Video Selfmodeling to Improve Academic

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Psychology in the Schools, Vol. 49(1), 2012 C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pits DOI: 10.1002/pits.20617

VIDEO SELF-MODELING TO IMPROVE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW

MARY ANNE PRATER Brigham Young University

NARI CARTER Brigham Young University

CARYL HITCHCOCK University of Hawaii at Manoa

PETER DOWRICK University of Hawaii at Manoa

Video self-modeling (VSM) has been used for decades to effectively improve individuals’ behaviors and skills. The purpose of this review is to locate and analyze published studies that used VSM for typical school-based academic skills to determine the effect of VSM interventions on students’ academic performance. Only eight studies were located that met the selection criteria. Based on the results of these 8 studies, VSM shows promise for improving academic performance, although the small number of studies limits our ability to draw strong conclusions about the efﬁcacy of VSM across the school age span and across various academic skills. C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Modeling, an instructional approach based on the theory of observational learning, has been known for many years to be an effective teaching tool (Woolfolk, 2010). One factor influencing the power of modeling includes the use of models who are seen as similar to the target person (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2007), and oneself may be considered the most powerful model of all. In fact, Dowrick (1999) argues that observing oneself engaged in behavioral episodes should not be considered a special case of observational learning, but a “learning mechanism in its own right” (p. 36) and that it increases the likelihood of future occurrences of the behavior. Using the self as a model provides participants with information on how best to perform the skill and strengthens their beliefs in being able to do so (Dowrick, 1999). Two forms of self as model have been used in research and practice. Positive self-review involves catching the student demonstrating the desired skills accurately or appropriately and then showing the positive example to the student. By contrast, feedforward shows the individual performing a skill he or she has not yet acquired or not yet demonstrated in a challenging context (Dowrick, 1999). Positive self-review has application for increasing desirable behaviors that are currently mixed with nondesired behaviors and/or for engaging in disused or low-frequency skills (e.g., student engaged in on-task behavior with disruptive behaviors being edited out). Feedforward, on the other hand, captures individuals demonstrating successes they have not yet shown by combining component skills already in their repertoire or by transferring the context in which the individuals perform the behavior (e.g., students reading fluently from a reader currently at their frustration level, with pauses, mispronunciations, and decoding being edited out; Dowrick, Kim-Rupnow, & Power, 2006). Specif- ically, Dowrick (in press) proposes that component behaviors are reconfigured to produce new skills, with potential rapid “learning from the future” (also see the article by Peter Dowrick in this issue). With the creation and evolution of technological tools, video self-modeling (VSM) has gained prominence as a means for improving behavior skills of students, particularly those with disabilities or at risk for school failure (e.g., Baker, Lang, & O-Reilly, 2009; Buggey, 2007; Hart & Whalon,

Correspondence to: Mary Anne Prater, Brigham YoungUniversity, Counseling Psychology and Special Education. McKay School of Education 340 MCKB Provo, UT 84602. E-mail: [email protected] 71 72 Prater et al.

