDies in other cultural contexts as weil. My composition Noctumals was inspired by ritual and social. traditions in diffèœnt parts ofthe world andin dift'erent centuries; in the final. section impulses from Greek folk dance and Nordic medieval ballata are joined.

There JDilht be an east-west path in Noctumals, from Indonesia and Greece to northem Canada's original music; maybe even a north-south communication between the functional signais in Swedish {iibod culture or Kvad [dance] from the Faroe Islands and Afriesn rhythms. Naturally, it was not my intention ta make a collage mm ethnomu.sicolocical curiosities or historical quotation; Deither do 1 intend that the listener should need a musical travel pide but yet cet lost in my noctumal landscape. On the other hand maybe the term World Musü= could live a more direct angle of understanding on Noctum4la as weU as several other ofmy recent compositions.

1 have always been interested in alternative musical. traditions, particularly such traditions that developed outside the traditional Western repertoire. 1 reœived the earliest and Most important impressions in that respect while very young, in the beginnjng of the 1930s, in the peculiar "Soundscape"UN up in one of Dalecarlia's deserted fijbod foresta, where silenc'e was interrupted only by the sound of the wind in the pme trees, by the chUping sound from the birds and from the timbre ofthe cow bells, by mooing and herding calls fiom close and far away. Sound from cutting axes but no chain saws. Worting horses, but no cars or traclora; DO airplanes, no electricity, te1ephone, radio or TV.lt was Dot until many years later that l became conscious that all this, that what 1 considered to be environmentally Datura! souDds, rather was an acoustic triner lo all my compositions, [and] has pidecl me tIuough electro aco!UÛc studios, new organ sounds as weU as traditional fonDS ofensembles including vaices and instruments. During that time 1 also lOt in louch with worlds ofmusic, rich oftraditions, from Asia and other authentic folk musics mm different parts of the world­ Asia, A&ica, LatiDlSouth America; SwedeD, Spain, Balkan; Georgia and Tibet; Japan, Karea, Vietnam. An this as an eoricbing complement to the plentiful European tradition from early Mediaeval time to the present. Probably, 1 was faidy early in taking the direction on a road that later, particularly duriDg the 19808, became mtemationally mown as World Musü=, where di1ferent ethnie traditions, instruments and performance practices Dew over the boardera in a cosmo-political symbiosis and in new acoustie environments (as, for example, in the • Swedish group Filarfolket). 72 When 1 was asked to write commentaries ta the premieœ ofNocturnals, 1 decided (due ta various reuons) Dot to talk about matters œprdinc compositional details (1 am pleased to leave that usilJllllent to some theoreticiaD what micht want to analyze the piece and investigate what • the construction looks like inside). At an initial stage, to take a wodt apart in its sellDenta does Ilot help the listener; a distinct report does se1dom does reach outside a seminar of experts. And what 1 have mentiolled about düFerent sources ofinspiration is intended rather as a general description ofthat enviroDmentin which Noctumals was created more than an exact description ofdüfereot iDp'edieDts.

There is a direct reason for the ideolocical aspects ofWorld Music havinc become particularly urgent ript now. While writing thi8 at the end of July 1990. perbaps the MOst important people's uproar in the bi.story of Canada or North America has been IOÏDC on for a couple ofmonths. It was last spling that the Mobawk Indians in the reservation Kanehsatake (about 90 kilometers North-eut fmm my home) iDitiated a national protest apinst the racism and politics of apartheid that they, as all ather Indian tribes, bave been victims offor more than 500 yean. They immediately reœived support fmm ail Indians hm the whale of Canada as weU as a advantageoua support !rom the white population in the country that seriously questioned the politicians' way of dealing with the vexy seriaus issue of the Indians' hUDlan rights; Mohawks in at least thœe reservations in my close surroundinp (ODe of which lies between my home and my work) are prepared for armed defense oftheir strongly abridged territories if they are attacked by the federaI police and the army that is prepared for battle. It is still impossible to predict the futuœ sipillicance in domestic and foreipl politics (as late as in July 1990 this seems still be unlmown in Sweden, although this issue is a direct parallel to liberation events around the warld, particulady the lut decades).

The reason tbat l menti0l\ this in connection to Noctumals is that the Indian revoIt-and its probable consequences for Canada's constitution-gave me a new perspective on the concept of World Music itse1f (although the term itself is a signal for a new pluralistic way of perœivingculture inour own time). And sudden1y we have, for example, become reminded about the social meaning in what for a long time has been lmown as a statistical and Iinguistic-bistorical fact: among the aboriginal peoples in Canada-that is, the difl'erent Indian tribes-there still exist more than fifty independent 1ancuages that represent their own traditions, and daily customs (in other words, it is something completely different than the European and Asian lancuages that are spoken amonc the Many immigrants in Canada). But very few "white" Canadians understand even one of tbese more than fifty languages. Instead, they are trapped in the political quarre! over which of the colonial languages, English or French, should dominate here or there in the provinces. Much could be added in this matter.

Noctumals was composed 1989-90 as a commiMion fmm Swedish Broadcasting Corporation for KammarensembleN. "We have a fantastic baritone saxophone player" one the admjnjstrators fmm the ensemble told me when we were discu8sing the commission. Of course, the baritone saxophone became one ofthe &fteen parts! The work has tIuee • movements: lncantatiorr-Figures futlitives--CIwros....III 73 Bibliography

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Stockhausen, KarJheiDz. Texte zur Musïk, Vol. 4, Cologne: VerlagM. Du Mont Schauberg, 1978.

Stockhausen, KarlheiDz. Towards a Cosmic Music: Texts by Karlheinz Stockhal.lJlen. Selected and translated by Tim Nevill. Longmead, Shaftesbury. Dorset: Element Books Limited. 1989.

Stricldand, Edward. American Composers: IJialogues on Contemporary Music. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991.

Subotnik, Rose Rosenrard. Deconstructive Variations: Music and Reason in Westem Society. Minneapolis: University olMinnesota Press. 1996.

Szabolcsi, Bence. "Man and Nature iD Bart6k's World." Bartôk Studies. Edited by Todd Crow. Detroit: Information Coordinators, 1976.

Taruskin, Richard. '"RU8SÏan Folk Melodies in The Rite ofSpring." J0UTn41 ofthe American Musicologiœl Society 33 (1980): 501-43.

Taruskin. Richard. Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: A Biograph ofthe Works Through Mavra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996.

Terenius, Petter. "Den nya konstmusîkenB vulga.rise~Jan W Morthensons estetiska idler och en ak~ll musikdebatt. Unpublished paper at Uppsala University, Sweden, 1995.

