Reinventing the Warrior: Race, Gender, and Nation in Contemporary Indian Country

Preface...... 1

Acknowledgements...... 1

A Note on Terminology...... 2

Introduction...... 1

Indigenous Warrior Masculinity and Tribal Nationhood...... 1

The State of the Art...... 6

Why This Study?...... 19

Theoretical Framework...... 21

Postcolonial Theory...... 21

Nation, Race, Gender, and Masculinities...... 23

Cultural and Warrior Traditions, Performance Studies, Indigenous Epistemologies, and

Cultural Memory...... 32

Method and Approach...... 38

Chapter Outline...... 43

Part I: Warriors With(out) Weapons: Indigenous Warriors During Pre-Colonial Times and Indigenous Men and Masculinities Under Colonial Rule, 1850s~1970

1. Warriors With Weapons: Tribal Society and Peoplehood, Nationhood, Gender, and Indigenous Warrior Masculinities Among the Lakota, 1800s-1880s...... 45

i Tribal Society and Peoplehood, Nationhood, Gender, and Warrior

Masculinities among the Lakota...... 45

Tribal Society, Nationhood, and Gender Among the Lakota, 1800-1880$...... 47

Lakota Martial Culture, Warriorhood and Warfare, 1800s-1880s...... 51

Setting a Precedent: Martial Service as U.S. Scouts and BIA Policemen...... 60

Turn-of-the-Century Colonial Imaginings of Indigenous Masculinity...... 64

Conclusion...... 65

2. Warriors Without Weapons: Tribal Nationhood and Native Masculinity under U.S. Settler , 1880s-1970s...... 67

Indigenous-Settler Colonial Relations...... 67

Indigenous-Settler Colonial Relations: Between and Civil Rights...... 69

U.S. Settler Colonial Policies, Gender, and Nation...... 74

Masculinity & Nationalism: Gender in the Making and Unmaking of Empire and Nation.74

(En-)Gendering Indigenous Men and Masculinities...... 75

Transforming Indigenous Gender Systems...... 78

Colonizing Indigenous People, Gender and Nation, 1880s-1970s...... 79

U.S. and Its Impact on Indigenous Men and Masculinities...... 84

U S. Colonialism as a Tool for Empowerment and Reinventing Indigeneity...... 86

Conclusion...... 89

ll Part II: Warriors in Uniform

3. Warriors in Uniform and the Tribal/American Nation from WWIto Vietnam...... 91

Warriors into Soldiers: Colonial and Indigenous Perspectives...... 91

Colonial Perspectives: The U.S. Military, Martial Race Ideology, and Indigenous

Masculinity...... 93

Indigenous Perspectives: Patriotism, Military Service, and Militarized Masculinities...... 95

Warriors to Soldiers: Between Civil/Treaty Rights and the Tribal/American Nation from

WWI Through Vietnam...... 98

The Indigenous Military Experience from WWI Through Vietnam...... 101

"The White Man's Warrior": Martial Race Ideology and the "Indian Scout Syndrome" from

WWI Through Vietnam...... 101

The Indigenous Military Experience During WWI, WWII, and Korea...... 105

The Indigenous Military Experience During the ...... 109

Reinventing Martial Traditions, Warrior Masculinity, and Tribal Community

Through Participation in the U.S. Military From WWI to Vietnam...... Ill

Tribal Community, Warrior Masculinity, and Ceremony...... Ill

Reinventing Martial Traditions, Warrior Masculinity, and Tribal Community From WWI

Through Vietnam...... 113

Distinguished Indigenous Combat Veterans and Competing Concepts of

Martial Manliness, Nationhood, and Martial Valor...... 118

Western Concepts of Military Heroism: The White Warrior Hero, American Nation, and

Martial Valor...... 118

Indigenous Notions of Warriorhood, Tribal Nationhood, and Martial Valor...... 122

Indigenous Patriotism: Recognizing Martial Valor and Honoring Warriors Within Their