2008). When using VSM, videotaped segments of a student’s performance are edited to present the student performing the desired skill without error. The edited video is then shown to the student. In the school setting, VSM has been used across a variety of skills and with a range of ages and types of students. For example, VSM has been effective in decreasing general disruptive classroom behaviors (e.g., Possell, Kehle, McLoughlin, & Bray, 1999), as well as increasing behaviors such as improving classroom participation (Hartley, Kehle, & Bray, 2002) and on-task behavior (Clare, Jenson, Kehle, & Bray, 2000). Studies have been conducted across a wide range of school ages, including preschool (e.g., Buggey, Hoomes, Sherberger, & Williams, 2011), elementary school (e.g., Hitchcock, Prater, & Dowrick, 2004), middle school (e.g., Kahn, Kehle, Jenson, & Clark, 1990), and high school (e.g., Cihak & Schrader, 2008), and with varying populations, such as those with autism (e.g., Bellini & Akullian, 2007), Tourette’s syndrome (e.g., Clarke, Bray, Kehle, & Truscott, 2001), and physical and cognitive disabilities (Dowrick & Raeburn, 1995). Although VSM has gained interest in research and classroom applications, relatively few studies have examined its effectiveness with academic tasks. In 2003, three of the authors were involved in a review of 18 VSM studies that had been conducted in school-based settings (Hitchcock, Dowrick, & Prater, 2003). Both published journal articles and federal grant reports were included in the review. The setting in which the research was conducted was used as a selection criterion, but the type of targeted skills was not. Thus, the studies examined included some academic skills (e.g., reading, math), but primarily classroom behaviors (e.g., ﬁghting, disruptive behaviors). Hitchcock et al. (2003) concluded that these studies supported the efﬁcacy of VSM to improve student outcomes in schools. We were interested in determining what research has been conducted to date using VSM to improve academic skills. This review seemed timely, given that (a) so few published studies of academic skills were located in the Hitchcock et al. (2003) review; (b) nearly a decade has passed since the Hitchcock et al. (2003) review; (c) technological tools have improved immensely, making videotaping and editing more readily available; and (d) there is increasing interest in interventions using visual media and students with disabilities, particularly for those on the autism spectrum. The purpose of this research was to locate and analyze published studies that used video self-modeling for typical school-based academic skills to determine the effect of video self-modeling on students’ academic performance.

METHODS To review VSM research of academic performance, we searched Academic Search Premiere, ERIC, PsychINFO, PsychARTICLES, and Social Works Abstracts for published articles. The following search terms were used: video, self, modeling, monitoring, video self-modeling and disability*, read*, math, and write. The initial search yielded nearly 650 titles. We also examined reference lists of published literature reviews to identify any additional VSM research on the improvement of academic skills.

Selection Criteria Articles were selected for review if they met the following criteria: (a) the research report was published, (b) the publication described a research study and was not a theoretical or opinion piece, (c) the independent variable was VSM, and (d) the dependent variable was an academic skill, such as reading, writing, or math, or a skill that directly inﬂuenced academic performance, such as engaging in academic activities and staying on task. We included engaged learning and on-task behavior because these behaviors affect academic learning in the classroom. Dissertations, theses, and other unpublished documents were excluded from the review, as were studies that focused on language development and communication skills, and behaviors that did not directly

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits VSM to Improve Academic Performance 73 inﬂuence academic performance, such as recitation of classroom rules. Eight published reports met the selection criteria.

Reporting Descriptive Variables and Results We used the following categories to identify and report the descriptive variables of each study: purpose, participants, method, dependent variables and measures, independent variables, treatment integrity/inter-rater agreement, results, maintenance, generalization, and social validity. Each study is summarized under these categories in Tables 1 and 2.

RESULTS

Participants and Dependent Variables The eight studies reviewed involved 181 students. Participants were students aged 6 through 17 years who were identified as having disabilities (Delano, 2007; Hitchcock et al., 2004; Marcus & Wilder, 2009) and those at risk for academic difficulty. Academic behaviors studied included oral reading fluency (Bray, Kehle, Spackman, & Hintze, 1998; Dowrick et al., 2006; Hitchcock et al., 2004), reading comprehension (Hitchcock et al., 2004), written language (Delano, 2007), novel letter identification (Marcus & Wilder, 2009), and arithmetic (Schunk & Hanson, 1989). Two published reports focused on VSM of behaviors that influence academic performance, namely, voluntary participation (Hartley et al., 2002) and on-task behavior (Clare et al., 2000).