Tillman. Joakim. Ingvar Lidlu:Jlm och Tolvtonstekniken. Ph.D. Dissertation. Stockholm: University ofStockholm, 1995.

Tomlin80n. Gary. "The Web ofCulture: A Context for Musicolocy__ 19th-CenturyMusic 7 • (1983-84): 350-62. 80 Voyage en musiqut cent 0118 cl~tisme: deco,.. et costuma t:ltJu le ~le lyrique enFrance: exposition organ,isee avec le concours de 14 Bibl~ 1VJtioruJle: Centre culturel de Boulogne-BiI1œ&court, 4 mai-13juillet 1990; L'openJ BOUS l'Empire. Bibliotheque Marmottan. BoulopeeBillancourt: Centre culturel de BoulOllle-Billancourt. 1990.

• Wachsmann, Klaus P. ~olk Music." 7JIe New Grave Dictionmy ofMusic andMII8icitJn8, vol vi, ed. StanleySadie. London: MacmiJJ 8D Publiahers Limited, 1980: 693.

Wallis, Racer andMaIm. Krister. Bi6Sounds !rom Smoll People: 7JIe Mus~ Industry in Small Coun.tries. London: Constable, 1984.

Wallner, Bo. "Tvl tonaAttare-en kollektivartikel: Bo Wallner &lgar, Jan Carlstedt och Bengt Hambreua svarar." OrclochBild6912 (1960), 145-51.

Wallner. Bo. Vdr tiels musik i Norden. FreIn 20-101 till 60-101. Stockholm: Nordiska Musik­ tbrlaget, 1968.

Williams, Christopher A "OfCanons" Contest: Toward a Historiography ofTwentieth­ Century Music." repercussiollB 2/1 (1993): 31-74.

• 81 Recordings

Gy(Srgy Ligeti. The Complete PüJnoMUBÎC. Volume 1. Fredrik Ullén, BIS cn 783; GyOrgy • Ligeti Works (or Pi.arw. Pierre-Laurent Aimard, SONYSK62308. Groupa. Mdnskratt. AMIGO, AMCD 725.

Groupa. UtanlJlJll8. AMIGO, AMCn 721.

Kammarenaemblen. Ansgar Krook Conducts Warks byAnders Eliasson~ Henrik Strirulbergl Bengt Hambrœus. GU1UUJr Volkare. and Lars Ekstrôm. Phono Suecia PSCD 57.

• 82 Notes

• lGeorge Steiner, AlterBabel: Aspects ofLan6ua6e & Translation (Second Edition, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), xvi.

'rhe debate took place in the Swediah newspaper SvensluJ. Dogbladet andlasted Cor severa!

months. For the Most extensive (although not complete1y accurate) review see Petter

Terenius. "Den nya konstmusîJœns vulga~:Jan WMorthensoRB estetiska idéer och en

aktuell musikdebatt (unpubliahed paper at Uppsala University, 1995).

~ee Seren Me1ler SereDsen's euayon the Swedîah modemist clebates during the 19808 as

opposed to the situation in Denmark, "Pueroch tbrskjutniDpr~mgrlD8drapingar,

griSllSÔverskridanden och det grilnsloaa i svensk och dansk nutida mWlik," Tonsattarens val:

Texter om svensk musiJuJlisk modemism ochposttnoelA!mism. ed. Bjam BiDing (Stockholm:

Edition Reimers, 1993), 151-172.

4"Camp. honi, (Neo) Avantgarde: Tre lImingar av Gloriasatsen ur Sven-David Sandstrtims

High Mass." [Camp, honi. and (N'eo) Avantprde: Three Readinp ofthe Gloria Movement

from Sven·DavidSandstmm's HighMass, in Swedish). NutidaMusik 39 (1996), 33-38;

"Paleomodernism, Neomodernism, Postmodernism: AU Manavrera i den Ideologiska

Labyrinten samt nAgot om Montreal,JI ["Paleomodemism, Neomodemism, Postmodemism:

To Maneuver in the Ideological Labyrinth and a BriefDiscussion on Montreal,"], Nutida

Musik 38/3 (1995),4-13; and "Jan SandstréSm och Modemismen," ["Jan SandstrOm and

Modemism,"J Nutida. Musik 37/4 ~1.994), 51-58.

:5See Lydia Goehr, The IfI'&tJ6Ï1UJry Museum ofMusical Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992)

for a comprehensive di.scuBsion on düferent aspects ofthe concept ofcanon in a musicological

context, see DiscipliningMusic: Musicology andIts Canons, ed. by Katberine Bergeron and

Philip V. Bohlman (Chicago and London: The University ofChicago Press). Ofparticular

interest is Bohlman's article "Epilocue: Musics and Canons," 197-210. • 9fhis seems, for example, to be DonaldMitchell's in bis The LaflllUD6e ofModun Music 83 (Second Edition. London: Faber and Faber, 19&6). By implyiDl' that there exista an entity

• ~ called TM ofModem Music, one has ta iDterpret Mitchell's text as an attempt ta

express bis iDterpretatioll ofthat lancual'e. The whale book is basically focuaed on

Stravinsky and Schoenberc (with. Beethoven and Mahler aB the major precedenta iD a lopcal

chain). Another example illuatrates tbis notion very clearly, the way the eady music by

Stravinsky has been analyzed. InateadofiDvestiptinc the folk music material he borrowed

from bis native Rusaia aB Ï.Il Petrouchko. and Le Sacre duprintemps bis music had ta he fit

into a entire1y structural contest by many. One example is Allen Forte's '17Ie Harmonie

Organization of77&e RiteofSpring (New Haven and London: Yale UniversityPress, 1978).

Pierre Boulez made a detailed analysis ofthe rhytbmicalstruetures in a similar way,

"Strawinsky demeure," MusiquelWsse, Pierre Souvtchinskyed. (Oxford: C1aredon Press; New

York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For contrasting and more aœurate views on Stravinsky

see, for example, Richard Taruskin, "Russian Folk Melodies iD The Rite ofSpring,'" JounuJl • ofthe AmericanMusicological Socü!ty 33, (1980), 501-43 and Stravinsky and the Russian

Traditions: A Biograph ofthe Worka ThroU6h Mavra (OxCord: Oxford University Press, 1996);

Lewis E. Rowell's ThinkingAbout M~ic:An Introduction to the Philosophy ofMusic

(Amherst: The University ofM888&ehu.setts Press, 1983) where issues Dot omy departing

from a European perspective are addressed. Both GlellD Watki.ns's books referred to iD this

paper are also good examples ofa generous approach.

