How Brand Community Practices Create Value Using Social Practice Theory, This Article Reveals the Process of Collective Value Creation Within Brand Communities

Hope Jensen Schau, Albert M. Muñiz Jr., & Eric J. Arnould How Brand Community Practices Create Value Using social practice theory, this article reveals the process of collective value creation within brand communities. Moving beyond a single case study, the authors examine previously published research in conjunction with data collected in nine brand communities comprising a variety of product categories, and they identify a common set of value-creating practices. Practices have an “anatomy” consisting of (1) general procedural understandings and rules (explicit, discursive knowledge); (2) skills, abilities, and culturally appropriate consumption projects (tacit, embedded knowledge or how-to); and (3) emotional commitments expressed through actions and representations. The authors find that there are 12 common practices across brand communities, organized by four thematic aggregates, through which consumers realize value beyond that which the firm creates or anticipates. They also find that practices have a physiology, interact with one another, function like apprenticeships, endow participants with cultural capital, produce a repertoire for insider sharing, generate consumption opportunities, evince brand community vitality, and create value. Theoretical and managerial implications are offered with specific suggestions for building and nurturing brand community and enhancing collaborative value creation between and among consumers and firms.

Keywords: brand community, branding, collective consumption, engagement strategies, marketing strategy, practice theory

odern marketing logic, as derived from economics, and Schau 2007) that elude many aspects of marketers’ advanced a view of the firm and the customer as immediate control and make no direct contribution to mar- Mseparate and discrete; the customer is exogenous to keting efficiency or effectiveness as conventionally defined the firm and is the passive recipient of the firm’s active (Kalaignanam and Varadarajan 2006). These collectives value creation efforts, and value is created in the factory include those that are (1) primarily experience based, as in (Deshpandé 1983). However, a different perspective is brandfests, raves, or Linux “installfests” (Bagozzi and Dho- emerging. Research across disparate streams of manage- lakia 2006; Cova and Cova 2002; McAlexander, Schouten, ment literature—from new product development, to and Koenig 2002); (2) lifestyle based (Goulding and Saren services-dominant logic, to consumer culture theory—leads 2009); (3) opposition ideology based (Thompson, Rind- to the view that customers can cocreate value, cocreate fleisch, and Arsel 2006); (4) brand based (Martin, Schouten, competitive strategy, collaborate in the firm’s innovation and McAlexander 2006; Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001; Muñiz process (Etgar 2008; Franke and Piller 2004; Prügl and and Schau 2005); or (5) Web community based (Szmigin Schreier 2006; Von Hippel 2005), and even become endoge- and Reppel 2004). This work demonstrates that all such col- nous to the firm (Jaworski and Kohli 2006; Kalaignanam lectives exhibit community-like qualities, as understood in and Varadarajan 2006; Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004; sociology, and address identity-, meaning-, and status- Vargo and Lusch 2004). Despite the proliferation of such related concerns for participants. Moreover, this work sug- work, a consumer-centric delineation of the mechanism in gests that such collectives provide value to their members which value is collectively created has not been identified, through emergent participatory actions of multiple kinds nor has a clear typology of cocreated value been developed. and that consumer collectives are the site of much value This article aims to address these issues. creation. Consumer culture theory researchers have investigated a A revolution in both marketing thought and practice is host of coproductive activities in consumer collectives orga- at hand. Recognizing the implications of the aforemen- nized around market-mediated cultural products (Muñiz tioned developments, Lusch and Vargo (2006) argue that cocreation will ultimately induce firms to collaborate with customers to cocreate the entire marketing program. This Hope Jensen Schau is Associate Professor of Marketing, Eller College of is consistent with reasoning regarding open-source innova- Management, University of Arizona (e-mail: [email protected]). tion (Etgar 2008; Von Hippel 2005) and with emerging cor- Albert M. Muñiz Jr. is Associate Professor of Marketing, DePaul University porate practices that tap into brand communities, such as (e-mail: [email protected]). Eric J. Arnould is Distinguished Professor LEGO, which explicitly sought and harnessed consumer of Marketing and Sustainable Business Practices, Department of Man- agement and Marketing, University of Wyoming (e-mail: earnould@uwyo. innovation to refine the successful LEGO robotic kit edu). Mindstorms (Koerner 2006), and skinnyCorp’s Threadless, which manufacturers consumer-designed and critiqued

© 2009, American Marketing Association Journal of Marketing ISSN: 0022-2429 (print), 1547-7185 (electronic) 30 Vol. 73 (September 2009), 30–51 T-shirts, famously claiming that “the customer is the Franke and Piller 2004; McAlexander, Schouten, and company” (Chafkin 2008). However, cocreative actions Koenig 2002) are the activities by which consumers create have not been clearly identified and categorized in a uni- value dissected, dimensionalized, or generalized. Although form or generalizable way, nor has the nature of their value such activities are evident, they are treated idiosyncratically. creation been revealed. In essence, we know that value is No attempt has been made to link the value-creating activi- cocreated, but we do not know how, which makes replicat- ties with the activities in other brand community studies. ing successful cocreation strategies within a product cate- This is a problem with the larger literature on brand con- gory and even within the firm difficult and transferring suc- suming collectives, which has focused on the idiosyncratic cessful practices from one product domain to another nearly and oversold novelty at the expense of uniformity, general- impossible. izability, and connections to prior work. Indeed, not only Using a meta-analytic approach, we aim to systemati- have no meaningful connections been developed, but there cally categorize value creation practices within brand com- has also been no attempt to develop the common nomencla- munities, identify the role of each type of practice in the ture for recurring activities and processes that we offer value creation process, and suggest templates for bundling herein. practices to enhance collaborative value creation. We Other authors have invited research centered on the demonstrate the following: (1) Companies should foster a value-creating activities of market-facing collectives, recog- broad array of practices, moving beyond mere customiza- nizing the need for consistent nomenclature. Woodruff and tion; (2) managers can encourage a broad array of practices Flint (2006, p. 194) call for “much greater focus on experi- through seeding; (3) a focus on practices provides guidance ential customer value phenomena” to resolve the differ- for new product development by facilitating the identifica- ences in typologies of value in use. Similarly, O’Hern and tion of high-fidelity, as well as low-fidelity, needs (Von Hip- Rindfleisch (2007, p. 37) argue that “the role of brand com- pel 2005); and (4) companies can encourage the interaction munities as a catalyst for co-creation is an intriguing topic of practices to foster greater customer engagement with the for future research.” Clearly, our endeavor has a mandate. brand. Following Vargo and Lusch (2004), we argue that value resides in the actions, interactions, and projects that acquired resources make possible or support. Taking inspi- Background and Purpose ration from Holt’s (1995) initial foray in applying a socio- Our research purpose is to reveal common processes of logical theory of practice to individual consumer behaviors, value creation among networked firm-facing actors in we argue for an explicit methodological application of prac- brand-centered communities, a meaningful and manageable tice theory (Duguid 2005; Lave and Wenger 1991; Reck- subset of all commercially mediated collectives. We then witz 2002; Schatzki 1996; Warde 2005) to disentangle the situate these processes in the extant research. Case studies forms of collective value creation in brand communities. show that firm-facing actors can create value in use. How- Practices are linked and implicit ways of understanding, ever, the field has yet to systematize the knowledge of these saying, and doing things. They comprise a temporally value-creating activities. To be sure, progress has been unfolding and spatially dispersed nexus of behaviors that made toward accounting for value creation. Holt (1995) include practical activities, performances, and representa- illustrates the ways individual consumers derive subjective tions or talk. Practices link behaviors, performances, and value through patterned interaction with a sporting event. representations through (1) procedures—explicit rules, Although this research is useful, Holt limits himself to dis- principles, precepts, and instructions, called “discursive cussions of individual value-creating activities, primarily knowledge”; (2) understandings—knowledge of what to say through production of individual distinction in cultural and do, skills and projects, or know-how (i.e., tacit cultural capital endowments (Bourdieu 1984). Outside of providing templates for understanding and action); and (3) engage- the context for this behavior, the collective is understudied. ments—ends and purposes that are emotionally charged Similar observations can be made about Belk’s (1995) insofar as people are committed to them (Duguid 2005; analysis of collectors. Warde 2005). Schatzki (1996) underscores how practices Others have begun to rectify such shortcomings. create and perpetuate both collective identity and individu- McAlexander, Schouten, and Koenig (2002) show that par- ality. To engage in practices, people must develop shared ticipation in brandfests led to significant increases in feel- understandings and demonstrate competencies that rein- ings of integration into the Jeep brand community and posi- force social order while allowing them to distinguish them- tive feelings about the brand and product category. These selves through adroit performances. findings were robust across nonowners and newcomers as Following Schatzki (1996), Warde (2005, p. 137) asserts well as owners. Thus, we may infer that in addition to firm that consuming is “a moment in almost every practice.” benefits, participants derive social and hedonic value from Thus, consumption follows from practices, rather than vice the experience. Franke and Piller (2004) show that partici- versa, because practices dictate what is essential for the pation in online product design leads to increases in will- competent and meaningful engagement of social actors in a ingness to pay and willingness to pay more (an indirect particular consumption setting (Schatzki 1996). A focus on indicator of brand equity). Thus, we may infer that partici- practices emphasizes the routine, collective, and conven- pants derive some sort of value in use from participation. tional nature of consumption while accommodating the Although such studies represent important advances, internally differentiated (across participants and groups; see they have their limitations. In neither of these studies (i.e., our subsequent discussion of staking) and dynamic nature