Effects of Video Self-Modeling To investigate the effects of VSM on academic behaviors and on behaviors that influence academic performance, researchers created videos of participants that depicted them engaging in targeted behaviors. Specifically, researchers created and edited videos of students reading, answering comprehension questions, identifying letters, computing math problems, participating in reading lessons, and staying on task to provide students with self-models of proficient or fluent behavior. Students viewed their videos during intervention phases of experiments, and researchers collected data to determine the effects of VSM on students’ performance. Generally, results indicated that VSM increased student performance across the behaviors studied. In most cases, improved performance was maintained through follow-up phases of experiments, with the exception of writing skills. Students who were taught a strategy for increasing the number of functional elements in essays did not maintain intervention levels of performance following treatment. The results of the reviewed studies are discussed in the following sections. Reading. Reading skills were targeted for improvement in four studies, with researchers aiming to improve students’ oral reading fluency, comprehension, and textual response (Bray et al., 1998; Dowrick et al., 2006; Hitchcock et al., 2004; Marcus & Wilder, 2009). Bray et al. (1998), Dowrick et al. (2006), and Hitchcock et al. (2004) created videos for students to view that depicted them reading fluently. Bray et al. created 5-minute videos that showed students reading 10 to 15 words per minute faster than their assessed rate, and Dowrick et al. and Hitchcock et al. created 2-minute videos that depicted students fluently reading more advanced material. During the intervention phases of these studies, general education students viewed self-modeling videos and received feedback on reading performance (Bray et al., 1998); students at risk for reading failure and students with disabilities participated in tutoring sessions with and without VSM (Dowrick et al., 2006; Hitchcock et al., 2004). Results indicated that students made gains in oral reading fluency and continued to improve in fluency following the intervention phases of the experiments (Bray et al., 1998; Dowrick et al., 2006; Hitchcock et al., 2004). When the effects of VSM and tutoring were compared, VSM

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits 74 Prater et al. (Continued) Five-minute self-modeling videos were created of students reading 10–15 words correct faster than assessed fluency rate self-review. Five-minute self-modeling videos of students being on task and engaged in class work Self-modeling videos of students using self-monitoring strategies while writing essays Feedforward. 2-minute self-modeling videos of fluent reading that reflected future mastery 4 weeks. Feedforward. 3 weeks. Positive 9–12 weeks. Feedforward. Approximately 2 weeks. Dependent Variable Intervention and correctly per minute. Curriculum-based assessments and measures contact with the teacher or assignment and performing the requested assignment). Direct observations with momentary time sampling and number of functional essay elements Curriculum-based measures, Reading Mastery tests for word identification and letter identification, DIBELS, Young Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory Number of words read On-task behavior (eye Number of words written Oral reading fluency. subjects subjects subjects and behaviors A-B-BC-B and replications Multiple baseline across Multiple baseline across Multiple baseline across Multiple baselines education students who experienced difficulty reading disabilities who exhibited off-task behavior Asperger syndrome risk for academic failure 5 third-grade general 3boysaged9–11with 3 adolescent boys with 10 first-grade students at video self-modeling on oral reading fluency effectiveness of self-modeling in increasing children’s on-task behavior of self-regulated strategy development on written language in students with Asperger syndrome feedforward when combined with tutoring to improve the rate of fluency improvement in contrast to the rate achieved by providing tutoring Article Purpose Participants Design and Measures Independent Variables Table 1 Summary of Studies Bray et al. (1998) To investigate the effect of Clare et al. (2000) To investigate the Delano (2007) To evaluate the effectiveness Dowrick et al. (2006) To examine video

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits VSM to Improve Academic Performance 75 + from 9–15 treatment sessions. Feedforward. 5-minute self-modeling videos of students spontaneously volunteering to participate Feedforward. 2-minute videotapes: 1 video self-model of fluent reading and 1 video self-model of comprehension self-modeling videotapes of students identifying novel letters self-model, and peer- self-model videos of participants solving fraction problems Treatment duration ranged 12–16weeks. Feedforward. Peer and Feedforward. Peer-model, Dependent Variable Intervention and to teachers’ questions during language arts instruction. Percent of hand-raising per observation session (15-minute observations) for opportunities to individually respond per minute and comprehension. Curriculum-based measures and 15 comprehension questions based on state content standards matched the letter or letters depicted on index cards. Percent of correct responses per session solutions on fraction problems and self-efficacy for problem solving. Fraction skill test and self-efficacy test Hand-raising in response Number of correct words Vocal responses that Correct number of subjects subjects and behaviors (fluency and comprehension) baseline and multi-element to compare two types of video modeling (peer and self) 4 experimental conditions and 3 experiments that tested conditions Multiple baseline across Multiple baseline across Combination of multiple Experimental design with who exhibited participation deficits whom were students with disabilities one 4-year-old and two 9-year-olds below-average performance scores in math. 48 students aged 9–12, 40 students aged 10–12, 60 students aged 8–11 5 third-grade students 4 first-grade students, 3 of 3 children with autism: Students with of self-modeling as an intervention to improve classroom participatory behavior independent variables of community partner tutoring and video self-modeling on students’ reading fluency and comprehension modeling to self-video modeling to teach children with autism to identify or label novel items (Greek and Arabic letters) of self-modeling among children who experience difficulty with arithmetic Article Purpose Participants Design and Measures Independent Variables Table 1 Continued Hartley et al. (2002) To investigate the effect Hitchcock et al. (2004) To study the effect of two Marcus & Wilder (2009) Compared peer video Schunk & Hanson (1989) To investigate the effects