7Mitche1l, 1966, 130-131.

&For a comprehensive critique see Christopher A Williams, -OfCanons" Context: Toward a

Historiography ofTwentieth-Century Music,'" 1'f!IJf!I'CUIIBns 2/1 (1993): 31-74.

9'J'wentieth-CenturyMusil:: A History ofMusical Style in Modern Europe andAmerica (New

York, London: W.W. Norton le Company, 1991),416.

IOSee, for example, Geoqina Born, RatiDnalizüw Culture: IRCAM, Boulez. and the Institu­ • tionalization ofthe Musical Avant-garde (Berkeley: University ofCalifomia Press). 1995. 84 llHermann Danuser, "Postmodemes Musikdenken-L&nme oderFlucht?," Neue Musik im

• politischen Wandel: Fün,fKongreJlbeitràlle unddm 8emit&tJrberich.l, ed. by Hermann Danuer

(MaiDz: Sebott, 1991), 56-66.

J2Asthetische '1J&eorie (F:rankfurt: Subrkamp, 1970),342.

13"Und wenn du wort WorldMusic heute überhaupt etwas bedeutet, dann erst eiDmal eiDe

neue Schublade in den Replen der PlattenlAden." Peter PllDIlke, "Berlin Haputstadt der

Weltmusik." Neue Zeitsclui/t /ür Musw 153/1 (1992). 12.

lqom SchnabeL MJntemational Bmdatand. From Afro-Beat to Zouk, Third-Wodd Rhytbma

Are Creatinga Revolution in Pop Music,· UJs An6eles 7imesMlJIIfJZÏ.M, January 7, 1990, 20.

Ul8chnabel. 1990: 20.

ISfugrid Fritsch, "Zur Idee der Weltm~"lMMusiJcfOrscIaung 34 (1981), 259-273. This

essay has served as the initial source ofinspiration. 1 have re-uaed many ofher quotes and 1

also base my categorization on her analysis.

l'Fritsch, 1981: 259.

WPannke, 1992, 12-16. • I!JMusic andDiscourse, trans. by Cuolyn Abbate (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1990).

3>Jonathan Bellman, 'nu! Style Hongrois in ,lu! Music ofWestern Europe (Boston:

Northeastem University Press, 1993), 31.

21Karlheinz Stockhausen, -WelUI;Ulsik,· Texte ZUT Musïk Vol. 4, (Colope: VerlagM- Du Mont

SChaube~: 1978),468-76.

2'ZFinn Benestad mers ta Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister. BoIthius's musitn

humana became "Menac:h-Music" in Mattheaon's terminolOlY and musΜ instrumentGlis,

~erck-Music." See Benestad, MusiJck og toMe: Ho~i musikkestetikkens historie

{ra. antikken ta vdr egen. tid (Oslo: Aachehoue. Co., 1976), 173. • 23["eine exotische Romantik, eiD Miachstil, der weder europlisch nach exotisch ïat, der die 85 exotischen Eigentümlichkeiten zwar m6l1ichat berücbichtiet. aber oue die europAiache • Grundlage zu verlasaen ..., Pannke. 1992. 13-14.

2t"Roman Music." Ancient and Oriental Music (NewOxfordHistoIY ofMusic. vol. 1). Econ

Wellesz. ed. (London. New York. Oxford UniversityPress. 1957). 405-œ.

ZBellman. 1993.24.

2SBellman. 1993. 14.

~riuch, 1981.259.

211There exista an extensive litteratue on exoticism in musical drama. See for instance:

Jonathan Bell.man, ed.• The Style Ho1f6J'Ois in. tMM~ofWestern Europe (Boston:

Northeastern University Press, 1993); Ragnhjld GuIrich. Emtismus inde Ope, und seine

szenische Realisation (1850 -1910): unter besoruJeerBerudulich,tigun.g(Ù, Müncheru!r Oper

(AniflSaIzburg: Müller-Speiser. 1993); Peter Korfmacher. Emtismus in Giacomo ~

'Turandot"(Cologn~Rheinkassel: Dom. 1993); Thomas Betzwieser, Emtismus und

'Turkenoper"in (Ùr /ranzxJsi,sdum Musik des Ancien Regime: Studien oZU einem asthetisc1um

Phanomen (Laaber: Laaber-Verlac. 1993); Voyage en musique: cent ans d'e:rotisme: deco,s et

costumes dans le spectacle l~ en~e%pOSÎtÎon organisee avec le concours (Ù la

Bibliotheque natioTUJk: Centre culturel de Boulogne-Billancourt, 4 mai-13juillet 1990," L-opera

sous LEmpire (Bibliotheque Marmottan. Boulocn~Billancourt:Centre culturel de Boulogne­

Billancourt. 1990); Anke Schmitt. De, Emtismus in (Ùr deutschen Oper zwischen Mozart und

Spohr (Hamburger Beitrage zur ~usikwiasenachaft,Bd. 36. Hamburg: Verlag der

Musikalienhandlung K.D. Walller. 1988); L'Emtisme musicol fra,1u:ais: dossier (papen read

at a conference held Much 14. 1981. at the Institut de recherches sur les civilisations de

l'occident moderne at the Universite de Paris-80rbonne. Revue internationale de musique

francaise. no. 6. Geneve: Slatlrine. 1981).

29Edward W. Sud. Orientolism, Second Edition (New York Vmtaee Books, 1994), 177. • :JlJean-François Lyotard. The Postmodem Ex:plailUld: Correspondence 1982-1985(London, 86 Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1992), 24.

• 31[We1tmusik ais Musik der pnzen Erde (...) Globale MWIik ala friedlichea Nebeneinander aller Musildwlturen..

We1tmusik als Vereinicunpkonzept. Hierbei lusen sich venchiedene Typen VOD SyntbeaeD

undSymbiosen. untencheiden:

die Vorstellunc eines dutth exotiache Elemente anpreicherten abendJJlndiachen Stïls, wie

sie etwa VOD Capellen undin gewiaser Weise aum VOD Loeb vertreteD wird. Eine solche

Musik bleibt westlich, auch wenn sie &It1iche ElementeÙl8Îch 8ulnjmmt;

die Idee einer übemationalen und zeidosen Musik, in der sich peichberechtigt Elemente

aller Volker zusammenfinden. Stockhausens Konseption der TelemusïJt, in gewisser Weise

auch die der Hymnen ist ein Beispiel dieaer Utopie, die auch politiache Züge trAct (...)