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 31 of consumption (see Cheng et al. 2007). As Warde further the full breadth of community activities both online and observes (p. 145), “practices are the principle steering in the corporeal world. In some cases, specifically with device of consumption because they are the primary source StriVectin and Xena, we pursued the community across of desire, knowledge and judgment;… recruitment to a forums when several sites were implicated in community practice becomes a principal explanatory issue.” Thus, a activities. Finally, our approach is appropriate because we practice focus dovetails with the gap identified in previous endeavored to move the unit of analysis away from the indi- research on value creation in brand communities. vidual consumer and individual brand community to the To identify and categorize cocreative practices from a practices common across individuals and communities. Our consumer-centric perspective and in a generalizable way, analysis also benefits from the insights of a multidiscipli- we draw on a corpus of data across nine brand communi- nary (anthropology, social psychology, sociology, and mar- ties. We access participants in brand communities in collab- keting) and bigendered team. These differences allow trian- orative cocreation activities specifically, as well as their gulation across researchers in terms of convergence and emic notions of value related to branded offerings and com- divergence in interpretation following guidance in previous munal activities. Using a meta-analytic review, we situate research. these practices in the extant literature, connecting the prac- In addition, we performed a meta-analytic review. We tices we revealed with those previously, if only implicitly, identified 52 articles published in Journal of Marketing, encountered in prior research. We then demonstrate how Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of the Academy of these practices interact, or are bundled, to create value. This Marketing Science, Journal of Interactive Marketing, Con- enables us to develop new theory in the domain of consumption, Markets and Culture, and Advances in Consumer sumption practice. From a managerial perspective, our find- Research that explicitly claim to examine collective con- ings illuminate opportunities to grow, not simply exploit, sumer behavior and/or “practices.” None of these studies “customer competence” (Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2000). expressly examined collective value creation, and none used In short, our findings reveal how to build better brand the construct of collaborative behavior uniformly or system- partners. atically. Nonetheless, using four coders to achieve inter- coder agreement on interpretation, we identified 37 articles (71%) that contained sufficient material to code collective Method practices. In 13 (35%) of these articles, we found some evi- To address the research issues identified, we examine con- dence of practices consistent with our current data set. sumer cocreation in an empirical context. Our sampling Thus, this analysis of published research demonstrates that frame consists of an array of nine brand communities across the 12 practices we identify here are robust (Farley, traditional product category classifications: 3Com Audrey Lehmann, and Sawyer 1995) because we found traces of (Internet device), Apple Newton (personal digital assistant), them within data analyzed for diverse theoretical purposes. BMW Mini (car), Garmin (global positioning system [GPS] device), Jones Soda (carbonated beverage), Lomo and Holga (cameras), Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers (here- Findings inafter, TPATH) (musical group), StriVectin (cosmeceuti- Our first goal was to compile an exhaustive list of practices cal), and Xena: Warrior Princess (episodic action television common to the brand communities studied and to situate program). Collectively, these data sites represent a broad those practices in the context of prior research. Our intent in spectrum of marketplace offerings. Packaged goods, elec- this endeavor was multifaceted. First, we wanted to synthe- tronics (including cutting-edge and well-established tech- size and extend prior accounts of brand community. Sec- nology), and entertainment are represented. The data also ond, we wanted to reconcile common practices that have represent greater gender diversity than is found in most appeared under disparate titles. Third, we wanted to dissect prior work on brand communities. The Audrey and Newton and dimensionalize these practices. Fourth, we wanted to communities are primarily male; Garmin, Jones, TPATH, systematically document how a constellation of practices Lomo/Holga, and Mini are fairly balanced; and Xena and coalesce to create value-added brand community experi- StriVectin are primarily female. Table 1 describes each ences. Doing these things would enable us to place brand brand community and the nature of research engagement communities in both new theoretical and managerial lights. with each. It was our hope that this diverse collection of We induced 12 value-creating practices across the nine communities would increase the chances of our data res- brand communities we studied. We assert that these com- onating with that presented in the extant research, thus mon practices represent value-creating dynamics present in facilitating the identification of common elements. most, if not all, brand communities. To support this asser- Our data include in-depth interviews with community tion, as mentioned previously, we analyzed the extant litera- members, participant and naturalistic observation of com- ture on collective consumer behavior to find instances of munity activities, and netnographic research within forums behavior that correspond to these 12 practices. Appendix A centered on brands. We observed forums for all the brands details the practices common in the brand communities we included and downloaded thousands of messages posted by studied, as well as those abstracted from prior research. It brand users. Our analytic approach combines the strengths lists the name of the practice, the definition, a list of the of primary data collection with those of meta-analysis and prior research in which each practice was evident, and overcomes the weakness of individual case study examples of the practice in our data. We further organize approaches to brand collectives. In many cases, we assessed these practices into four thematic categories: (1) social net-

32 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 TABLE 1 Research Engagement

Brand Research Community Engagement Description 3Com 20 months of 3Com is an Internet-only device released in October 2000, based on the Palm operating system. It is Audrey naturalistic designed to be a simple and elegant way to access the Internet, check e-mail and sync with Palm observation personal digital assistants (PDAs). The Audrey had a rushed release, tried to carve out a new product 8 in-depth category, and failed to connect with consumers. After a little more than seven months on the market, interviews 3Com discontinued the Audrey in June of 2001 and offered full rebates to purchasers. 3Com no longer with key provides any support for the Audrey. Numerous sites sell new and hacked Audreys, and there are members several user forums in which users can find assistance in repairing and extending the functionality of their Audreys.

Apple 7 years of The Apple Newton (PDA) was introduced in 1993. The Newton had a rushed release, tried to carve out Newton naturalistic a new product category, and failed to connect with consumers. Newton was far from bug free. Widely observation reported problems, coupled with a high price, discouraged most potential adopters. Despite these 2.5 years of barriers, a strong and fiercely loyal brand community formed around the Newton (Muñiz and Schau participant 2005; Wagner 1998). The Newton lost its lead in the emerging PDA category to the Palm Pilot in 1996 observation and was officially discontinued by Apple in February of 1998. Because it was discontinued, users have 82 in-depth come to rely on themselves, as well as the larger community, to keep their Newtons operating. member Numerous Web sites sell new and hacked Newtons, and there are several forums in which users can interviews find assistance in repairing and extending Newton functionality.

Garmin 4 years of Garmin produces a variety of GPS devices, including the Nuvi, Quest, and Streetpilot lines. These naturalistic devices enable users to pinpoint their exact location in real time and plot directions to any geographic observation destination. They have a worldwide community consisting of users and company employees. The 1 year of community manifests online and offline. The community is truly global in nature with multiple languages participant used on the message boards. The offline community is more travel based, insofar as people interested observation in certain destinations or dwelling in certain destinations meet to exchange use experiences and travel 4 in-depth experiences. member interviews

Jones Soda 4.5 years of Jones Soda is a carbonated beverage firm that solicits customer cocreation from a community of naturalistic devoted fans. The firm gives its 12- to 24-year-old target consumers input into product innovations observation (flavors), packaging (labels, cap quotes), promotions (stickers, Web content, price points), and 8 in-depth advertising. Through the Jones Soda Web site, consumers are asked to rate suggested new flavors and member are invited to submit photos and copy that would fit in advertisements and on the packaging. A mobile interviews Jones promotional vehicle arrives at events such as the X Games, malls, and school campuses to give away promotional material and have consumers try and rate Jones soda products. The promotional vehicle stocks flavors of interest (new and experimental) and actively solicits consumer feedback. As of 2005, Jones Soda used nearly 4400 consumer-generated photos in its marketing (BusinessWeek 2005).

Lomo and 5 years of Lomo and Holga are cheaply made Russian and Chinese cameras, respectively, with inexpensive Holga naturalistic lenses and few adjustable options. Users simply point and shoot. The international origins, observation inexpensiveness, and simplicity of these cameras have made both cameras the subject of active community followings, mostly centered on one joint community (www.lomography.com). Lomography has come to stand for a lo-fi, no-rules, and no-pretense school of photography that stresses creativity and spontaneity. Members create modifications and additions for the cameras, enabling them to do things the manufacturer never intended. Over time, the Lomo and Holga brand communities have merged to create one dual-brand community based around these toy cameras.

Mini Cooper 2 years of The BMW Mini was introduced in North America in 2002. It is a retro brand that is distinguishable from naturalistic nostalgic brands (Morris Mini) by the element of technological updating (BMW). It is “a brand new, old- observation fashioned offering” (Brown, Kozinets, and Sherry 2003, p. 20). The brand was introduced and sustained with a marketing communications campaign that created an iconoclastic, high-style, high-cultural-capital image for the brand that builds off the retro, populist narrative associated with the old British Morris Mini. Through numerous local chapters and its elaborate Web site, the North American community promotes chat, discussion of all aspects of the various Mini models, frequent group road trips and rallies, customization of interiors and exteriors, and racing, and it facilitates both lateral recycling of parts and supplies and limited aftermarket sales by qualified vendors.

TPATH 23 years of TPATH is a Grammy Award winning rock act with a career spanning more than three decades. The naturalistic group successfully leveraged the music video art form, earning an MTV Music Video Award and a place observation on various compilations of the most influential music videos. Their Greatest Hits album was certified 10x 12 years of platinum in 2003, and their debut release continues to sell globally; new fans emerge across generations participant and around the world. In 2006, ABC contracted with TPATH to use their song “Runnin’ Down a Dream” observation to promote the NBA Finals (www.ESPN.com). As indication of their enduring popularity, TPATH 67 in-depth performed at the Super Bowl XLII halftime show. The group’s fans are active in attending concerts, interviews hosting tailgates and concert parties, tuning into the radio show, posting on the online forums, and participating in fan chats.

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 33 TABLE 1 Continued

StriVectin 3 years of StriVectin is a “cosmeceutical” (a high-end cosmetic with pharmaceutical properties) that treats skin naturalistic imperfections (stretch marks, wrinkles, and scars). The tagline for StriVectin’s advertising campaign for observation the last three years is “Better than Botox,” focusing on its age-defying results. The ad text claims that 6 in-depth StriVectin has clinically proven attributes that effectively repair skin and vastly improve skin’s member appearance. There is a lively community centered on StriVectin, composed mostly, but not exclusively, of interviews women. The members meet online on message boards sponsored by the producer, as well as on online forums dedicated to beauty and “youth endurance” or sites devoted to waging war against the signs of aging. The members are evangelical in their support of the product and tout the effectiveness of the product through the telling of highly personal testimonials.

Xena: 12 years of The Xena character began as a guest role on the Hercules television program in 1995. Xena: Warrior Warrior naturalistic Princess became a successful spin-off melodrama that ceased production June 2001. It is now in Princess observation syndication on various networks. The show has lucrative syndication agreements; has on- and offline 2.5 years of cottage industries revolving around the fan culture of costuming, fan fiction, and conventioneering; fits participant squarely within existing organizations (Society for Creative Anachronism) devoted to medieval observation reenactments and fairs; and in many respects appeals to other fantasy fan communities, such as those 28 in-depth revolving around Star Trek (Jenkins 1992), Star Wars (Brown, Kozinets, and Sherry 2003), and X-Files interviews (Kozinets 1997). working, (2) impression management, (3) community brand boundaries. Indeed, there is evidence of longtime engagement, and (4) brand use. Next, we describe these community members remaining in the community after dis- categories and the practices housed within each. possessing themselves of the focal brand (e.g., when a life- First, social networking practices are those that focus on stage responsibility requires a Mini driver to sell the Mini creating, enhancing, and sustaining ties among brand com- and purchase a more family-friendly vehicle). munity members. These include (1) welcoming, (2) Second, impression management practices are those that empathizing, and (3) governing. This trio of practices high- have an external, outward focus on creating favorable lights the homogeneity of the brand community, or the sim- impressions of the brand, brand enthusiasts, and brand com- ilarities across brand community members and their norma- munity in the social universe beyond the brand community. tive behavioral expectations of themselves and one another. These include (1) evangelizing and (2) justifying. In evan- These practices operate primarily in the intangible domain gelizing, members act as altruistic emissaries and ambas- of the emotions and reinforce the social or moral bonds sadors of good will. Various impression management prac- within the community. Examples of social networking practices are evident in the extant brand community literature. tices can be gleaned from prior research. Muñiz and Kozinets’s (2001) study of the Star Trek community and O’Guinn (2001, p. 419) describe behaviors consistent with Muñiz and Schau’s (2005) study of the Apple Newton brand empathizing in the following excerpt from their field notes: community provide relevant and closely related examples. The club president proudly shows a letter he received Members of both brand communities engaged in impression from a sixteen-year-old Italian boy who is a big fan of management practices, evangelizing and justifying their Saab, despite the fact that he doesn’t drive yet. He got the devotion to manage stigmas associated with overt sci-fi fan- club’s address from their web page. The letter says that he dom and reliance on an obsolete and abandoned technology, is a fan of pre-changed 900, especially liking the ’83 and ’84 3-door models. He is seeking pictures of these cars respectively. that the club members might own. This letter is big news Third, community engagement practices are those that at the meeting and is shown to everyone over the course of reinforce members’ escalating engagement with the brand the evening. community. These include (1) staking, (2) milestoning, (3) The variety and scope of social networking practices badging, and (4) documenting. This set of practices empha- that we witness across our nine communities challenge sizes and safeguards brand community heterogeneity, or the Muñiz and O’Guinn’s (2001) assertion that brand commu- distinctions among brand community members and subsets nities are communities of limited liability. What we observe of members. These practices are competitive and provide suggests that social networking practices evolve and move members with social capital. Here, brand use is secondary past brand boundaries. Examples include TPATH fans post- to communal engagement. For example, in staking, commu- ing open invitations to community members to life-cycle nity members delineate their specific domain of participa- celebrations, Garmin users relating road challenges and tion: “The Lomo community is vast, but I operate mostly solutions to other members, StriVectin users complaining within the groups interested in architectural lomography and sympathizing about aging, Lomo and Holga users and within that group I spend most time with the Scandina- encouraging one another to continue their effects trials, and vian group and some time with the German lomographers” Jones Soda users supporting one another in their pursuit of (Hans interview, 11/18/08). Hans carefully stakes his independent music. We assert that this metamorphosis domain of engagement. This echoes Martin, Schouten, and beyond limited liability is a function of the amount of time McAlexander’s (2006) study, in which female Harley com- members can spend with one another in enduring brand munity members distinguished the contours of their engage- communities. Daily or multiweekly contact, sustained over ment from that of the male community members. Mile- several years, enables these friendships to expand beyond stones are standout brand experiences, such as the first