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits 76 Prater et al. (Continued) Social videotaped, and teachers perceived that the students’ behavior improved satisfaction with the treatment was high intervention to be effective Not addressed Not formally assessed standard scores relative to word identification for grade level words written generalized from persuasive essays to expository essays 8 students increased their Not addressed Students liked being Not addressedResults for number of Students judged the Not addressed Student and teacher criterion at 1 to 3 months 6-week follow-up above baseline at 6 and 8 weeks after intervention gains in number of words written at 3-month follow-up. Gains in number of essay elements not maintained at 3 months 8-week follow-up, but progressed at a slower rate All students reached Maintained gains at Maintained gains at levels 2 students maintained Maintained gains at fluency. The rate of fluency increase was statistically significant for 9 of 10 students. Increase was greatest during feedforward condition. Students progressed from at-risk to mid-stream status. percentages of participation. Increases ranged from 11%–43%. on-task behavior ranged from an average of 33%–86%. words written. Increased number of functional essay elements reading rate over time All students increased in All students improved Students’ increases in Increased number of Students increased oral Treatment Integrity/ 85%–100% for checklist items. DIBELS inter-rater reliability was .90. Y-CAIMI reliability was .82, .82., and .91 treatment protocol. Interobserver agreement for 20% of observations was .91 ranged from .80–1.00 (Cohen’s kappa) 98% for words written and 87% for number of functional essays Inter-rater agreement for reading probes 97%–100% Article Interobserver Agreement Results Maintenance Generalization Validity Dowrick et al. (2006) Treatment integrity was Hartley et al. (2002) All sessions compared with a Clare et al. (2000) Interobserver reliability Delano (2007) Inter-rater agreement rate was Table 2 Treatment Integrity and Outcomes of Video Self-Modeling Interventions Bray et al. (1998) Treatment integrity 100%.

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits VSM to Improve Academic Performance 77 Social highly by parents, teachers, and students The intervention was rated general education class Skills generalized to the 6 months Maintained gains at 1 and Not addressed Not addressed Not formally assessed Not addressed Not addressed Not addressed Young Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. = for 3 students and quadrupled for the 4th by the end of 8 weeks. Reading comprehension reached criterion for all students criterion in self-modeling condition; only 1 met the mastery criterion in the peer-modeling condition, although this student reached the criterion more quickly with self-modeling demonstrated higher achievement outcomes than videotape control children Reading ﬂuency doubled All 3 met mastery Self-model subjects Treatment Integrity/ reliability was .90 for parallel forms. Self-efﬁcacy test–retest reliability was .79 30% of sessions 95%–100%. Inter-rater reliability for 30% of session 87%–98% Interobserver agreement for 33% of the sessions was 98% Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills; Y-CAIMI = Article Interobserver Agreement Results Maintenance Generalization Validity : DIBELS Schunk & Hanson (1989) Fraction skill test Table 2 Continued Hitchcock et al. (2004) Treatment integrity for Note Marcus & Wilder (2009) Treatment integrity 100%.