Weltmusik aIs neue musica mundana: (...) vieles von Caee und seinen NachfoIcem. das

Dream-House VOD La Monte Young, schlie81ich aum Stockhauaens Tierkreismelodien oder

gar Sirius sind Ausdruck eines Tranzendentalismus, der zumindes bis Charles Ives

zurückreicht, sind aber auch Zeichen einer neuen ReJïpositAt, die deutlich pantheistische

Züge trâgt.

Weltmusik ais die Musïk, von der die Welt beherncht wird: die Obermacht der

abendlândische Musik, die von Nemetz·Fied1er reichlich naiv allein aus musikjmmanenten

Kriterien abge1eitet wird, ist auch ein OkODomisches Falttum [...) Fritsch, 1981,270-71.]

32Bohlman, 1988,47.

~omlinsoD, 1983-84, 352.

34Storek von den Griechen. quoted. in Georg Capellent Ein. neuer emtischerMuswtil an

Notenbeispielen nachilewiesen (Stuttgart: VerlaC von Carl GrüDiDger (Klett & Hartmann.

1905),55.

3lSMitchell. 1966. 108-109. • 36Classic and RomanticMusic: A Comprelu!nsive Sun;ey. trana. by M. D. Herter Norton (New 87 York, London: W.W. Norton" Company, 1970),29.

• 37f1J)ie Musik ist aueenblic:klich an cler Grenzeihrerjetzipn Entwicklunpphase aneeIan&t, die TonalitAt, die modeme Harmonie erzeuet hat, riolt mit dem Tode. [...1Die alteD

Tonarten kehren aufden Schauplatz zurdck. lIDd iD ihIem. Gerolge werden die Tonarten des

Orients, deren Mannip.Jtigkeit eiDe unpheure iat, ihren EiDzugin die Kunst halten." In

Capellen, 1905, 56. quoted iD Fritaeh, 1981, 263.

38Edward Lockspeiser, DebUBBy His Lite andMUId. vol. 1 (New York: MacmiJJan. 1962), 206,

quoted in Watki.ns, 1988, 75.

391)ale Craig, -rrans·EtImie Composition," Numus West 6 (1974), 48-55, quotedin Fritsch,

1981,269.

~art6k did use authentic follt Melodies in a very few worka, only in some SODp, choral and

piano pieces and the 44 violin duets, see Elliott Antokoletz, The Music ofBéla. Bart6k (New

York: Garland PubliabinC. IDe., 1988), 26.

41Ligeti during a lecture in Stockholm 10125195. He there cave references to ethna.

musicolog.ists whose research had an impact on him: Simha Arom, Vmcent Déhoux. Hugo

Zemp, and Gerhard Kubik. OfparticuÎar importance are the music from the Lunda people,

Bandalinda. Gbâya, and Malavi.

orbey are DOW ail recorded by Fredrik Ullén (BIS CD 783) and by Pierre-Laurent Aimardin

SONY Classical.'s Ligeti series (SK 62308).

43See aIso the three articles on th:e et\ldes by Richard Steinitz The Musical fimes 137 (March,

May, and August 1996), and Ko& Acawu on African rhythm: A{rü:an rhythm: CI Northem Ewe

perspective (Cambridp. New York: Cambridce University Press), 1995.

"'Persona! commUDication by Benet Hambneus. Encyclopedie de la musique et dictiOIuu:Jire du

Conservatoire. EditedbyAlbert Lavignac. Paris. C. Delqrave, 1920-31.

.a5Art and theAesthetic: An.lnstitutionol Analysïs (Ithaca and London: Comel1 University • Press, 1974). 88 48[aber der Grund, warum ich indische M1Uik studiere, ist, da8 ich sie ala die hachste aller • musikalischen Traditionen empfiDcle. Sie scheint so viel zu enthalten, sie waStsich mit

EînstimmunC. Alle die- vencbiedenen Raps. aile diese venchiedenen Intervalle: es iat ein

erstaunlicher Komplex aus Tonh6hen--ùrhohe StaDdudder Auifnlmmppraxis, diese

Vokaltraditionen, die sie entwickelt haben. ist eiDfach entallDJjch~ ununterbrochene

Bordun. der Tanbura, die Tataache, da8 dieser Obert6ne hat ... Und ala ich aus eiDïeen

Tonbândem Pandit PraD Nath h6rte, fülte ich canz cleutlic:h, daB ich beiibm studieren

muBte. Doch hier m&:hte ich noch eiDmal klante11en, da8 Mein Studium dieaer Musik eine

andere Sache ist ais meine eipne Musik.) LaMonte Youngin Niba Glico, "Ich sprach mit

LaMODte Young undMarian Zazeela;Melos 40/6 (1973), 344.

47R0bert P Morgan, "Tradition, Anxiety, and the Current Music Scene; Aut1umticityand

Early Music: A Symposium, ed. Nicholas Kenyon (Oxford and New York: Oxford University

Press, 1988), 66.

"'Morgan, 1988,65.

~red.ricJame80D, Postm.odJ!mism or, the Cultural Logic ofLate Capitalism (Durham: Duke

University Press, 1992), 16.

:lOAmoid Schoenberg, Style and I~ Selected Writings ofArnold Schoenberg, eel by Leonard

Stein with translations by Leo Black (Berkely and Los Angeles: University ofCalifomia

Press, 1975), 172-74. This notion is also confirmedin the correspondence between the

Finnish poet Elmer DiktoDius and ~oenberg.Diktoniua admirecl SchoenbergcaIlinC bim

"the boar in the carden ofmusic" and tellinC him that he wu a revolutionary composer. In

bis answer Schoenberg deDied that. He saw bjmse1/just 88 a part ofthe Datural process of

development. Bo Wallner. Vdr tids musik i Norden - Frdn 20-tal tül 6tJ.tal (Stockholm:

Nordiska MusildCSrlaget. 1968), 61. Alter this letter, Dictonius wrote the followiDC poem:

"One sprinC, 1 went out to the worldl ta kill ScriabiDI move away the sissy Debussylpunch • Schoenberg on bis tai1J (he wrote me that he's conservative, the baatard!)." (~n vAr cick iae 89 ut i vitrldenl aU drApa ScriabiDI vdka undan sïlpetDebussy/lmlppa SchGDherc pl

• svansen/ (han skrev mie att han Irkonservativ den djaveln!»)

151Schoenberg, 1975, 120. Debussy ma,. be, in this respect. a revolutionary compoaer; still, the

technique ofvariation has been such • stroneide.in the Westem tradition and for hîm. The

mjnjmalist composera conceptis somethingcompletel,. different.

52Said, 1994, 143.