Tribal Communities...... 124

III Indigenous Veterans as Political Actors: The Emergence of Pan-Indian

Perspectives from WWI Through the Vietnam War...... 127

Indigenous Veterans and the Emergence of Pan-Indian Perspectives from WWI to the

Korean War...... 127

Indigenous Veterans in Sixties Movements...... 129

Conclusion...... 130

Part III: Modern-Day Warriors in the Red Power Movement, 1968-1973

4. From Emasculation to “ MasculinitiesReinventing Indigenous Manliness in the Nascent , 1968-1972...... 133

The Red Power Movement, the Struggle for Self-Determination, and the

Masculine American Indian Movement, 1968/69-1978...... 133

AIM: Vanguard of Indigenous Masculinized Protest Politics...... 136

Red Power Movement Nationalism...... 138

Red Power Movement Political Nationalism...... 138

Red Power Movement Cultural Nationalism...... 140

The American Indian Movement in the Twin Cities and the Emergence of a

"Protest Masculinity"...... 142

Cross-Cultural Experiences of Emasculation and Powerlessness and the Founding of the

American Indian Movement...... 142

Indigenous Movement Masculinities and Formative Cross-Cultural Experiences...... 146

The Cumulative Effects of U.S. Settler Colonial Institutions on Indigenous Movement

Masculinities...... 156

The Emergence of an Indigenous "Protest Masculinity"...... 158

Confronting Hegemonic Whiteness, Reinventing Indigeneity...... 163

IV The Takeover of and the Resurgence of Indigenous Identity and Culture,

1969-1971 and Beyond...... 163

Indigenous Vietnam Veterans at the Takeover of Alcatraz Island, 1969-1971...... 166

Warrior Imagery in the Nascent Red Power Movement...... 171

Conclusion...... 174

5. “We Became Warriors Again:” Indigenous Remasculinization and the Recasting of Race, Gender and Nation in the American Indian Movement, 1970-1973...... 176

Reinventing a New Type of Warrior Masculinity in the Struggle for Indigenous

Rights, 1972-1973...... 176

Remasculinizing into Warriors for a Nation Through Processes of Re-Traditionalization

and Radicalization...... 178

Nationalist Symbolism and Revolutionary Culture...... 184

Militancy, Armed Self-Defense, and Indigenous Warrior Masculinity...... 190

Performing Indigenous Warriorhood: Between Media Bias, Cultural Re-

Appropriation, and Warrior Identity...... 193

Racial Conflict, Contested Meanings of Manliness, and the Militant Advocacy of Indigenous Civil Rights in Nebraska and South Dakota, 1972-1973...... 199

Indigenous Masculinized Protest Politics in Nebraska Border Towns, 1972...... 199

White Resistance to the Struggle for , Gendered Rhetoric, and

Contested Cultural Meanings of Manliness and Nation...... 204

Indigenous Masculinized Protest Politics in South Dakota Border Towns, 1973...... 207

"BIA -1 am not your Indian anymore" - Confronting U.S. Settler Colonialism at the : Indigenous Nationalism, Protest, and Warriors for a Nation, 1970-1972...... 213

The Bureau of Indian Affairs Takeover in Washington, D C. and the (Re)Masculinized

Indigenous Nationalist Struggle, 1970-1972...... 213 The Gendered Performance of Indigenous Warriorhood in the Media's Spotlight...... 217

The BIA Takeover, Calls for Self-Determination, and Indigenous Warriorhood...... 222

"Teaching our kids the truth about Indian people" - Recasting Race, Gender and Memory at Survival Schools...... 224

Struggling to Restore Balance:Gender Relations Within the American Indian

Movement...... 227

Conclusion...... 230

6. Warriors and Nation: Contesting U.S. Colonialism & Indigenous Nation-Building at Wounded Knee, 1973 And Beyond...... 233

The Wounded Knee II Standoff: Nationalist Warrior Masculinity in Struggle

With U.S. Colonial Hegemony...... 233

Tribal Governance, Reservation Masculinities, and Intertribal Conflict...... 235

Fighting U.S. Colonialism...... 237

Indigenous and Non-lndigenous Veterans at Wounded Knee...... 237

Nationalist Warrior Masculinity and Conflicting Notions of Warriorhood and Nationalism

at Wounded Knee...... 243

Wounded Knee: Symbolic Site of Wounded Nationhood and Oppressed

Masculinity...... 248

Warriors for a Nation: The American Indian Movement as a Warrior Society for the Independent Oglala Nation (ION) at Wounded Knee II...... 250