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits 78 Prater et al. combined with tutoring resulted in greater increases in oral reading fluency than tutoring alone (Dowrick et al., 2006; Hitchcock et al., 2004). Video self-modeling also appears to be effective for improving students’ comprehension and textual responses. Hitchcock et al. (2004) implemented a tutoring intervention designed to improve students’ ability to answer comprehension questions. The intervention involved teaching 3 fourth- grade students with disabilities and 1 student at risk for reading failure how to use graphic organizers to map story elements. The first phase of the intervention included comprehension tutoring alone; the second phase included comprehension instruction and VSM (2-minute self-model videos) of students using an organizer to represent a story and then correctly answering comprehension questions. All 4 students showed improvement in comprehension ability during intervention phases, and students made the most gains during the tutoring plus VSM condition. Gains were maintained at 6 months following the intervention. Most of the participants in the reading research studies included students who could read. Beginning readers and students with more severe disabilities tend to encounter difficulty with fundamental skills, such as naming and identifying letters. Video self-modeling may also be effective for helping students acquire letter identification skills. Marcus and Wilder (2009) studied the effects of VSM and peer modeling on students’ ability to identify novel letters (Greek and Arabic letter cards). Three students with autism (one 4-year-old, and two 9-year-olds) were selected as participants. The researchers filmed the students’ peers and the students themselves responding to prompts to identify novel letters. Prior to and during therapy sessions, videos of peer models and self-models were alternated, and data were collected on the percent of novel letters students identified when shown peer-model and self-model videos. All 3 students consistently had higher percentages of correctly identifying novel letters when shown self-models than when shown peer models. The students’ performance following intervention was not reported.

Writing. One study investigated the effects of VSM on writing skills with 3 adolescents with Asperger syndrome (Delano, 2007). The results were mixed in terms of whether VSM improved students’ performance across time. To improve the students’ written language performance, Delano taught the students self-monitoring strategies for increasing word count and the number of functional elements in essays. During 30-minute training sessions, students were videotaped using the strategies taught, and they then viewed their edited videos at the beginning of intervention sessions. All students increased the number of words written in essays during the course of the intervention; higher than baseline levels of performance were maintained 3 months following the intervention. Increases in the number of functional essay elements were evident during the intervention phase; however, 3 months following the intervention, students did not maintain the gains, with 1 student declining over time.

Arithmetic. One study focused on improving students’ arithmetic skills. Schunk and Hanson (1998) conducted three experiments in which students with below-average achievement in math were shown videos of peers and themselves solving fraction problems. In the first experiment, students performed equally during all three intervention conditions (self-model, peer model, and peer model plus self-model). In subsequent experiments, the researchers investigated timing (showing videos early or later in the intervention process) and content effects (comparing mastery and progress demonstrations). Showing videos at different times did not produce a significant effect on performance, nor did showing students’ mastery or progress videos. Across the three experiments, students who viewed peer models and self-models performed statistically significantly better than the students assigned to control groups did.

Behaviors That Inﬂuence Academic Performance. If students are to succeed academically, they must participate in academic activities and stay on task when completing academic work.

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits VSM to Improve Academic Performance 79

Just as VSM appears to be effective in improving academic skills, VSM may improve students’ participation in instructional activities and their ability to stay on task when working independently. Five third-grade students who exhibited deﬁcient classroom participatory skills were participants in Hartley et al.’s (2002) study. The researchers created videos of the students raising their hands and correctly answering questions during language arts instruction, and students viewed their videos prior to instruction. During intervention, all students’ percentages of participation increased from 11% to 43% over baseline performance, and the students maintained increases in participation 6 weeks following the intervention. Although the students’ participatory behavior improved, it should be noted that the effect of participation on academic performance was not measured in the study. Clare et al. (2000) investigated the effectiveness of VSM for increasing students’ on-task behavior. During baseline conditions, three students with disabilities who were in a self-contained classroom averaged being on task for only 33% of intervals observed during independent work time. The researchers created ﬁve 5-minute videos of each student that depicted positive self-models of the students staying on task and engaging in academic work. The students viewed their videos with the school counselor during the 3 week intervention (each student viewed the same videotape only twice in succession during treatment). The intervention produced immediate results, with the students’ average on-task behavior increasing from 33% to 86%. Following treatment, the students maintained intervention levels of on-task performance.