34 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 TPATH concert, the first Garmin caching find, or a posted tional and evaluative significance of this membership.” The Lomograph. Badging occurs when a semiotic signifier of a approach to brand community membership that we develop milestone is created—for example, when a fan buys a con- here is different. We assert that an emergent sense of mem- cert T-shirt or when a Mini owner makes a designated “run” bership and identity arises from the trajectory, or the devel- and adds a circular image commemorating that to his or her opment of practices that foster the exchange of collectively signature file. Documenting occurs when brand community defined and valorized resources. This is consistent with members construct a narrative of their brand experience, prior work on communities of practice (Wenger 1987). staking their social space, participating in milestones, badg- Resources may compose cognitive elements of practices ing the milestones for posterity, and finally evolving a cohe- (e.g., knowledge of procedures and rules), status elements sive personal brand narrative (see Appendix A). (e.g., self-esteem), and emotional elements of practices Fourth, brand use practices are specifically related to (e.g., commitment, pride), but they may also include ele- improved or enhanced use of the focal brand. These include ments such as services, money, and accessory goods. (1) grooming, (2) customizing, and (3) commoditizing. Physiology of practices. Practices work together and Examples of grooming include Mini consumers who share drive one another, as Figure 1 suggests. Empirically, the homemade tools and advice (Q-Tips in air vents) to better thematic categories we revealed (i.e., social networking, clean their cars and demonstrate their collective pride, impression management, community engagement, and StriVectin users who encourage wiping the tip of the tube brand use) work closely together as a process of collective with a clean tissue and storing it in the refrigerator, proce- value creation, analogous to gears working together. For dures for handling and storing original TPATH record example, the impression management practice of evangeliz- albums, care and maintenance of Xena costumes, and ing may yield to the social networking practice of welcom- home-crafted “snugglies” (soft cases) for the Garmin, ing as new members join the fold. The social networking Lomos, and Holgas. Examples of customizing include when practice of governing provides explicit directions for the a TPATH fan creates a custom tour poster from his or her community engagement practice of staking as status differ- first concert, when a StriVectin user carefully mixes ences among members are marked, and the social network- StriVectin with foundation makeup, when a Newton user ing practice of milestoning may inspire the brand use prac- modifies a Newton so that it can perform functions other tice of commoditizing as members create badges (social than those anticipated by the manufacturer, and when a networking) for members’ achievements. Lomo fan customizes a camera lens to achieve more artful Appendix B provides details of the physiology of prac- distortion. Examples of commoditizing are when Newton, tices from several of our commercial collectivities. Prac- Xena, and TPATH communities monitor and restrict the tices work together both to enhance the value people realize price of community-created resources to encourage diffu- when engaged in brand communities and to promote the sion of technologies and items deemed to be community collective health and welfare of the social bodies centered building; when Jones Soda drinkers rant about corporate on brands. Practices can be combined in complex ways. The distribution or Pepsi and Coke products but advocate offer- effects of interaction are at minimum additive and poten- ing Jones in Target, Walgreens, and Starbucks; when tially exponential. Interactions can be either intrathematic Garmin users stretch the useful life of firm-offered maps (practices acting together within a functional theme) or with local patches given as freeware but anxiously antici- interthematic (practices working together across functional pate firm-updated map packages; and when Lomo and themes). In what follows, we provide one example of a Holga users chastise digital camera offerings as pricey but practice physiology. Milestoning is the recounting of salient encourage the resale of these “toy” cameras on eBay for episodes in brand and community relationships. A vivid upward of $100. example comes from the Mini “birthing” stories that are organized by participants in “production week.” The Operation of Practices Good job Birdman! I’m like you. I watched cameras, Each practice exhibits a common anatomy, which can be checked tracking…. You’ll treasure having these for your described as (1) understandings (knowledge and tacit cul- “scrap book” or should I say Minibird’s “baby book”? tural templates), (2) procedures (explicit performance Jake [the car] was not on a WW ship so there were a lot rules), and (3) engagements (emotional projects and pur- less options for catching glimpses of the journey. This poses). Each practice similarly demonstrates a physiology doesn’t apply to east coast folks, but the cameras at the in which these anatomical parts function together. Practices Panama Canal are amazing. Was able to see the Auto Ban- vary in their anatomy, but in their physiology, they vary ner cross with my Mini. Hang in there. Minibird is almost home! (5th Gear, Phoenix, Ariz.) across communities. We identified the anatomy of practices previously. In what follows, we detail the physiology of In this conversation, the experienced poster (5th Gear) practices, or the way the three anatomical components of empathizes, encouraging his fellow enthusiast to keep track the practices—procedures, understandings, and emotional of GPS tracking information and port camera feeds and engagements—cohesively function. We employ the physi- comments positively about the Panama Canal camera feeds ology metaphor to emphasize the dynamism, internal diver- that West Coast enthusiasts employ to track cargo ships, sity, and interaction between practices. such as the Auto Banner mentioned in the post. Tellingly, Bagozzi and Dholakia (2002, p. 4) propose that “a per- the poster encourages Birdman to produce a customized son achieves a social identity [in a community] through self “baby book” for the car, which will help Birdman milestone awareness of one’s membership in a group and the emo- his brand relationship and promote the social practice of

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 35 FIGURE 1 The Process of Collective Value Creation in Brand Communities

Community Social Engagement Networking •Documenting •Welcoming •Badging •Empathizing •Milestoning •Governing alue •Staking ue V al V

u e

Impression Management •Evangelizing •Justifying

Brand Use Value •Customizing •Grooming •Commoditizing

following the Mini through production and delivery. Scores physiology. We find analogous examples of tacit knowledge of these “production week” chats unfold in a similar way being used across the other eight brand communities: over the time between ordering of a custom Mini and its TPATH gestures associated with song lyrics, geocaching delivery to the owner. By stringing together a host of unre- hints shared among Garmin users through patterned utter- lated Web functionalities (customizing) and through e-mail ances (rhymes), StriVectin community members’ use of fin- and telephone exchanges with BMW marketing staff, par- gertip patting in applications, Jones Soda campaign proto- ticipants can track the physical movement of the vehicle. In cols associated with voting, Lomographers developing this way, not only is how-to, discursive knowledge shared online posting styles, and so on. among community members, but it is made normatively Intrathematic interactions are the most common when expected as well. It becomes something individual members the practices within a set focused on a thematic function do, value, and expect, and it ultimately becomes a collective work together toward their thematic goal (e.g., social net- good that strengthens the brand community. working, brand use). For example, community engagement Here, tacit know-how is being identified. Participants is fostered when milestoning (seminal brand events) is com- exchange rumors (e.g., when the ship will leave port), infor- bined with badging (symbolic representation of the mile- mation (e.g., confirmation that a production number has stone) and is part of the overall documenting of the use been assigned and that a vehicle has left the factory), and journey. Our data reveal that in the case of a brand enthusi- empathic communications about the wait (e.g., socially ast’s first TPATH concert, a milestone is created (first con- constructed as an anxious time) for a first viewing and dri- cert). That milestone is celebrated, and a badge is created or ving of the new arrival. Naming and other anthropomor- purchased (tour T-shirt). The accumulation of experiential phizing (customization) performances are encouraged dur- milestones and their related badges helps the brand user ing this time. Finally, owners engage an additional document his or her use journey in a narrative format. Each possession ritual: final predelivery customizing at the Mini badged milestone becomes a chapter in the story. Similarly, dealer. When following these threads over the weeks from brand use is magnified when a user grooms the brand, cus- order to delivery, it is easy to track the evolving emotional tomizes the brand to his or her unique needs, and commodi- engagement as participants develop a special dialect to tizes the grooming or customization technique for collective speak about the impending arrival and encourage one use. Garmin users have grooming practices to keep the another to create commemorative “baby books” to docu- device’s face clean and safe (ranging from carefully pre- ment the new arrival. This illustrates the explicit proce- scribed cleaning regimes to the creation of fabric “snug- dures, tacit know-how, representational gestures, and tailor- glies”). When the grooming routine and customization are ing to circumstances that together constitute a practice commoditized, brand use can be enhanced within the entire