S3[•••Unisono- Orge1punkts- und Verzïerunpmusik, Arpenio-, Glissando- und Pedaleffekte

mit scharfen DissonaDZen, monotone und stereotype Formeln, exoti8cher Rhythmus,

Periodenbau und P1uasierung...] Georg Capellen, -Wu k6D.Den uns exotisclle Meloctieen

Lehren?," DieMusik 7/28 (1907108),304, quotediD Fritsch, 1981,261.

~["Ich fühle intuitiv. daB dieae Prinzipien der KlanpchwiDcune aufjederEbene sich auidie

Schwingungen des Universums beziehen.' Glico, 1973, 338-U. The interview wu made in

Eng1ish but translated to German by David Starke. Quotedin Fritsch, 1981. 267. Accordine

to Young, "Der Klangist Gott" is a quotation from the Inclian Veda, "N'adam Brahmhum."

~ligo, 1973, 338, quoted in Fritsch, 1981, 267.

l56Edward Stricldand, AmeriaIn CompoSers: Dialogr.œs on Contemporary Music (Bloomington

and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991),58.

l51For a heginners introduction see Howell, 1983, in bis chapter "Comparative aesthetics:

mdia and Japan."

ll8"[••• ) meine eigene Musik ist m~e ~gene MusiL Es ist injeder Wei8e absolut nicht

indiscbe Musik. Mein Studium der indiachen Musiki.st eine Sache fi1r sich. Ich mOChte diese

beiden musikaHschen Systeme 80 rein wie m6glich halten." Gligo, 1973. 340.

5J8celsi also wrote muic which easil,. could he refered to as Weltmusik. For example Canti

del capriœT'TUJ, for soprano voice. 1962-72, cives associations to A&ican music. See Musik­

Konzepte 31 - Giacinto Scelsi (Munich: Dieter VoDendori: 1983). • ooJulian Anderson, ·Spektralmusiken: En historiait och intemetional1 éSversikt," trans. b,. 90 Fredrik Osterling, Nutida Musik 3712 (1994), 66-71.

• 61From two radio procrams on Scelsi by TeddyHultberg, "Den maciùa JdangeJl,"

broadcasted by the Swedish Broadcaating Corporation, 08122190 and 08/29190.

62Said, 1994,259.

83Nattiez, 1990, ÎX.

64Jan Ling, Europas MusikhistoricJ: Foillmusiken. 17a~1980 (Gothenburg: Eaaelte Studium,

1989),8.

-Bence Szabolcsi, ~ and Nature in Bart6k"s World," Ba116lc Studies, ed. by Todd Cro..

(Detroit: Information Coordinaton, 1976), 70.

86KarlheiDz Stockhausen, ToworclB CI Cosmic Music: Texts by K/Jrlheinz Stockhausen, selected

and translated by Tim Nevill (Lonpnead, Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element Books Limited,

1989), 25. This volume contains excerpts fmm Texte but wo newspaper articles.

87("ZU alle dem wollte ich einem alten undimmer wiederkeb.renden Traum naherkommen:

einen Schritt weiterzugehen in die Richtung, nicht 'meine' Musik zu acbreihen, sondem eine

Musik der ganzen Erde, aller LAnder und Rassen (...] TELEMUSIK ist keine Collage mehr.

~ Vie1mehr wird-durch Intermodulation zwi.achen alten, 'gefundenen' Objekten und neuen,

von mir mit modernen elektronischen Mitte1n pachaft'enen Klanpreipissen-eine hôhere

Einheit erreicht: Eine UDiversalitAt von Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft, von weit

voneinander entfemlen LAiadern och 'RAumen': TELE.MUSIK.1 KarlheiDz StockhaWlell,

"Te1emusik," Texte zurMusïk, V~L 3, 1963-70 (Cologne: 1971, 75-76), partly quotedin

Fritsch, 1981 with some minor errors, 266.

68fu a persona! communication with the author.

~tdhell, 1966,66.

mJ~eson, 1992,3.

11Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Musik und Graphik," Darmstdclter Beitriige ml'Neuen. MusiJc, Vol • 3, referred to by Hambreus, 1960/61,3. 91 72According ta Fœdric Jameeon, 1992, 4, tbia took place in the late 19508.

• '73Andreas Huyssen. Â/IU the Great Divüle:Modenism, Maa Cultu1'f!, Postmod.emism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986),53-64.

74High ~lity (1958), repriDted as -rhe Composer as Spec:ialis~·iD R. Koete1anetz, ed.

Esthetics Contemporory (Butfalo: 1978), 280-87.

'75J:..ouis Andriesaen and Elmer SchODberpr, The .4pollonian Clockworle: On. Stravinsky

(Oxford, New York: OxCord University Press, 1989), 6.

76Linda Huteheon, 110""''' EcWe: DIe 7Jaeo", and Politiett ofl'Ony (New York and LondoD: Routledge), 1994.

77Hutcheon. 1994, Il.

1IHutcheon, 1994,99.

19Bellman. 1993, 12.

80In a private communication widl the author.

81Boulez in Peter Heyworth. ~es:TakiDg leave ofpredeceuors. part 1,· The New Yorker,

March 24. 1973. 59. quotediD Bom. 1995, 81.

82Bengt Hambneus recalled durinC a prwate commUDication how the audience was laughing

at Cage and Tudor durinC their first appearance iD Germany duriDg the DonaueachiDeen

Festival in 1954.

&1fu a private commUDicatioD.

84Femeyhough bases bis opinion of~cham'slater style on an earlier but similar pieee-Van

Home Boo~. He had Bever heard the SecondSonata.

MFrom the composera liner notes for the performance ofthe piece by the German piaDist

Ortwin Stürmer at University ofNewcast1e UpOIl Tyne. Much 12, 1992. This piece has been

recorded by Stürmer on the Ars MusiCÏ, AM 1086·2.

espeter Bürger, 'l7u!ory ofthe Avant-Garde (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press• • 1984), 49. HermaDD Danuer aIao maltes a cleu distinction between modernism and avant· 92 garde but without takiDgfunction into consideration: Avant-prde 'enes Bündelanderer

• Richtungen der Neuen Musik, fOr welche Traditiooslaitikeine umfasaende. radiale Neption der abenlAndischen KUD8tmusik-OberJieferung bedeutet und welche neue Istbeti8che

Erfahrungen (...] zu erm6clichen suchen. loapl< von dem a1a fremde Lut empfundenen

europaischen Geschichtsbewu8t8ein.- Hermann Danuer, "PlAdoyer fUr die amerikani".he

Moderne." Die Musik de/ünfziIler Jahre (Mainz, New York: 8chou, 1985), 21, quoted in

Joa.lrim Tillman, ITllflXJr Lidholm och TolvtonstekniJum, Ph.D. Diuertation (Stockholm:

University ofStockholm, 1995), 28.

r.wrhere are. however. other defiDitioll&-Michael Nyman's, for example. His distinction gues

along the line ofexperimental and avant-garde musD where the former is dift'erent "from

the music ofsom avant-prde composera as Boulez, Kagel, Xenakia, Birtwistle, Berio,

Stockhausen. Bussotti, which is conceived and executed along the well-trodden but sanetified

path of the post-Renaissance tradition." Michael Nyman, Experimental Music: Cage and

Beyond (New York: Schinner Books, 1974),2.

88Hambrœus, ..AvantgardeJt Sohlmans's DictWnary ofMusic (Stockholm: Sohlmans F6r!ag AB,

1975). 245-46. 1975, 246. The occasion was Stravinskys Harvard lectures, printedin

Poétique musicale. 1942.

89"Modernisme- Avantgardisme- Postmodemisme: Om betingelseme for den p08tmodeme

musikalske erfaring,· trans. by Jesper Beclanan, DanskMusiktidskrift 60/5 (1985-86), 212­

18.

90Queering the Pitch: the New Gay and LesbianMusiœlollY, ed by Philip Brett, Elizabeth

Wood, Gary C. Thomas (New York: Routledp, 1994), ïx.

91Hambrœus, 1975,245.

92Bellman,41-42.

93Bohlman, 1988, 49. • 9C['1Jet Ir det decennium Dir folkmusiken lteruppstodfrAD att vara museal till en levande 93 funlttionell musik i dapu sambl1le1 in FoUunusikvdllen. 7Jae Folk Music Vogue, ed. by • Lena Roth (Stockholm: RikskolUlerter, 1985),9. This ia the dichtonomy that Philip V.

Boblman de8Cl'ibes as ~fomuJland culturul-(uncâonaliD relation to the classification

offolk music, see bis 77Ie Study ofFolle Music in. lMModem World (Bloomïnpon: Indiana

University Press, 1988), 45.

9&Marta Ramsten, "The New FidcD.en: Trends and Revivalism in the Folk Music ofthe

Seventies," Folkmusikr.Jd6en, 1985, 72.

96For an extensive CÜ8c1188ion ofsouces other than oralfor the traD 81DjNriOD offolk music,

see Bohlman, 1988.

9'lJIe was one ofthe fOUDden of-SkAnmanslape--a group offiddlers founded in the 1960'8,

trying to make the Swedïah folk mU8Ïc more popular.

9BJn an interview with the autbor.

98Al.ain Danielou, "Non-European Music and World Culture," '1J&e World ofMusic 15/3 (1973),

6.

lOOfu Sweden economic protection for folk music exista. see Krister Malm, "Svensk

Folkmusikfond" in Vern av folldore, Nordisk institutt for folkediktiDg, 4. arJriv- og

dokumentasjonskonferanse (Bergen: Fori.pt Folkekultur, 1988), 61~.

101Bohlman. 1988, 124-25.

1O'l["Isoleringen aven musikaHsk genre Ir sUedes ett alacs amputation efteraom olika

musikslag griper in i varandra P~ ~cIa dtt"] Ling. 1989, 1.

lOOOert O!SSOn in an interview with the autbor.

IOt"Groupa" is a band with mots in traditional fiddliDg practice. However they blend it with

ather kinds offolk music as well as takinginfluences !rom popular music. An iDterestiDg

aspect is how traditiona1 Swedîah andoriental folk iDstruments are mixed with modem

instruments such 88 basa clarinet and 8)'Dthesizer. Typical examples can he heard on the • Groupa records: "MlDskratt," AMIGO, AMCD 725 and -Utan sans," AMIGO, AMCD 721. 94 See also Ling, 1989,220-21.

• IOl5Hamsten. 1985. 197.

I06Bohlman. 1988, 127-28.

W7SzabOl~, 1976,70.

lOSWalter Benjamin, -rhe Work ofArtin the Ace ofMecbanical Reproduction," Rluminations:

Essays andReflecti,ons. ed. by Hannah Arendt, traD.s. by Hauy Zorn (New York Schocken,

1969),220, quoted in Bohlman, 1988, 121.

Iœwhen Reich taIks about -the interestiDgsituation ofthe non-Westem iD1luence hein&, (••.)

in the tb;nJring, but Dot in the sound'" he seems ta refer to musical structure rather than

cultural context. See bis Writings boutMusic (Halifax: The Press ofthe Nova Scotia Collep of

Art and Design, 1974), 40.

1l0R0se RoseDgard Subotnik, Deconstructive Variations: Music andReason in Western Society

(Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1996), 156.

lllTheodor W. Adamo, "Zur geMl1schaftlichen Lace der Musik," Zeitschriftfür Sozialforschung

1 (1932), 373, quoted in Max Paddison, Adorno, Modemism CJI'Ul Mass Culture: Essays on

CritiJ:al Theory and Music (London: Kalm & Averill, 1996).

112Schoenberg, 1975, 134.

113"Vom EinfluB der Bauemmusik aufdie Musik UDserer Zeit," Bence Szabolcsi, ed., Béla

Bartôk: Wegund Werk (Munich: DeutseherTuchenbuch VerlaC, 1972), 174, quotedin

Bohlman, 1988, 48.

114J)anieloU. 1973, 16.

l~u:igi NODO, "Geschichte UDd Gepnwart in derMusik von heute." (Vortrag 1959) Tate:

Studien zu seiner Musik, ed. by Jilrpn Stenzl (ZürichlFreiburg 1975), 35, quoted in Fritsch,

1981.271.

116Joseph Scb;JJ;nger, 'I7ae Mathematiœl &sisof lM Arts (New York: PhilO8OPbical Library, • 1948).34. 95 Il'Boulez, 1986,421. • 118J3oulez, 1986. 158. l19pierre Bo~ -Oriental Music: A Loat Paradise?" Orimtotion.s: Collected Writin.fs, ed. by

Jean.Jacques Nattiez, trans. by Martin Cooper (London" Boston: Faber and Faber, 1986),

423.

~azü~ou, 1971,29.

I21Hambneus in a commUDicationwith the author.

1Zl5toekhausen Serves Imperialism. andotherArticles (London: Latimer, 1974), 49.

123From a private communication with the Cardew scholar Kathy Pisarro who interviewed

friends ofCardew.

I2tBenjamin. 1968,224.

125"Klangproblem i 1600-1700-talena orgelkonst,'" Svenslt 7'idskri,ft /Or MusiJcforslcnillg 32

(1950), 103-46.

126Emst Karl Rœsler, Klan6/tmIttiDn und Registrierung: Grurulbegriffe musiJrtJlischer

Klangfunktion und Entwurff!ÏMr fun,kti,onsbestimmten Registrioungslehre (Kasael und Basel:

Barenreitel' Verlag, 1952) and by the Same author. -Orge1konsten i clag, klangbild och

kompositioD," Musik Bevy 17/2 (1962). See al.so Bengt Hambneus, "Ernst Karl Ri:Sssler och

'Ranmlinjestirke' - teorin 1," KyrkomusiJœmas 'l'idning 18/13 (1952), 98-101; ~stKarl

Rossler och Rallmliniestlrke'-teorin n,'" Kyrkomusikemas 'l'û:lning 18/14 (1952), 107-109;

and "Erinnerungen an E.K. R6ssler,". Osterreit:hisc:ha Orgel/Orum.

127For a comprehensive generaI. outlook on Messiaen's teaching see Jean Boivin, La. classe tù

Messiaen (paris: Christian Bo\l1'lOÜl Éditeur, 1995). 1 am very Il'llteful to Professor Jean­

Jacques Nattiez at Université de Montréal, who chew my attention to thia book as weil as

provided me with a copy.

l2IJ1"he letters from Hambraeus to Ni1aon were sold by Nilsson to the Royal Library in • Stockholm without Hambraeus's mowledp. 96 l29Bengt Hambneus. "Stildraghos Olivier Messiaen." MUBik ~ 7 (1952). 264-69 and "1>en • Mystiske Messiaen." ~mU8ikertU:18TitIn.in6 18/1 (1952). 2-4. I30r...sublimeratsvammeli Adomo-stil1. iD letter to Do Nilsson 09102/56. depositedin the Royal Library, Stockholm.

131Paddison. 1996. 107. Schoenberg writes ·80 modern JDusic has a philoaophy-it would be

enough ifit had a philosopher. He attacb me quite vehemently in it. [...] 1 am certainly DO

adm.iœr ofStravinsky, although 1 like a piece ofhia here and there very much-but one

[Adomo) should Dot write like that."

l3Zffambrœus, ·Spel med tolv toner. En studie bingAnton von Webems esoteriska polyConi,"

Ord och Bild 1952/10. 594, quoted in Tillman, 1995. 65.

l3SBengt Hambreus. "Between Ivory Tower and ShoppÏDg Mali." trans. by the author,

Svenska Dagbladet Under Strecket 05/13195.

lMfhese five impulsea in Adomo·s tbinking, Hambraeus borrowed from Martin Jays Adomo

(Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1984).

l:R5See Tillman, 1995.

136From Danuser's DieMusik da 20. Jahrhunderts (Neues Handhuch der Musikwissenschaft.

Volume 7, Wiesbaden: Akadmische VedapgeselJ9Chaft AthenaioD ÏD collaboration with

Laaber·Verlag, 1984).

13?fillman, 1995, 78 alter Danuser, 1984.

13IBengt Hambrseus, "Informai S~ap ~ots ofBruno Madema," [1995, Manuscript).

139Coincidentally, n prigionœro made a great impact on Ingvar Lidholm as weil. See Tillman,

1995,268.

l4O()ne ofthe few worb by Nono that abo was performed in Stockholm. See Tillman, 1995,

43.

141Modem Nordisk Musik (Stockholm 1957), 232-44. • 142Ferenc Belohorszky, Tolvtons· och serietekniJums tidigaste anvOndning i Sveri6e (intiU 1954) 97 (unpub1ished thesis in musicolOlY, Uppsala University, 1965),63. • 143Hambrœus, 1952, quoted in Tillman, 1995, 65.

l"!t was later published iD a French translation (Studia muaicolocica Upsaliensis, Uppsala,

1961).

14S{n a persona! communication with the author.

l~e made, for example, a major contribution byheinC the coordinator for European

BroadcastingUnion durinC the Scriabin centennjal celebration in 1971-12. Due to this

assignment HambreU8 was able to meet with Ivan Wysbnee:radsky.

147Hambra!us et al, 1960, 151. In a radio interviewfor the Swedïsh Bmade88ting Corporation

by the author, broadcastin 1992, Hambraus expresaed the same notion with a s1iptly

different phrasing, l'eplacinC "WoddScene· with "World Muaic Theater."

l.ClJOm notskrifter: Pakografi-tradition-fOmyelse (Skrifter utgivna av KunpcaMusikaliska

Akademien, Stockholm, CGpenhagen and Oslo: Nordiska Musildbr1aget, 1970).

l.a9Folke Bohlin, review ofOm notskrifter, Svensk Tidskri/t fOr Musik{orskning 53 (1971), 13l.

["Ett framtrâdande dragi Hambr&!us' framstAUnjnpkonat Irde snabba associationerna

mellan f6reteelser frAn olika irtusenden och skilda vArlclsdelar. Det Irfrln en synpunkt

sett mycket charmfullt men frAn en annan en smula I.ventyrligt-lisaren kan nlmlieen flSr

sin deI komma att associera ti1l den fbrkAttrade jAmfbrande musikvetenskapen."]

l5) ["Och under samma resa som jagfick en Iivsavgôrande ny 8YD pl1'olkmuaik' som nigot

mer funktionellt an enbart dekorati~ "50-talet: tio lrav kAmpande entusiasm," Nutida

Musik, 24/2 (l981/82), 36.

151Hambrœus, 1981182. 36.

1S2"Tvi tonsAttare-en kollektivartike1: Ba WallDer ftlgar, Jan Carlstedt och Benit

Hambrœus svarar" DTd och Bild 6912 (1960), 148-49.

153"Folkmusiken och den moderna toùonsteD: PerspeJetiv 6/5 (1955),200-204. • 16&Roger Sessions on music: collected essays; edited by Edward T. Cone. Princeton. N.J., 98 Princeton University Press, 1979.] • l8l5["En vallllt som framtbrs utaDibr sin epntlica ram, flbodku1turen, skapar viaserligen en suggestiv atmosflr men fbrlorara ju helt sin fimktion om clea framtbrs som

programnummer.' Hambreus, 1955, 202.

Ul6 ['1dangvArdet (som funktion eller mqi) och atmosfJben1

1STJIambrœus, 1955, 204. [lAt den vara i Cred.. Lit me10diema vara i fred. LAt dem leva sitt

tynande egenlivoch spela ,lmain Iivsllgan sl aU vi kan minnaa vad vijustnu IrpA vAg

att fanon. Men tac varapl atmosflren. pl den UDiJrt vibrerande klancbüden i denna

tonkollSt. Dar. pl detta meats elementlra plan. liner m6j1igheten tilltbmyelse. Bortom

tonfall, bortom eeocrafiska crAn8er. bakom de yttringar som vi nu ser prov pl hos spe1man

och vallkullemusiken tilllter inca genvlpr. Men det Irvin besvllret att,1slinprvlgen

mot labyrintens centrum. Kanake bittar man dlocbl en annan vII som slingrar sig ut!]

16lJ"Kommunikation Ost..vast. Ref1ektioner laine nAcra aktuella musikproblem." Nutida

Musik 3/2 (1960/61), 1-6.

I:MHambrEus. 1960/61, 2.

lOOfiambrEus. 1960/61, 3.

161"Fôrradiska tidskapslar? - Hur flSrvaltar vi traditioner. notbilder och fonogram i musikens

nutida historia?" Arvet hemifn'Jn-: Den musikoliska traditionen infOr framtiden (Stockholm:

Kungl. MwrikaJjska akademien). 1993.

16% Aspects ofTwentieth·Century Perfor:mance Practice: Memoria and ReflectÜJns (Stockholm:

Kungl. Musikaliska Akademien, 1997). l was only able to examine thia volume after having

6nished this thesis.

163For a description ofethnomusicologists" preferences ofcultures ofstability and autonomYI

see Bruno Nettl. The StudyofEthnomusicology: Twenty-nille Issues and Concepts (Urbana

and Chicago: University ofDlinois Press), 1983. • 1&IHortus Deliciarum: Garden ofDelights (New Rochelle, New York: Caratzas Bl'OS., 1977). 99 16I5Hambrœus. 1995.

• 18SAfter the premiere. Ba Wallner. a Swediah musicolocist andmend ofHambreus's. explained tbat this music wu to he understooel as the iDtemationally oriented Hambreus's

way ofrecomposing HuCO Alfvéàs Swedi.sh Rhapaody No. 1. op. 19 "Midaummer Night's

Vigil"

l6'7'f'he score is published by Wamer/Chappell-Nordiska MusikflSrlapt and available on a

commercial recordincon Phono Suecia, PSCD 57.

Iflll)efinitions ofTabu and Manu accordiDc to Britm&ni.ccI On-line:

taboo, also spelledTABU. TODpn TABU. Maori TAPU, the prohibition ofan action or

the use ofan object based on ritualisticdistinetiODS ofthem either as heinC sacred and

consecrated or as heinC danprous. unclean, and accursed. The term taboo is ofPolyneaian

origin and wu first noted by CaptaÏD James Cook durinC bis visit to Tonca in 1771; he

introduced the term into the English language, from ..hich it achieved widespread currency.

Taboos were MOst bighly developed in the Polynesian societies ofthe South Pacifie, but they

have been presentin virtually an cultures. Tabooe could include prohibitions on fishiDg or

picking fruit at certain seasons; food t8boos that restrict the met ofpregnant women;

prohibition.s on talking to or touchingchiefs or members ofother hich social classes; taboos

on walking or traveling in certain areas, 8uch as forests; andvarious taboos that function

duringimportant life events such as birth. marriaae, and death. There is an apparent

inconsi.stency between the tab~ in !,bïch notions ofsacredness or holiness are apparent

(e.g.• the head of a Polynesïan chief wu taboo and thus could not he touched because ofbis

general character as a sacredleader) and taboos in which DOtiOns ofuncleanliDess were the

motivatingfactor Ce.g.• physical contact with a menstruatïDg woman May he taboo because

it is thought to be detilinC, andpersons who have been in physical contact with the dead

ma, Iikewi.se he forbidden to toum food with their hands). • amoDg Melane8Îall and Polynesïan peoples, a supernaturalforce or power that ma, be 100 ascribed ta persons, spirits, or inanimate objects. Mana may be either good or eviL beneficial

• or dangerous. The teml was mat usedin the 19th œnturyin the West during c1ebates concernîng the orilÏJl ofrelilÏOD. It was first uaed to de8cribe what apparently was

interpreted to be an ÏlDpenona!. amoral, supematural power that manifesteditselfin

extraordinary phenolDena and abilitiea. Anything diatinguiahed!rom the ordinary (e...., an

uncolDDlonly sbaped stone) ia 80 because ofthe mana it posse_s.

llI1fhis term was establiBhed bythe Canadian composer Murray Shaffer. Hambl'll!us does

not use thia particular term in the Swediah VersiOD buthe has mfernd to the concept at

Many aceatioDS.

l'lO"World Music, Mohawks and Incantations: Some comments regarding Noctumals." [World

Music, Mohawks och besvlrjelser-nlcrakommentuertring Noctumals], manuscript by

Bengt Hambreus iD Swedish, dated 07/30/90, transi. by Per F. Broman.

171()ne exception was bis chamber opera L'Ouï-Dire, wbich was never pedormed due to the

bankruptcy ofthe opera companyin Montréal.

l'72After NoctunuJls Hambrseus used the same technique in, for example, bis Piano Concerto

(1993).

lOSSee Werner Jacob, "The contribution ofBenet Hambl'll!us ta the deve10pment ofa new

organ music," Studia inMusic (University ofWestem Ontario) 3 (l978), 22-34.

114()ne ofmany examples ofthis could be heardin a large scale in the orchestral piece

Litanies from 1989.

l'7SHamb~us worked in the Cologne studio as early as in 1955.

176Said, 1994, 12.

177per F. Broman, "Emperor's New Clothes: Performance Practice in the 19908," Svensk

Tidskrift /Or MUBiktors1u&in6 76-77 (1994-95), 31-53.

1715ee Braman, 1994-95,31-53. • 119Qlenn Watkins, Sor.uu/in6s: Music in, the Twentieth Century (London, New York Schi.rmer, 101 1988), 116. • lID8choenberg, 1975, 86. 1A1Hans Wemer Henze, Musil: andPolitics: Collected Writings 1953-81, traDS. by Peter

Labanyi (London: Faber and Faber, 1982), 170-71.

Ul2See, for exampeL SU88D McCluy's esaay 011 the alieDatioD ofthe avant-carde, -rermiDal

Prestige: The Case ofAvaat-Garde Music CompositioD,· Culturul Critique 12 (SpriDg 1989),

57-81.

lSIBroman, 1996, 33-38.

uwrhis term wu established by the Canadiall composer Murray Shaft"er, Bee Dote 168 above.

18l5Hamb:neus, 1990.

• 102