DISCUSSION Overall, the results of these eight studies demonstrate that VSM can be an effective intervention for improving academic performance with school-aged students. We interpret the current findings to indicate that VSM has promise for improving academic and related classroom learning skills. Several limitations of the literature review need to be addressed. First, surprisingly few studies were located using VSM for improving academic skills. Additional studies replicating and extending this research will help solidify the knowledge base regarding VSM. To add rigor to our literature search, we relied on strict criteria for inclusion and elected not to include federal reports, dissertations, and theses because they have not undergone blind peer review. We are aware, however, that such reports and other published research support academic improvement through video self-modeling. For example, Kim-Rupnow and Dowrick (2001) produced impressive gains in reading fluency, and Dowrick, Tallman, and Connor (2005) developed video-based futures planning for special education students to improve engagement in academic activities for transition to adulthood. In addition, several dissertations and theses targeting academic skills (e.g., decoding, oral reading fluency, and task engagement) have recently been conducted, and we look forward to seeing these studies in future refereed journals (e.g., Ayala, 2010; Burton, 2011). With the limited number of studies come limitations related to the generalizability of the results. Of particular note are the ages of the participants and the type of academic skills. Seven of the eight studies used participants aged 12 or under. Only one study used 3 adolescents (Delano, 2007). Additionally, only one study each examined the effects of VSM on arithmetic (Schunk & Hanson, 1989) and written language (Delano, 2007) performance. Drawing strong conclusions about the efficacy of VSM to improve academic skills across the school-age span and across various academic skills would be premature. Although the VSM research on improving academic skills is limited, the interest and study of VSM is growing. Given the increasing evidence of the effectiveness of video self-modeling, one may ask why VSM is not used more widely. All that is needed are (a) the audiovisual technology to record, edit, and view the videotapes, and (b) the ability to capture the student behaving in an exemplary way or the student demonstrating the component parts of an exemplary model. Recent advances in computer software are making the creation and viewing easier to do. For example,

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits 80 Prater et al. personal computers are being sold with readily accessible movie making and editing capabilities. Some teachers may feel more comfortable using digital recorders to make and edit audio recordings for audio self-modeling. Audio self-modeling has been used, for example, to increase phonics skills with good results (Macleod, Macmillan, & Norwich, 2007). Although VSM has been used to improve students’ difﬁculties with grade-level academic performance, one potential application that, to our knowledge, has yet to be explored is the explicit use of VSM within the Response-to-Intervention (RTI) model. RTI requires schools to provide at least three tiers of instruction to students, with each tier level increasing in instructional intensity. If students struggle in Tier 1, they receive Tier 1 and Tier 2 instruction. If that is insufﬁcient, Tier 3 is added. VSM may be an ideal candidate for Tier 2 and/or Tier 3 intervention, particularly considering the positive effect VSM has on academic skills in relatively short periods of time. Many advantages exist for the use of VSM in schools to improve students’ academic skills. Of particular note are the following:

• Videotapes or DVDs are permanent products that students can take home and continue to view, particularly during holidays or school breaks. • Video self-modeling can be easily combined with other interventions, such as direct instruction. • Most students enjoy viewing themselves in the videos, which may serve as a strong motivator for academic improvement. • Students can view themselves by taking turns throughout the day, particularly if only one or a few DVD players or computers are available in the classroom. The increasing use of iPads and other devices in classrooms has enhanced student access even further. • Some students can be trained to assist with the videotaping and editing, freeing the teacher and paraeducators to continue with their typical duties. In fact, some of the more technologically savvy students can make VSM videos for themselves and others. • Because a permanent product has been created, other audiences, such as teachers and parents, can also view the videos.

Although few studies have demonstrated the efﬁcacy of VSM to improve academic skills, we believe there are promising signs. We encourage researchers and practitioners to continue studying the application of VSM to improve academic skills, particularly for students with disabilities and those at risk for school failure. We recommend that future researchers replicate the studies examined in this review with a wider range of age groups and abilities, as well as across a wider variety of content areas.

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Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits