1976 a Thesis Submitted in Partial

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE THE BLACK PRESS VIEWS CARTER'S PRESIDENTIAL RACE: 1976 A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Mass Communication by Marva L. Washington August 1982 The Thesis of Marva L. Washington is approved: Dif!. Michael' C. Emery/} Dr. F~lix F. Gutilrrez Dr. Susan Henry, C~ California State University, Northridge TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT viii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem • 1 Objectives 2 Justification of the Study • 4 Scope and Definitions 6 Summary 6 Notes 8 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 9 Bibliographies 9 Indexes 12 Articles 14 Carter and Blacks 14 Carter and the White Press 17 Media Strategy 18 Black Press 19 Books . ' . 20 Carter Campaign 20 The White Press 25 The Black Press 26 Review of the Literature for Methodology 29 Books 29 Articles 32 Summary 33 Black Press 33 White Press 35 Carter Campaign 37 Methodological Sources 39 Notes 41 III. METHODOLOGY 46 The Topics 46 The Papers 51 Analytical Proposal 51 Limitations of the Methodology 62 Notes 64 iii IV. THE CARTER CAMPAIGN: AN OVERVIEW 67 The Carter Campaign: A Background 67 Building the Carter Image • • • • 70 The Black Press •••• 75 The Press Views Carter . 81 Notes . 89 V. FINDINGS • 92 Pittsburgh Courier •• 94 Carter-Wallace Coverage 94 Florida Primary • • • • • • • • 95 Ethnic Purity 95 Stop Carter • • • • 99 Carter and Blacks • • • • • • • • 99 Black Issues • • • • 101 Black Ministers' Payoff 104 Debates • • • ••• 104 Playboy Interview 104 Andrew Young • • • • • • • • • • • 105 Carter and Black Dignitaries • • • • • • 107 Chicago Daily Defender • • • • • • • • • • 108 Carter-Wallace Coverage •••• 108 Florida Primary • • • • • • • • • 110 Ethnic Purity ••••• 110 Stop Carter 112 Carter and Blacks • • • • • 113 Black Issues •• . 115 Black Ministers' Payoff 118 Debates ••••••• 118 Playboy Interview • • • • • • 118 Andrew Young • • • • • • 119 Carter and Black Dignitaries 120 Amsterdam News • • • • • • 121 Carter Wallace Coverage, Florida Primay 121 Ethnic Purity •••••••••••• 121 Stop Carter • • • • 122 Carter and Blacks 122 Black Issues • • • ••• . 125 Black Ministers' Payoff 128 Debates • • • • • • . ••• 129 Playboy Interview 129 Andrew Young • • • • • • 130 Carter and Black Dignitaries 130 Black Panther • • • • • • 131 Carter-Wallace Coverage 131 Florida Primary • • • • 131 Ethnic Purity ... 131 Stop Carter 133 iv Carter and Blacks 133 Black Issues • • • • • • • 133 Black Ministers' Payoff •••••••• 135 Debates, Playboy Interview, Andrew Young, Carter and Black Dignitaries •• 135 Los Angeles Sentinel • • • • • • • • • • • 136 Carter-Wallace Coverage, Florida Primary • 136 Ethnic Purity • • • • • • • • • • 136 Stop Carter • • • • 138 Carter and Blacks 138 Black Issues • • • ••• 139 Black Ministers' Payoff 139 Debates, Playboy Interview ••••• 140 Andrew Young • • • • • • • 140 Carter and Black Dignitaries • 141 Washington Post • • • • • • • • • • 142 Carter-Wallace Coverage •••••••••• 142 Florida Primary • • • • • • • • • 142 Ethnic Purity • • • • 143 Stop Carter • • • • • • • • • • 146 Carter and Blacks • • • • • • • • • • • • • 147 Black Issues •• 150 Black Ministers' Payoff 154 Debates • • • • • • 155 Playboy Interview • • • • 155 Andrew Young • • • • • • • 156 Carter and Black Dignitaries • • • • • • 157 Christian Science Monitor ••••• 159 Carter-Wallace Coverage •••• 159 Florida Primary • • • • • • • • 160 Ethnic Purity • • • • 160 Stop Carter • • • • • • • • 161 Carter and Blacks 163 Black Issues • • • • • ••• 164 Black Ministers' Payoff, Debates •• 166 Playboy Interview • • • • 166 Andrew Young • • • • • • • • • • 167 Carter and Black Dignitaries •• 168 Chicago Tribune • • • • • 169 Carter-Wallace Coverage 169 Florida Primary 171 Ethnic Purity . 172 Stop Carter • • • • 175 Carter and Blacks 176 Black Issues • • 178 Black Ministers' Payoff 184 Debates • • •••• 185 Playboy Interview • • • • • 185 Andrew Young • • • • • • • • • • • • • 189 Carter and Black Dignitaries 189 v New York Times 191 Carter-Wallace Coverage 191 Florida·Primary 192 Ethnic Purity 193 Stop Carter 196 Carter and Blacks 197 Black Issues 201 Black Ministers' Payoff 204 Debates 204 Playboy Interview 205 Andrew Young 205 Carter and Black Dignitaries 210 San Francisco Chronicle 211 Carter-Wallace Coverage 211 Florida Primary 212 Ethnic Purity 213 Stop Carter 218 Carter and Blacks 219 Black Issues 219 Black Ministers' Payoff 223 Debates 224 Playboy Interview 224 Andrew Young 228 Carter and Black Dignitaries 229 Los Angeles Times 230 Carter-Wallace Coverage 230 Florida Primary 232 Ethnic Purity 233 Stop Carter 236 Carter and Placks 238 Black Issues 240 Black Ministers' Payoff 243 Debates 244 Playboy Interview 244 Andrew Young 246 Carter and Black Dignitaries 247 VI. ANALYSIS 248 