The Independent Oglala Nation and AIM as a Warrior Society...... 250

Nationalist Warrior Masculinity and Gendered Nation-Building Processes at the

Independent Oglala Nation...... 256

Indigenous Warriorhood, Bodily Practices, and Remasculinizing for the Independent

Oglala Nation...... 262

VI Indigenous Women Warriors at Wounded Knee...... 264

Performing Warriorhood Between Guerilla Theatre and Guerilla Warfare - The Media's

Warriors at Wounded Knee...... 268

Confronting U.S. Hegemony, National Reclamation, Cultural Revitalization, and

Indigenous Remasculinization...... 274

Conclusion...... 278

Part IV: The Warriors’ Legacy

7. Commemoration, Remembrance, and Legacy of the Warriors for a Nation...... 281

Political Warriors: Transforming Warrior Masculinity in the Nationalist

Struggle for Self-Determination, Sovereignty, and Decolonization in the

Wounded Knee Aftermath...... 281

AIM Warriors in Prison and in Hiding...... 283

AIM as an International Warrior Society, 1974 to the Present...... 285

Indigenous Women and the Struggle For Self-Determination, Sovereignty, Nation, and

Decolonization after 1973...... 287

The Decline of Red Power Militancy and Nationalism, 1973-1978...... 288

Reinventing Nationalist Warrior Masculinity Once Again: The Leaders of the American

Indian Movement after 1973...... 290

Cultural Warriors: Moral Regeneration, Spiritual Healing, Cultural

Revitalization, Mental Decolonization, and Indigenous-Settler Colonial

Relations...... 292

The Indigenous Renaissance: Cultural Renewal, Political Sovereignty, and Indigenous

Gender Practices...... 292

The AIM Warriors as Cultural Warriors...... 295

VII "Don't forget the warriors" - The Legacy of the American Indian Movement,

Remembering and Commemorating Warrior Masculinity and the Nationalist

Struggle...... 298

Controversy over the Warrior Society of the Independent Oglala Nation, Warrior

Masculinity, Martial Virtues, and Leadership...... 298

"Don't forget the Warriors" - The Legacy of the American Indian Movement Across Indian

Country...... 303

Warriors and Nation: Indigenous Vietnam Veterans' Perspectives on the American Indian

Movement, Warriorhood, Nationalism, and Patriotism...... 306

Heroizing Warriors for Nationhood: Commemorating Past and Present Indigenous

Struggles Against U.S. Colonialism Through Mnemonic Artifacts...... 310

Heroizing Warriors for Nationhood: Commemorating Past & Present Indigenous Struggles

Against U.S. Colonialism at Key Protest Sites...... 313

Conclusion...... 315

Part V: Conclusion

Warrior Masculinity, Race, Gender, and Nation...... 317

The Code of the Warrior...... 317

Warriors, Colonized Subjects, and Veterans...... 319

American Indian Movement Activists-Turned-Warriors: Emasculation, Remasculinization,

and Hypermasculinity in the Indigenous Rights Struggle...... 325

Race, Masculinity, and Martial Valor...... 332

The Cultural Memory and Legacy of the American Indian Movement...... 333

New Directions of Indigenous Warriors and Warrior Societies: Tribal Warriors, Street

Gangs, and Military Veterans...... 334

VIII Appendix...... 337

Bibliography...... 339

Abbreviations...... 339

Primary Sources...... 340

Archival Collections...... 340

Oral Interviews Conducted by the Author...... 341

Newspapers and Magazines...... 342

Books, Articles, Oral Interviews, and Other Sources...... 344

Government and Official Documents...... 353

Documentaries and Films...... 356

Secondary Sources...... 359

Books and Articles...... 359

Websites and Blogs...... 393

Lebenslauf...... 395

IX