Carter-Wallace Coverage 248 Black Papers 248 White Papers 250 Cross Analysis 252 Florida Primary 253 Black Papers 253 White Papers 253 Cross Analysis 255 Ethnic Purity 255 Black Papers 255 White Papers 257 Cross Analysis 262 vi Stop Carter 265 Black Papers • 265 White Papers 265 Cross Analysis • 267 Carter and Blacks 267 Black Papers • 267 White Papers • 270 Cross Analysis 274 Black Issues • 276 Black Papers • 276 White Papers • 280 Cross Analysis 286 Black Ministers' Payoff 288 Black Papers • 288 White Papers 289 Cross Analysis • 290 Debates 291 Cross Analysis • 291 Playboy Interview 291 Black Papers 291 White Papers • 292 Cross Analysis 295 Andrew Young • 295 Black Papers 295 White Papers 296 Cross Analysis 297 Carter and Black Dignitaries • 298 Black Papers 298 vlhite Papers 298 Cross Analysis • 299 VII. CONCLUSIONS 300 The Black Perspective 301 Black Support as Followed Thoughout the Year • 308 Black Strategy • 309 The Black Press Observes Carter 313 Key Issues in Black and White Papers • 314 Black Support Ignited 315 Coverage Comparisons • 316 The Black Press' Role in Carter's Campaign • 318 Carter Campaign: A Political Analysis • 320 Black Press 323 White Press 325 Suggestions for Further Study 326 BIBLIOGRAPHY 328 APPENDIX 335 A. Statistical Data of Selected Papers 336 B. Carter's Popularity Curve 337 vii ABSTRACT THE BLACK PRESS VIEWS CARTER 1 S PRESIDENTIAL RACE: 1976 by Marva L. Washington Master of Arts in Mass Communication On 2 November 1976 James Earle Carter, Jr. was elected as the 39th President of the United States. The white press reported that Carter received support from 96 percent of the black voting public. Ironically, the majority of the traditional black leaders and organizations did not support the candidacy of the former Georgia gov ernor. The thesis, therefore, studied a frequently overlooked entity, the black press, to determine its views about Carter's candidacy. The content study analyzed twelve newspapers for one year. They were the Washington Post, New York Times, Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times, San Francisco Chronicle, Christian Science Monitor, Los Angeles Sentinel, New Pittsburgh Courier, Chicago Daily Defender, Afro-American, Amsterdam News and Black Panther. The black newspapers were chosen because they were the most influential black papers in the viii country and were representative of different parts of the nation. The major criteria for selecting white papers were that they be printed and distributed principally in the same geographical area as the black papers. Eleven topics were selected for review: Carter's primary in Florida; Carter's challenge by George Wallace; the stop-Carter movement; Carter's clout with black individuals or organizations; the "ethnic purity" incident; Andrew Young as a media personality; Carter's association with recognized black dignitaries; black issues resulting from the debates; Carter and the black ministers• use of campaign funds; the Playboy interview; and black issues. The data showed that the black press• coverage and opinions conform significantly with the opinions of influential leaders and of its readership. Thus, instead of taking pioneering efforts to shape opinions and guide decisions, the black press conforms to public opinion and adjusts its coverage to maintain the status quo. The white press does a considerably better job in reporting these black events than it did in those years preceding the Kerner Commission's Report, but it is still handicapped by cultural differences and by a lack of professional black journalists. Jimmy Carter's black strategy and his campaign organization were his most efficient tools for amassing the black support that he needed. As a result of his having been endorsed by Georgia's most powerful and influential black leaders, he was virtually able to win black support without endorsements from either traditional black organizations or from the black press. ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem This thesis studies how United States newspapers covered Jimmy Carter's 1976 presidential campaign. It examines both black and white newspapers to objectively uncover the black perspective as evidenced by published feature stories, editorials and columns. This qualita tive content analysis spans an eleven-month period from January 1976 to November 1976. On November 2, 1976, James Earl Carter, Jr. was elected the 39th President of the United States and several of the nation's newspapers reported that large black voting blocs helped him to win. For example, the Washington Post reported that as much as 96 percent of 1 the national black population voted for Carter, and a study conducted by the Joint Center for Political Studies in Washington, D.C. backed those findings. The report stated in

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