36 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 collective. Because the practices are normatively expected, quite proud of, but then I saw what the others had:… users feel compelled to adopt them. Commoditization authentic medieval gear including weapons and outfits makes doing so easier. that looked like they came right off the set. I had to have Interthematic interactions, or practices that work that too to belong…. Beautiful, strong women in Xena clothes. It’s addictive. (interview, 07/05/99) together across themes, abound. Interthematic interactions are evidenced when evangelizing (impression management Here, Zoey describes her awe at the first Xena event she practice) yields to welcoming (social networking practice) attended and her desire to purchase more authentic Xena or when positive word of mouth inspires outsiders to join wear and attend more events. Similarly, Mandy describes the brand community. Another example is when badging how her Xena engagement escalated in tandem with others behavior inspires the creation of a brand community badge who started at the conventions when she did: that can be commoditized, or sold to members and non- The first convention I went to was a fan-run subtext- members alike, as in the purchasing of Jones Soda bottles oriented but main-friendly [run by fans who support the with customized labels. Here, the badge is commoditized lesbian reading of the show but welcome those who and inspires more brand community engagement or brand adhere to an action-adventure reading]. I actually went use, thus creating more value. with a boyfriend. We wore clothes we had in our closet:… a mishmash of western leather clothes made to look Practices operate like apprenticeships. Practices can be medieval. Don’t ask me how. But the thing is, most other viewed as apprenticeships (Lave and Wenger 1991); their people were dressed like that … [with] stuff they had effects evolve over time as consumer engagement deepens already. Not vintage or even authentic replicas…. The and practices are integrated. Recall the milestoning prac- elaborate costumes came over time. One person ups the tices surrounding Mini birthing stories discussed previ- bar and we all really dig it and compliment them, and then ously. Members learned when a vehicle left the factory and we all start upping the ante…. Now, you can’t really show up in something you just had in your closet. No one would when an auto-carrying ship left port. They learned how to take you seriously. (interview, 02/10/2001) use the resources available to track the car’s progress from factory to delivery. Finally, they learned what activities they Mandy describes how this practice began as a casual nod to were expected to engage in during this time and how they medieval attire and became a quest for authenticity and were supposed to feel. As Østerlund and Carlile (2005, p. even vintage costumes through competitive, escalating 97) aptly note, members “do not merely learn about prac- engagement in brand practices. She shows that practices tices, they become practitioners.” develop; hedonic engagement evolves and deepens over Welcoming is the first practice to which members are time, and value expands. Mandy’s description of the evolu- exposed. Consequently, it is easily adopted, and recent tion of the practice echoes Warde’s (2005, p. 139) assertion members can enact this practice with newer members. With that “[p]ractices have a trajectory or path of development, a the addition of more and increasingly complex practices, history.” members’ standing and legitimacy increase. New members Similarly, badging offers a vivid illustration of the may adopt the practice of milestoning to demonstrate mem- emergent sense of membership and identity that arises from bership in the brand community and participation in spe- practices. Contrasted with Bagozzi and Dholakia’s (2006) cific rites of passage. In this way, members are recruited to perspective on identification with brand communities (in new practices (Warde 2005). Additional practices are which identification is conceptualized as an antecedent acquired as members determine the fit between their skills individual difference variable), badging is clearly an emer- and the community’s repertoire of practices. In this way, gent property of membership. The greater the length of members transition from apprentices to journeymen. membership and level of engagement, the more detailed and The first step in an apprenticeship within the TPATH intricate the efforts at badging became. For example, in the community often involves the first recording a fan buys and Mini community, the number and complexity of badges are the first concert the fan attends. Threads on the TPATH related to the length or intensity of affiliation and the extent forums are dedicated to the first song that made a person a of value experienced. Of particular note is that badging fan, the first album the person bought, the first concert the behaviors codify the expression of brand identity, suggest- person attended, and the first time the person realized he or ing the proper behaviors to be a true member (see also she was a fan. These seminal experiences are evidenced in Muñiz and O’Guinn [2001] on legitimacy) and the proper threads dedicated to TPATH experience firsts, and the dis- idiom for expressing that membership. course surrounding these milestones inspires greater The aforementioned tendencies illuminate the factors engagement; tales of concert attendance begets more con- influencing the customer’s willingness to engage in creating cert attendance and subsequent storytelling. value for the brand and firm (Kalaignanam and Varadarajan In the Xena community, fans note their first participa- (2006). Consumers become habituated to learning more tion in a Xena event—for example, the first time they from the community while mastering an increasingly com- bought Xena gear (e.g., costumes, props, paraphernalia) or plicated set of skills. This has important implications for the the first time they created and shared Xena-inspired art. As development of customer competence (Prahalad and Zoey reveals, Ramaswamy 2000) because it demonstrates that customer The first time I went to the Xena section of the SCA competencies are not static. Through apprenticeship, they [Society for Creative Anachronism] festival was phenom- evolve and expand. In addition, observing members docu- enal. I had cobbled together a costume that I was initially menting a customization or cleaning/grooming practice

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 37 demonstrates that this evolution is organic and endemic to tumes doesn’t scratch the surface. (Sondra interview, the community with a distinct trajectory. This is not to say 07/18/02) that the marketer cannot affect the development of prac- Sondra’s status within the Xena community is a source of tices. Rather, it illustrates that when left to their own pride; she stays engaged because she garners the admiration devices, communities will foster and develop skills of of others in the brand community, and this increases the potential value to the marketer. Prahalad and Ramaswamy value she experiences from the brand. (2000) suggest that one of the challenges to co-opting cus- These tendencies reveal the “micropolitics of consump- tomer competence stems from the diversity of customers’ tion” (Holt 1998, p. 22), or the ways cultural capital pur- sophistication and knowledge. The apprenticeship aspect of suits are enacted in everyday brand community life. Mem- practices suggests that vibrant communities can be relied on bers of brand communities accrue cultural capital through to mitigate this problematic diversity. the accumulation of an increasingly diverse set of increasingly intricate practices. They work to maintain it. These The Effects of Practices tendencies also suggest an overall positive trajectory of cul- Practices endow participants with cultural capital. A tural capital (Holt 1995) in brand communities, with mem- competitive spirit underlies much brand community behav- bers valuing and safeguarding what they have accumulated. ior (Muñiz and O’Guinn 2001). Practices, especially com- Practices produce a repertoire for insider sharing. Prac- munity engagement practices, present opportunities for tices provide participants with an almost inexhaustible individual differentiation through adroit performance source of shared insider jargon and modes of representa- (Bourdieu 1984; Holt 1995). Members compete on brand tion, which enhance consumers’ brand experience. Consider devotion, knowledge, and history to display their various possibilities arising from the practice of customizing. The competencies. Mini drivers compete for the best racing following post responds to a request for information about times, narrowest gap between custom tires and wheel well, uneven ride in a “lowered” Mini: or shiniest finish. [P]rogressive rate springs are more sensitive to load than I’d like to thank K*, and M*, and R*, and C*, and C*, and linear rate springs—load being your weight. Also, never H* for teaching me so much in the last 18 months.... use the fenders as a measuring benchmark; front fenders Thanks to your help (and a bit of work and many $$$ are used to “take up” build tolerances. The rear fenders spent by me), I won Best Foreign Car today in Blimey’s are typically much more accurate as these are part of the first car show!!! I’ll post pics and a writeup later on my uni-body…. In the rear, measure from any of the three blog, but couldn’t wait to share the news and THANK bolts that are used to adjust toe on the rear trailing arm. YOU folks for helping make it happen. I got lots of kudos Up front, use the inner ball joint—front part of the control from other car owners on detailing, paint polish, style, arm. And, while measuring, you can use the outer ball theme, etc, and I didn’t know squat about any of that until joint up front and the lower rear damper bolt to measure I started hanging out with you folks. (V-P Tarheels Mini) across the car—an X pattern—to determine squareness. (6th Gear, No ID) Similarly, TPATH fans compete on the basis of knowledge and number of concerts attended, Audrey and Newton users The practical activity of measuring and adjusting springs is compete to demonstrate novel and wide-ranging use of the embedded within a complex set of customizing practices device, and Xena fan-fiction authors compete for awards on designed to augment the car’s coolness factor by decreasing the Athenaeum Web site and strive to have the most intri- the distance between the tires and the wheel well, thereby cate and accurate costumes. Competition enables members accenting the wheels. Other related threads are devoted to to distinguish themselves from one another and to create a discussions and pictures of this distance and of wheel/tire social hierarchy that members reference strategically. Con- sizes and configurations. The “show me your wheels” sider this posting from the Lomo community: “Lomo wiz- thread contains more than 4500 posts of photos of wheels. ard! You’re good man, but check mine and Avery’s out!! We One post in this thread brags “Almost No Clearance” in the got some sweet effects in the urban set we did. Surely, caption to one photo, evoking admiration from multiple you’ll admit we’re in the game!!!!” Photography becomes a posters (e.g., “msfit … that is just ridiculously hot! now i competitive, noncontact sport. really want the kdw2’s” [2nd Gear, Queens, NY]; “yea, It is through practices that brand fans become brand drop it to 40’s and never ‘rub’ again; PM SENT!!” [6th devotees. In addition to developing explicit and tacit perfor- Gear; EastSide]). Often, this linguistic play takes the form mative skills, they also develop local cultural capital of exchanges of photos accompanied by short lists of prod- resources that differentiate them in terms of status within uct attributes (e.g., “Gram Light 57S 17x7.5 with Dunlop the community (Holt 1995). Consumers who achieve status SP Sport Maxx 215/45... 40 mm offset, rubs with M7 within the brand community are reluctant to give it up. springs” [4th Gear, same as yesterday]). In the StriVectin community, insider information trading I’m into the whole scene, but the truth is I stay in the often involves combining StriVectin with other products. scene because I’m really known for my authentic costumes and my swordsmanship. I mean people know me People are impatient for results. They don’t realize that because of it and they seek me out to see what I’ve made StriVectin isn’t that effective as a standalone application. I lately or what moves I developed.... It’s theatrical and I need to tell them all the time, “You need to reinforce its guess I have “fans.” … Sure I sell some of what I make effects by using skin-friendly products in general. It’s not but it doesn’t really make money or cover costs. I have a a miracle.” You need a whole routine that supports it.… very expensive Xena habit and what I make on the cos- StriVectin only works if you modify your whole beauty

38 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 regime. I’m constantly reminding people in the forums, Kyle’s determination to wear his memorabilia means that he especially those who claim it isn’t working. (Clara inter- must be careful when wearing and washing the garments view, 06/21/2006) because both contribute to their destruction. His devotion Clara admits that whatever results she identifies are from an brings about consumption of a specialty detergent, Woolite, entire consumption set, not just one product. She says that and he risks domestic conflict in insisting that his wife she shares the most effective uses of StriVectin with other employ special washing procedures. Documenting often community members and recommends complementary pur- functions as a manual of discursive how-to-consume infor- chases that will enhance consumers’ realized value. As mation. This becomes important to community reproduc- tion when the behavior is complex. By simplifying or these examples illustrate, jargon does the boundary work encouraging complex behavior and actions, practices allow typical of dialects and provides a creative repertoire for members to become more deeply engaged with the brand insider sharing. This linguistic repertoire of representational and community and, thus, to institutionalize consumption forms and the trading it facilitates foster, recreate, and behaviors. Here, Warde’s (2005) assertion regarding the pri- strengthen the community. They also create consumption macy of practices is most evident. Indeed, consumption fol- opportunities. lows from practices rather than vice versa. Practices contin- Practices generate consumption opportunities. Through ually create and perpetuate new opportunities for practices, members generate, reify, and perpetuate con- consumption. sumption behaviors and patterns. Consider the practice of Practices evince brand community vitality. It has long documenting. Documenting captures and formalizes a con- been understood that numbers of posts, replies, and hits sumption practice. However, in doing so, it provides a tem- provide evidence of participant interest in online sites. Our plate on which other members can build. One person per- analysis would also suggest that the existence, number, and forming (and documenting) a modification invites others to diversity of practices that can be assessed on brand-related perform the same and other modifications. In this way, doc- Web sites offer additional methods for assessing brand umenting serves a constructive community function by community vitality. For example, North American Motor- establishing scaffolding on which others can build and ing, Newton, and the Shipper Seasons Xena Web sites develop further practices. Similarly, engagement in the evince full-fledged practices in terms of the tripartite defini- milestones, memories of milestones, and the retelling of tion we outlined at the outset of the article. Procedures, milestone memories inspires more consumption. Within the understandings, and hedonic engagement, not to mention TPATH community, it is a common practice to commemo- specialized vocabularies, are all evident. In contrast, at the rate first concerts with anniversary concerts, as when fans various Jones Soda sites, there is considerable evangelizing who first saw TPATH in 1985 make a point of attending on the guestbook and badging and customizing through the TPATH concert dates in 2005 to mark the 20th anniversary creation of personalized labels, cap, and banner quotes. of their first TPATH concert. Notably, these anniversaries However, little evidence of the development of special sym- are consumption anniversaries, not significant band dates or bols or language, or of performances specific to the Jones community, can be found. Instead, such elements are bor- dates that even have other social importance to the fan. rowed from broader subcultures and various musical gen- Likewise, in the Jones Soda community, consumers discuss res. Furthermore, in contrast to the hundreds of threads their experiences with the Jones promotional vehicle and consisting of scores of posts and responses on the Mini, their decision to follow it to another location. These kinds Newton, and Xena sites, at Jones Soda sites, there are few of conversations perpetuate and extend consumption threads (see Appendix B). Posts and replies across the vari- behaviors. ous forums rarely exceed a handful, nor do site moderators Grooming practices lead to new consumption, dictating actively intervene, a source of some frustration among what is appropriate in caring for the brand. Additional (and posters. Thus, the music forum is marred by the presence of community-sanctioned) supplies must be purchased and apparently unpoliced spam, and there is little evidence of used in the approved manner. In the TPATH community, emergent community leaders at the Jones sites, in contrast TPATH image- and logo-adorned clothes are valued, and to North American Motoring (e.g., do-it-yourself mechan- the community discusses care and laundering of these items ics) or Xena (e.g., prominent fan-fiction authors). to extend the clothes’ life while retaining the precious On the basis of these observations, we assert that more meanings associated with tours: practices evince brand community vitality. We postulate It’s a tricky thing;… you want to wear the T-shirts [with that stronger brand communities present a more diverse band images and tour info] because you were there. You constellation of practices than weaker brand communities. sort of relive it or at least vividly recall the concert when Furthermore, the practices of stronger brand communities you pull the shirt out of your closet, but you know that are more complex and require more insider knowledge than every wear brings the shirt one more step closer to the practices of weaker, less cohesive brand communities. destruction…. I wash mine in Woolite. It drives my wife Finally, hosting of online and real-world interaction spaces crazy. If she doesn’t pull it aside and put it in the gentle seems to be an antecedent to vitality. These assertions await cycle, I get pretty pissed off…. We have a system now; we testing in further research. wash them [concert T-shirts] with her lace delicates, but not with any hooks and clasps—we can’t risk holes! (Kyle Practices create value. By now it should be clear that interview, 05/18/2000) consumers create value through their participation in brand

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 39 communities and, specifically, in the enactment of prac- who engages in practices is both an operant and an operand tices. Through 12 practices, consumers affect the entire resource (Vargo and Lusch 2004). On the basis of the fun- marketing mix. Each practice serves to enable brand use damental insight that services are the coproduction of value and encourage deeper community engagement. Practices through situationally contingent actions between customer must be known to be repeated and must be repeated to and supplier, we argue that it is of greater value to focus on become part of the value creation repertoire. By providing the array and density of common activities that are produc- opportunities to demonstrate competencies, practices allow tive of value. members to accrue cultural capital through adroit performance, which creates value for the consumer. Specifically, evangelizing creates value by enlarging the brand commu- Discussion nity and its human resource base while enhancing the brand Using extended ethnographic methods, we unearth 12 prac- perception outside the brand community. Empathizing cre- tices common to an array of brand communities, thus pro- ates value by providing affective resources within a sympa- viding a catalog that generalizes beyond particular activities thetic social network. This support system acts as a signifi- documented in case-based studies. We then situate these cant switching cost for consumers who come to depend on practices in the extant brand community literature and it. Grooming creates value by preserving the brand’s perfor- deconstruct them to better reveal their mechanics. Practices mance and appearance. Customizing creates value by offer- have a common “anatomy” and varied “physiology” evinc- ing unique but reproducible solutions to user challenges. ing discursive knowledge, or explicit procedures for doing; Milestoning and badging create value by providing a motif know-how and tacit elements, or taken-for-granted knowl- with which to build brand meanings associated with the use edge of worthy projects; and affective commitments to journey. brand-centered practices, as well as intra- and interthematic Practices structurally add value by making actions linkages. We find that practices evidence remarkable con- reproducible and repeatable, thus allowing more consumers sistency in a range of product category classifications. Prac- to derive greater value from the brand. Consider an example tices foster consumption opportunities and create value for from the Audrey brand community. Because the brand is no both consumers and marketers. Our study offers insights longer supported by the marketer, the repeatability of into collaborative consumption and value creation in brand actions takes on an added urgency. Members must provide communities, organizes the current knowledge of collective sufficient detail: brand-based actions, and suggests what is needed to support This page explains how I got a Korn shell running on my collaboration. Audrey. It was a pain in the neck, but now the work is done and it ought to be easier from this point on. This is Theoretical Contributions an overview of what I did: 1. Get an Audrey flash ROM image on disk from someone who knew someone who Prior literature has not systematically analyzed collective apparently serviced Audreys, and had a Compact Flash value creation or used consistent terminology (“practices” card that was used to restore Audreys to their original and “collective action”) or methods for uncovering insights state. Without this image, I would have probably gotten (e.g., prolonged research engagement, participant observa- nowhere. 2. Using the QNX RTP, dump the contents of tion, netnography, interviews). Still, across disparate and the Audrey file system to disk. 3. Add pterm, ftp, and a clever web page to my local copy of the Audrey file col- noncomparable studies, we find considerable evidence that lection. 4. Regenerate the embedded file system. 5. Put the the practices we catalog here occur in the data sets of other file system back on the Audrey image, and flash it back to published articles in marketing and consumer research. the Audrey. 6. Let the Audrey auto-update itself back to Likewise, previous studies on the production of value in the 1.02.08.01 final version. 7. Run the shell and explore! brand communities have tended to focus on the idiosyn- This description presumes considerable how-to, know-how, crasies of individual communities (Kozinets 2001; Leigh, and literacy, but it is also a detailed accounting that others Peters, and Shelton 2006; Schouten and McAlexander should be able to replicate. Without such description, few 1995). Our examination of collective value creation in (if any) consumers would be able to realize any value from brand communities is distinguished from the current accu- the Audrey brand. mulated knowledge of brand-based collectives in three We argue that value underlies all practices and that important ways: (1) We move beyond the prior literature’s engagement in practices is an act of value creation. This examination of a brand community single case study or insight is intrinsic to explanations of value in traditional even comparative brand community studies to achieve a society (Mauss [1925] 1990). Simmel ([1907] 1990) sug- taxonomy of common collective actions that are present gested (echoed in Miller 1987, 2005) that it is exchange or across communities centered on a wide range of products interactivity, which is at the origin of both rarity and utility and services; (2) using practice theory, we catalog the col- on which modern economic value rests (Ramirez 1999, p. lective actions in our data and prior published studies, 51). In other words, “the actual values which firms which have three integrative anatomical parts (understand- endeavor to manage are thus neither purely subjective … ings, procedures, and engagements); and (3) we offer ways nor objective,… be they exchange or utility values. They collaborative value creation can be fostered and nurtured in are interactively established” (Dean, Ottensmeyer, and the marketplace through practices in brand communities. Ramirez 1997, p. 431). We also argue that the consumer Our research suggests aspects of practice that each research

40 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 stream has ignored but might fruitfully incorporate in the among brand communities. More significantly, it suggests future. how. Companies that want to encourage cocreation should Our study resolves some limitations in prior research. foster a broad array of practices, not merely customization, For example, Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006) find that only a as is the current focus (Etgar 2008; Franke and Piller 2004; tiny fraction of the variance in brand identification is Prügl and Schreier 2006; Von Hipple 2005). The Twilight accounted for by social identity value. We suggest that this Saga, a set of books by Stephenie Meyer, illustrates the art is because social identity value is only a fraction of the val- of collaborative value creation by inspiring the development ues realized in brand communities. Similarly, Algesheimer, of collective practices. Unlike the Harry Potter series, Dholakia, and Herrmann (2005) show that consumers’ rela- which also strongly resonates with young adults, Meyer and tionship with the brand is often a function of a host of indi- her publisher have at every stage of their promotional cam- vidualistic factors. The practice perspective in our work paign encouraged collaborative product use. Though per- indicates that such uninspiring findings may derive from a haps unaware of the full potential we find in our study, they focus on individual differences and subjective utilities. In encourage the practices we have identified. An official Web contrast, our findings show how knowledge is transferred site equipped with forums invites welcoming, evangelizing, from insiders to initiates—that is, how “people come to an and justifying among readers. By setting up subcommuni- understanding of what is required by the practice and their ties such as Twilight Mothers, the brand encourages staking role within it” (Warde 2005, p. 148). Our research suggests and social differentiation among the fan base. Through that through apprenticeship in specific practices and learn- threads in which fans are asked to share a broad range of ing of intra- and interthematic relationships, newcomers are thoughts on politics, spirituality, and philosophy, the official created as members through their progressive appropriation Web site encourages empathizing. Through creation of a set of practices (Duguid 2005; Reckwitz 2002). More specifi- of escalating patterns of engagement in the brand and the cally, our research goes beyond the study of knowledge site, the corporate host creates and inspires milestoning, exchange (Anand, Gardner, and Morris 2007; Østerlund badging, and documenting. Through fan-fiction contests, and Carlile 2005) to the creation of value through customer the brand supports customizing. Through tips on how to engagement. This is an aspect not explored in the extant lit- store signed or first-run copies, the publisher inspires erature on practices and is only hinted at in user innovation grooming. The only practice the Twilight brand does not research (Franke and Piller 2004). Thus, our research pro- openly advocate is commoditizing. The brand community vides a significant and beneficial contribution from both a has gone off-site to pursue commoditizing, with Twilight- managerial and an academic perspective. inspired jewelry and artifacts for sale on eBay and paid Our research supports three emerging perspectives in distribution of Twilight newsletters that promote fan-run marketing: (1) Value is manifest in the collective enactment events that often charge a fee. of practices, which favor investments in networks rather Our findings suggest that there are specific recipes for than firm–consumer dyads; (2) ceding control to customers managers to follow to foster brand community. One simple enhances consumer engagement and builds brand equity managerial tactic is seeding practices. For example, a firm (Cova, Pace, and Park 2007); and (3) firms derive added might find that it has a brand-centered community that has brand value by creatively using willing customer (operant) evolved brand use practices but few, if any, social network- resources (Vargo and Lusch 2004). Our research shows that ing practices. To ensure the health of the brand community, healthy brand communities have a presence in all practice our research suggests that the firm should foster or sponsor areas shown in Figure 1 and a depth within practices that social networking practices to build and sustain the commu- fosters prolonged engagement. The most successful brand nity and to inspire further cocreation. Given that practices communities continuously evolve and encourage collabora- are emergent and become self-perpetuating in organic brand communities, such as Newton, Xena, and others, marketers tive brand engagement, and practices that stagnate are should be able to encourage their development. Agents of modified or replaced by those that are vibrant and dynamic. the marketer could initiate basic practices in a brand- centered forum, documenting any modifications they make, Managerial Implications or as in the Mini community, aftermarket providers could Our research demonstrates that if firms give consumers the be encouraged to offer up various brand-centered customiz- opportunity to construct brand communities and the free- ing (racing modifications), grooming (detailing techniques), dom to modify their products, they will. Therefore, we and documenting practices (e.g., transportation tracking argue that companies should provide customers with the utilities). Such approaches should be predicated on condi- opportunities and materials with which to welcome, badge, tions of transparency rather than furtive lurking and “astro- document, milestone, evangelize, and so forth. We argue turf” creation. In other words, the marketer’s agents need to that if more practices lead to a stronger brand community, disclose their affiliation to reduce the likelihood that con- marketers should strive to encourage greater diversity in sumer market distancing/commoditizing practices would practices because these multiple opportunities serve to cul- exclude the marketer or keep the marketer at arm’s length. tivate these markets. Our findings illuminate opportunities In a more complex move, marketers could foster com- to grow, not simply exploit, “customer competence” (Praha- munity engagement by encouraging the interacting prac- lad and Ramaswamy 2000) and, thereby, to build more tices to promote engagement. We demonstrate that when cocreative (Vargo and Lusch 2005) brand partners. This combined with badging as part of documenting brand use, research reaffirms the importance of encouraging practices milestoning leads to increased community engagement.

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 41 Marketers could encourage this tripartite constellation of tent creators, or Audrey, Newton, and Garmin software practices by giving away branded journals in which con- developers. Companies such as Harley-Davidson that have sumers can record their experience. To facilitate brand use experienced some stagnation in brand value might use such practices such as customizing, firms could create a Web site insights to identify unexploited high-fidelity needs to build that allows consumers to tweak the brand logos to suit their out underserved markets (see, e.g., Martin, Schouten, and own color schemes or to include owner name or initials, McAlexander 2006). Finally, companies such as L’Oreal perhaps going so far as to sell customized brand logos and that have developed a conversational model of relating to automobile hood badges. customers segmented on their degree of creative involve- This research provides guidance for new product devel- ment could structure and develop high-fidelity “content” for opment. New product development requires two types of these conversations through the practices framework (Dias information: information on customer desires and informa- 2008). tion on how to best satisfy them (Thomke and Von Hippel 2002; Von Hippel 2005). A focus on practices reveals both. Further Research The development of a practice frequently follows the identi- Although we identified 12 practices common to nine brand fication of a thwarted desire or high-fidelity need (Von Hip- communities and found evidence of these practices lurking pel 2005): a way to combine StriVectin with makeup, a way in prior literature, we hope to inspire researchers to return to identify all Starbucks stores in an area (Garmin), a chan- to the data sets we assessed or collect new data to unpack nel to express one’s independent musical vision (Jones the operation of a broader set of practices as they appear in Independent Music), or a way to give the Mini the show- a wider array of brand communities. Such research might room shine off-the-shelf options do not provide. The emer- lead to a greater understanding of the necessary and suffi- gence of the practice reveals the desire. The evolution of the cient conditions for brand community vitality and deepen practice reveals information on how to satisfy that need. the theoretical understanding of how value is created. When Firms might wisely condone the most successful consumer- can firms successfully encourage value-creating practices to created aftermarket practices, perhaps going so far as to achieve strategic goals? Which practices or constellations of release official branded versions of the formulas devised practices are most likely to yield significant value and under through community beta testing. Firms might also want to what conditions? Why do some vital communities success- cobrand with the community in these efforts. fully emphasize social networking and community engage- A focus on practices, particularly with a long-term ment (Moisio and Beruchashvili, in press), and others brand orientation, provides marketers with a better vantage on use (Mathwick, Wiertz, and De Ruyter 2008)? How do high-fidelity needs than the typical focus on low-fidelity some communities successfully attract and engage partici- needs (O’Hern and Rindfleisch 2007). Community par- pants, while others do not? Refining understandings of ticipants’ needs develop from the relatively low-fidelity value-creating practices in existing brand communities needs of the newbie to the high-fidelity needs evident should prove useful in creating novel strategies that further among “6th Gear” Mini members, experienced Xena con- leverage the collaborative tendencies of marketplace actors.

42 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 Data Example people who had had major accidents in their MINIs and I was shocked people who had major accidents in their MINIs and I was these little cars are. tough and safe at just how A lot of people see ‘death trap’ small it is and think how more than most weigh they but from what I’ve small cars and are amazingly rigid and protective seen—thankfully not first hand.”TX) (1st Gear, the most map updates available—both interface, the most intuitive options. and user patch—and the very best voice factory upgrade user patches.” some of sweetest have Here on the boards we (05/21/05) hits compilation. personal greatest burn them my a primer of Like songs. It works.TPATH essential exposure.” by them to fans I convert (Lana, 08/05/02) and try to add in positive comments where you can.”and try comments where you to add in positive (sassymay, 08/22/08) environment.positive need that. come here because they People It’s to maintain the goal.”up to everyone 06/18/07) (Whitney, dirty laundry it gently.” inside and wash (Karina, 11/08/06) makes the lines go away leaving only the wisdom.” leaving the lines go away makes (tanwnee, 8/16/2006) tap into the inherent logic of it.time to really use it well—to to it. Stick you.’” use it, the better it works for The more you (Tim interview, 10/13/06) little secret.’ I remind them that Jones hasn’t sold out, just more ‘get it’people now. hard to lose the secret let go of club.” It’s (Mel, 09/21/06) question, I had about separate answers and welcoming messages all and welcoming answers question, I had about separate and that it works. is safe the StriVectin verifying all said to treat They to win the battle [of aging].skin early is a way better immediately I felt 10/19/06) to see others reaching out.” (Tracey, 03/17/06) of the site.” 01/29/05) (imprezme, •Mini: a few that I used to visit a lot, there were “In another MINI forum •Garmin: the Garmin GPS, has thinking about a plug and play “If you’re with their work, I usually “When I find someone unfamiliar •TPATH: •Jones: don’t condone flaming. “We the criticisms constructive Keep •StriVectin: is fueled on support “The community and creating a •Xena: our keep we but sure,… … for our disagreements have “We •StriVectin: “Aww Taylor, don’t fret.•StriVectin:Taylor, StriVectin but Aging is natural, “Aww •Garmin: it takes ‘The Garmin product, but is a great “I often tell users •Jones:‘our when Jones was the old days get nostalgic for “People •StriVectin: is very inviting. “The forum When I posted a novice •Garmin: chose a Garmin!” So glad you Jake! “Hello Newbie (sakiking, •Lomo: a guided tour you Meet me in chat and I’ll give Fran! “Welcome APPENDIX A Instances in Prior Research Practices and Prior Research enthusiasts telling others of the virtues of the brand. to the preaching the gospel of Newton uninitiated. users. creating advertisements new to attract enthusiastically talking about the Jeep owners “love”“missionary with zeal.” their vehicles for Asserting the norms reciprocity, of volunteerism, and social trust in the P3 community. normsgroup and related to drug references claiming intimate contact with the band. “principle of brotherhood.” the helping stranded Saabs through moral helping stranded responsibility. make helping neophytes Long-time Jeep drivers a difficult stream crossing. owners. act as mentors to newer Experienced users mentor novices. welcoming new users to the fold and pointing users to the fold new welcoming them to important resources. community parents introducing their sons as Jeep-owning owner.” Wrangler of generation “next the who drivers potential Harley Discouraging are members do not feel present community “prospect or image, consistent with the brand status.” •Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001):•Muñiz Saab and Mac and Schau (2005):•Muñiz users Newton and Schau (2007):•Muñiz users Newton (2002): Schouten, and Koenig •McAlexander, •Mathwick, Wiertz, and De Ruyter (2008): •Mathwick, insist on fans and Muñiz (2007):•Schau TPATH (1995): and McAlexander •Schouten Articulating •Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001):•Muñiz Saab drivers (2002): Schouten, and Koening •McAlexander, and Shelton (2006): Peters, •Leigh, “gurus” MG Wiertz, and De Ruyter (2008): •Mathwick, •Muñiz and Schau (2005):•Muñiz users Newton (2002): Schouten, and Koenig •McAlexander, (1995): and McAlexander •Schouten Description news,” inspiring others to use, and preaching from the mountain top. involve It may comparisons with negative other competing brands. can be negative Evangelizing off-putting) if (annoying, extreme. expectations within the brand expectations community. physical supportphysical to other including supportmembers, trials brand-related (e.g., for customizing) product failure, non-brand-related and/or for death, illness, issues (e.g., life job). Empathizing can be if the emotional divisive support is in regard to conflict. intragroup beckoning them into the fold, beckoning and assisting in their brand learning and community socialization. Welcoming into the occurs generally and locally community brand one as members welcome another to each practice. can also be Welcoming as in valenced, negatively participationdiscouraging in and/or a community the brand specific practice. Practice Governing Articulating the behavioral Welcoming members, Greeting new Empathizing Lending emotional and/or Evangelizing“good Sharing the brand management networking networking networking Impression Social Social Social Category

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 43 Data Example that made you a fan, the fist album you bought, the first concert you the fist album you a fan, that made you a fan. were you realized attended, and the first time you Doug details in LA at the Forum his concert milestone:TPATH “I first caught 1985. and the parking wild. lot scene was a huge venue It’s People had the tailgate parties and after the concert. before The security try to sho us out.didn’t even story I added my to the thread and some there too.” were people responded that they (Doug, 06/18/02) basically a confirmation it was of my first real road trip, until I took my positioning. partner After the road trip my it was in navigation.” (Nick, 12/05/06) ever!” 08/15/07) (Scoopmama, 4th gear, just an everyday driver, Garmin is there to support driver, you.just an everyday the Generally use Garminsrunners and trekkers in similar ways: protective timing and distance maps, handhelds or wrist surface mounts, monitors. driving specific addresses, directions and look for Drivers need auto mounts. Geocachers use handhelds to hunt down caches.coordinates and look for to Builders link up to other software plans and map the infrastructure distances.” design home elevation 03/17/07) (Guy, mainstream or the subtext. Mainstream reads an action adventure narrative. story.” reads a lesbian love 05/29/04) The subtext (Pauline, save time being on time, not stressing, finding everything I want. not stressing, finding everything time being on time, save I’m more efficient.”far 11/19/2006) (Mackie, an artist. as inconsequential, I guess. cameras see toy They I tell them that it is art. art on the its my but eye everyone, its not for Maybe world.” 06/21/05) (nusant, to miss it. a hotel, but if I end up flying and grabbing pretty pricey It’s another date! (Rita, 07/28/02) played what if I didn’t go and he never •TPATH: Threads on the TPATH forums are dedicated to the first song forums TPATH Threads on the •TPATH: •Garmin: Christmas 2005. Garmy for “I got my cool, but I thought it was •Mini: Mini more than my “The odometer hit 100k miles and I loved •Garmin: “Whether you’re a runner, a trekker, a geocacher, a builder, or •Garmin: a builder, a geocacher, a trekker, a runner, “Whether you’re •Xena: can identify with the you into the Xena-verse “Once you’re •Garmin:‘why?’ “OK $800 and all that time people say I and I say •Lomo: or even there are those who insist I’m not a photographer “Well Tom. to see “I travel •TPATH: He doesn’t tour that often and I don’t want fans rationalize their rationalize fans Continued APPENDIX A Star Trek Instances in Prior Research relaying tales of their cars’relaying odometers hitting 100,000 miles. telling story about purchasing first MG following crisis and depression. a midlife “kissing rock” touch River Yampa to ensure safe the dangerous rapids. passage over sensibilities and the upscale bikers are at odds sensibilities and the upscale bikers community. within the Harley within femininities Claiming distinct and multiple “hypermasculine” the Harley community. spectator roles. fan and their to distinguish themselves vocabularies participation in the community. devotion and attire based on having fun, and attire based on having devotion supporting social mission of the series or value of collecting. the sharing in Napster because boycotting fan” real music “any is what business music do. would all other over of the Newton advantages handwritingpersonal digital assistants (i.e., their use of recognition) as a reason to continue after abandonment. even the Newtons •Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001):•Muñiz Saab drivers and Shelton (2006): Peters, •Leigh, MG owner •Arnould and Price (1993): on the rafters River •Schouten and McAlexander (1995): and McAlexander •Schouten Outlaw •Martin, (2006): Schouten, and McAlexander •Sherry et al. (2001): football Cheerleader versus (2004):•Peters Winnebago enthusiasts create •Kozinets (2001): •Kozinets •Giesler and Pohlmann (2003): and Pohlmann •Giesler file Justifying and Schau (2005):•Muñiz users tout the Newton Description practice of noting seminal practice ownership in brand events and consumption. the brand community the brand membership. Marking distinction and intragroup similarity. for devoting time and effort to devoting for to and collectively the brand outsiders and marginal members in the boundary. include debate and jokes May about obsessive-compulsive behavior. brand-directed Staking within Recognizing variance Justifying generally rationales Deploying Practice Milestoning to the Milestoning refers engagement engagement management Community Community Impression Category

44 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 Data Example water. Garmy clean is priority Keeping one.” (jimbean, 09/18/2007) it so that gets in the switch…. after taking apart spraying the Newton long this will work and if it will react with the plastics or how I can’t say time).not (given successful with it. that some people were But I know and try try I would the switch cleaning the disassembling Personally contacts.” (Dan interview) Zaino shining. my during to keep the middle of week I’m looking to wash.add Hydro into the mix starting next with my [thread Newt, an onslaught of posts suggesting that for initiator] prepare yourself from those car washes.” car away your should keep you (posting) your first fan art.” first fan your 01/18/06) (FriedaBeMe, without dropping the subframe.Tools; bushings I used powerflex Jack edium pryand stands, bar (about 18 inches long), 10mm socket, wrench, wrench, 16mm ratcheting 13mm ratcheting 13mm socket, or wrench), SupportBMW tool 31 5 150 (and 27mm socket the front the wheels. on stands and remove as high possible the Remove bolts that hold the outer ball joint to hub with 13mm two socket….” No ID) (5th Gear, application ‘Calls’application ‘Newton’ the should allow to dial a number “Place Call:(Under Using”—current choices are Modem, Speaker, when sending a the line open (like and then keep Telephone) and ‘Hang Up’ until the user hits fax) on the bottom of button screen. Once the line is open, only hard part should be audio.sending live can hear live We hard is that? I mean how audio from the receiving end of call when faxing.” (posting) nourishing.all day it tightening.” I can feel 2/10/2007) (dawnecko, •Garmin: You have to keep the smudges off. the smudges •Garmin: to keep have You Use a dry cloth. use Never •Newton: and heard some people using contact cleaner spray, “I have •Mini: detail spray “I try with a quick at least once a week to wash •Xena: “You’re a real Xenite after you go to your first convention or post first convention •Xena: go to your a real Xenite after you “You’re •Mini: •Jones: •Mini: to install the front control arm “This is how (wishbone) bushings •Newton: “My thinking is this: a simple modification to the •StriVectin: skin on my and then it stays foundation “I mix it into my fan recounting the fan editing and fan Continued APPENDIX A Star Trek Star Trek Instances in Prior Research trying to restore cars original authentic, quality.” “showroom around cleaning the ritualselaborate revolving bikes. Harley discuss the manner in which Newtons’ batteries should be handled. displaying photos of trips to national events and photos of trips to national events displaying other driving related activities. first time she donned “Bajoran earrings”“Bajoran first time she donned and did not care about looks from others. use and brand modifications that commemorate milestones. brand tales and tricks of batterytales and tricks rejuvenation. effort to put own of one’s stories about the level of their MG. into restoration contributing to fan magazine. to fan contributing an open- for Wrangler doors off of Jeep Taking air feeling. •Kozinets (2001): •Kozinets •Leigh, Peters, and Shelton (2006): Peters, •Leigh, MG owners (1995): and McAlexander •Schouten The and Schau (2005):•Muñiz members Community •Leigh, Peters, and Shelton (2006): Peters, •Leigh, MG owners (2001): •Kozinets •Schouten and McAlexander (1995): and McAlexander •Schouten Body •Muñiz and Schau (2005):•Muñiz users sharing Newton and Shelton (2006): Peters, •Leigh, Recounting •McAlexander, Schouten, and Koenig (2002): Schouten, and Koenig •McAlexander, Description group-level or individual group-level needs. This includes all efforts to change the factory specs of the product to enhance performance. Includes fan artfiction/fan in the case of products. intangible your Mini) or systematizing your optimal use patterns (clean applying skin before StriVectin). translating milestones into translating symbols. relationship journey in a way. is narrative The narrative and often anchored by peppered with milestones. Documenting includes the Mini birth stories of the car and distribution, assembly customization efforts, and so practices, grooming forth. Practice Documenting Detailing the brand Badging of Badging is the practice engagement engagement Brand useBrand Customizing to suit Modifying the brand Brand useBrand Grooming (washing the brand Caring for Category Community Community

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 45 Data Example type, instead of really contributing to the Newton community. to the Newton instead of really contributing type, I’m a product that’ll only be truly useful to a small $50 for but sorry, is price community of a percentage the Newton fraction gouging, particularly when it could be a lot more useful to the price lowering significantly. simply by more people, At $10 like could become ubiquitous. driver Louis’ A the ATA wireless driver, to the community.” real contribution show.favorite some very enterprising us, took the for folks Luckily story with it. and ran more seasons to enjoy several have we Now, more satisfying endings.with much virtual season is My favorite Virtual Season. the Subtext months up a few These episodes pick Xena no doubt about the relationship between after FIN and leave and Gabrielle. (http://www.xenacast.com/xc/virtualseasons.htm/) •Newton: the die-hard pay-any-price Phil is going for “It looks like •Xena: “There are those of us who simply cannot let go our

Star Trek Continued APPENDIX A Instances in Prior Research merchandizing and commercialization. Camp Jeep participants impressed at not giving hard or respectfulness, company’s soft sell. •Kozinets (2001):•Kozinets Criticisms of •McAlexander, Schouten, and Koenig (2002): Schouten, and Koenig •McAlexander, Description marketplace. A valenced regarding behavior marketplace. be directed May you at other members (e.g., should sell/should not sell that). be directed at the May link or firm through explicit through presumed monitoring should fix you of the site (e.g., this/do this/change this). Practice Commoditizing Distancing/approaching the and incisive (moving from the outside, through the boundary to the core) Category use Brand

46 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 APPENDIX B Physiology of Practices

Practice Procedures Understandings Emotional Engagements Definition Explicit rules, principles, precepts, and Knowledge of what to say and do; skills Ends and purposes, which are instructions, what is sometimes called and projects, sometimes called “know- emotionally charged, in the sense that discursive “know-that” knowledge. how” (i.e., tacit cultural templates for people are attached or committed to understanding and action). them.

Welcoming: The community must actively recruit Audrey users understand that to inspire Engagement in welcoming practices 3Com and retain users because 3Com has continued user developments, the is a community building exercise, Audrey abandoned Audrey. Welcoming community must attract new users. correlated to product development as potential and new users to the fold is Converting the newbies to committed a larger user mass excites innovation. an important practice. The procedures use involves welcoming them and Welcoming is a positively valenced for welcoming are laid out in the Audrey making them feel that they are valued emotional engagement. community: lead the newbies to the in the community. FAQs (frequently asked questions). This is where a newbie “ought to start.”

Empathizing: The Apple Newton is a product in a The understanding is that there is some The engagement rests on the need Newton state of marketplace abandonment for intervention that cannot be fully for the battery as an underlying nine years, and it is in real danger of explained. There is a spirituality necessity for product use: “No juice, attrition or of parts breaking and the embedded in the technology, such that no use.” It also depends on the ability whole not working. It is facing if the correct rites are performed the of users to support one another in the extinction. This threat inspires battery may indeed come back to life. It rite and the mustering of faith or empathizing practices. For users, is understood that the procedures are efficacy. Newton users believe they stories of battery miracles are not fail-safe or that the user must own and use the best technology empathizing practices because they supply efficacy or faith for a successful available and that it takes a village to mitigate the threat of extinction. Users outcome to be achieved. It is also keep the Newtons operating. recite the rites to be used when the understood that this can only be battery has “died,” providing solutions accessed by fellow users’ support; and emotional support for those who battery miracles depend on the experience battery failure. collective to support one another in performing the rites.

Evangelizing: Spreading the word takes the form of Fan-authored “episodes” and other Engagement includes authoring Xena consumer-generated content. tales must be open-ended and, in stories that enact value commitments Procedures include development of general, employ soap opera and personalities of the key figures— tertiary texts (Fiske 1987)—stories that conventions—for example, hooks and a proactive version of the passive fill in narrative gaps. For example, 48 bubble episodes (anachronous and identity work identified in research on episodes of “shipper seasons” deal with asynchronous tales; dream soap operas (Van Evra 1990). the Xena–Ares relationship, 36 sequences); feminized narrative forms Commitments to costuming, episodes of “xwm” seasons fill out the are emphasized; realism is stressed in conventions, and celebrating the post- lesbian subtext; fiction “challenges” the relationships, not in the where or Xena careers of key stars are also invite writers to imagine alternative when of events (thus, Hercules, Jesus, part of the Xenaverse. endings or points of view; genres such and Romans coexist). Understandings as “uber” take essential character include consistency with show plotlines elements and transplant them to other and relational entanglements. times and places. Postshow “seasons” Characters conform to Jungian production details are explained online. principles. For example, Xena/Ares = Feedback is solicited. Consistency with anima/animus or union of duality; bad show plotlines and relational Xena/good Xena and Livia/Eve = entanglements tend to be worked out shadow/self-duality. on chat page discussions of favorite episodes and assessments of the true meaning of events and relationships.

Justifying: Procedures include proving the ability Understandings include the The emotional engagement rests on Lomo and to perform in more mainstream, presentation of traditional skills to justify the freedom to abandon objective Holga photographic genres. Users of Lomo the use of their time and effort on a toy realism. The ability of the and Holga justify their devotion to the camera that was originally intended for photographer to seek the surreal toy camera by demonstrating that they novices to capture images. The imagery and the fantastical elements can/do use more technologically idiosyncratic image effects are deemed of the images. It is spiritual in nature sophisticated cameras but find merit in to be more artistic and credible and because the effect is idiosyncratic and the quirkiness of the Lomo and Holga time and effort outlays more justifiable unpredictable and the outcome is effects. Lomo and Holga users often because the photographer is trained otherworldly. post galleries of their lomography and and competent in the traditional their more traditionally oriented methods. photography interlinked.

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 47 APPENDIX B Continued

Practice Procedures Understandings Emotional Engagements Milestoning: Fans of TPATH are encouraged to The understanding here is that TPATH The emotional engagement involves TPATH explicitly mark their concert events is not just a band with catchy music but bringing TPATH into the fan’s life in an anniversaries, and there is a protocol a band that provides the soundtrack of intimate and compelling way. The for concert storytelling. The concert fans’ lives. Various TPATH events music is clearly distinguished from stories are real-life events, and the anchor the life narratives of fans, and background music as a central concert must be explicitly interwoven fans who engage in this milestoning component in the life stories of fans. into the fan’s larger-life narrative. Unlike practice have an understanding of how documenting, which focuses on the use to convey their concert stories. They journey, milestoning focuses on an have a jargon, a phrasing, and a episode of use and how it is situated manner of interweaving lyrics into life into the consumer’s life. events.

Badging: Badges provide symbols of Badges are displayed horizontally. Rally badges reflect achievements. Mini experiences associated with the brand Group badges are supplemented by “Justacooper” badges reflect a “little or the collectivity. North American personal emblems. These typically engine that could” ethos. Regional Motoring community badges (illustrated include a humorous or ironic cartoon of club badges speak to more general in Appendix A) are consistent in shape car and owner’s handle. consciousness of kind and moral and style. Knowledge of how to make Northamericanmotoring.com also commitment. them is shared online. Badges refer to generates individual badges that vary car colors, to model, to geographic from “neutral” to “sixth gear” and are club, or to real-world performances, understood to represent depth of such as driving a particular rally route engagement with the community. in the Rocky Mountains or South Carolina.

Documenting: Documenting shares the individual Tacit elements pertain to the content of For women, Xena is often named as Xena story of the journey of brand collectivity the confessional tales: tales of rejection a role model. For men and women engagement. Documenting focuses on of Xena and eventual acceptance and alike, the notion of falling in love with the trajectory of the brand experience tales of errancy and return to Xena. a beautiful “kick-butt” woman provides and brand relationship. Procedures Engagement with Xena is associated a platform for emotional engagement. include recounting a confessional tale with maturity. Engagement also entails about engagement. Family ties play a appreciation of the complexity of the role in socializing participants in their Xena character and of Xena and initial viewing: mom and daughter, older Gabrielle’s multilayered relationship or sister and younger sister, perhaps a Xena and Ares profoundly ambivalent romantic partner. relationship. The emotional ambiguity of the story is not appealing to all.

Grooming: Discourse surrounds how to care for The knowledge the consumers share The procedures and understandings StriVectin the product itself while it is in the pertains to the affect of dirt (Mary position the use of the product into a consumer’s care. These are not Douglas’s notion of “matter out of scientific understanding and perhaps mandated or suggested by the place”) and germs on the active enhance the consumer’s perception manufacturer. For example, consumers ingredient in the cream. It situates the of effectiveness. The emotional are advised to extract the cream from product into the cleansing and skin- engagement rests in the consumer’s the tube with a clean implement other care category (highlighting medicinal faith in science as a solution, in which than a finger tip, most often suggested and curative associations) rather than a restorative cream “fountain of youth” as a makeup sponge. After the bottle is to a beauty cream. The skin surface is scientifically going to improve the opened, consumers advise one another should be clean and dry before skin’s appearance (Tissiers-Desbords to be sure to clean the tube tip before application, and the product itself and Arnould 2005). recapping to avoid cream should be extracted by clean, some debris/residue on the tube. Consumers even suggest sterile, implements. even suggest the tool to be a Q-Tip straight from the box to avoid germs.

Commoditizing: Detailed instructions are posted on the The understanding here is that the The emotional engagement stems Garmin importance of protecting the Garmin in Garmin’s face is anthropomorphized from the sense that Garmin assists transit or between uses. Toward that and described within the community as the users in locating themselves and end, there is a practice of consumer- fragile. This is not a manufacturer their destinations and protecting them produced “snugglies,” or protective assertion. Unlike eye glasses, which from becoming lost and from danger pouches/sheaths, for the Garmin. The consumers liken the Garmin display to and embarrassment, and in turn the snugglies should be made of soft, be, the Garmin’s screen is touch- users protect the screen when it is smooth material that cannot scratch the driven, or made for tactile manipulation. not in use or is in transit. The Garmin’s display face. Microfiber As such, it is not objectively fragile or emotional relationship is made fabrics, such as those made to clean easily scratched. Within the community, reciprocal through the eye glasses, are most preferred. Garmin’s screen is vulnerable and must anthropomorphism and creation of Instructions for how to sew these be protected with aftermarket, user- gentle protective sheaths. fabrics are explicitly laid out. These generated snugglies. snugglies are deemed by the community to be far superior to any Garmin accessories on the market.

48 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 APPENDIX B Continued

Practice Procedures Understandings Emotional Engagements

Consumers who successfully produce snugglies are encouraged to sell these online within the community. Notably, these user-created sheaths are even suggested for use with the Garmin accessory units or carrying cases.

Customizing: There are explicit rules for entering the The contest participants understand Contest participants vie for a Jones label contest, including instructions for that they publicly post their submission community distinction of having a Soda what images are acceptable (e.g., no on the official Jones Soda site and “label run,” in which their label is pornography or other illegal behavior must garner the support of the featured on a publicly distributed depicted, size and resolution community to win placement on a Jones Soda bottle for a specified parameters). All photograph Jones Soda label. They campaign for duration. This “prize,” though it submissions must include a model their images on the site through contains no cash award or even a release and a photographer release to agreed-on cultural templates (e.g., product, is a highly desired be entered in the contest. Each inserting a Vote Jones button that community distinction. Those with submission has a six-month active directs voters to a submission in an e- labels chosen for public distribution voting period before it is archived. mail distributed to friends; posting a become part of the coveted “rare Images may be reposted. Votes are message on the Jones forums, Jones Soda bottles” that consumers tallied and adjusted for computer and including the Vote Jones button; setting find off the street, collect, and trade. IP address, meaning that people up a personal Web site/blog that Emotional engagement is palpable in cannot vote multiple times for a contains the Vote Jones button). the contest and on the forums in submission. In contrast, photographs Though not formally stated, the Vote which consumers query others as to for customized labels do not require the Jones button is tacitly understood to whether their label has been spotted, legal releases but must conform to the accompany all vote solicitations. This discuss label winners, and trade size and resolution parameters. button indicates the official status of the spotted bottles. In contrast, the label submission and ensures proper customizable labels are charged with content for potential viewers (e.g., no a different emotional engagement, in pornography). There is no mechanism which consumers create the labels, in place to prohibit promoting your knowing that they will have 12 bottles submission without the Vote Jones with their labels. They anxiously await button. In contrast, the customizable delivery and plan the gifting/use of label submissions do not get vetted their bottles. Some purchase runs for through a community vote, nor must special occasions, adding the they be posted in any publicly personalized labels to weddings, accessible domain. graduations, birthdays, and so forth.

REFERENCES Algesheimer, Rene, Utpal M. Dholakia, and Andreas Herrmann Revival of Brand Meaning,” Journal of Marketing, 67 (July), (2005), “The Social Influence of Brand Community: Evidence 19–33. from European Car Clubs,” Journal of Consumer Research, 59 BusinessWeek (2005), “Keep Up with the Joneses, Dude!” (3), 19–34. (accessed May 1, 2009), [available at http://www.business Anand, N., Heidi K. Gardner, and Tim Morris (2007), week.com/innovate/content/oct2005/id20051026_869180.htm? “Knowledge-Based Innovation: Emergence and Embedding of chan=sb]. New Practice Areas in Management Consulting Firms,” Acad- Chafkin, Max (2008), “The Customer Is the Company,” Inc. emy of Management Journal, 50 (April), 406–428. Magazine, (June), 88–96. Arnould, Eric J. and Linda L. Price (1993), “River Magic: Extra- Cheng, Shu-Li, Wendy Olsen, Dale Southerton, and Alan Warde ordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter,” (2007), “The Changing Practice of Eating: Evidence from UK Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (June), 24–45. Time Diaries,” British Journal of Sociology, 58 (1), 39–61. Bagozzi, Richard P. and Utpal M. Dholakia (2002), “Intentional Cova, B. and V. Cova (2002) “Tribal Marketing: The Tribalisation Social Action in Virtual Communities,” Journal of Interactive of Society and Its Impact on the Conduct of Marketing,” Euro- Marketing, 16 (2), 2–21. pean Journal of Marketing, 36 (5–6), 595–620. ——— and ——— (2006), “Antecedents and Purchase Conse- ———, Stefano Pace, and David J. Park (2007), “Global Brand quences of Customer Participation in Small Group Brand Com- Communities Across Borders: The Warhammer Case,” Inter- munities,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 23 national Marketing Review, 24 (3), 313–29. (March), 45–61. Dean, J.W., E. Ottensmeyer, and R. Ramirez (1997), “An Aesthetic Belk, Russell (1995), Collecting in a Consumer Society. New Perspective on Organizations,” in Creating Tomorrow’s Orga- York: Routledge. nizations: A Handbook for Future Research in Organizational Bourdieu, Pierre (1984), Distinction: A Social Critique of the Behaviour, C.L. Cooper and S.E. Jackson, eds. Chichester, Judgment of Taste, Richard Nice, trans. Cambridge, MA: Har- UK: John Wiley & Sons, 419–38. vard University Press. Deshpandé, Rohit (1983), “‘Paradigms Lost’: On Theory and Brown, Stephen, Robert V. Kozinets, and John F. Sherry Jr. (2003), Method in Research in Marketing,” Journal of Marketing, 47 “Teaching Old Brands New Tricks: Retro Branding and the (Fall), 101–110.

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 49 Duguid, Paul (2005), “‘The Art of Knowing’: Social and Tacit McAlexander, James H., John W. Schouten, and Harold F. Koen- Dimensions of Knowledge and the Limits of the Community,” ing (2002), “Building Brand Community,” Journal of Market- The Information Society, 21 (April–June), 109–118. ing, 66 (January), 38–54. Etgar, Michael (2008), “A Descriptive Model of the Consumer Co- Miller, Daniel (1987), Material Culture and Mass Consumption. production Process,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sci- Oxford: Blackwell. ence, 36 (Spring), 97–108. ——— (2005), Materiality. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Farley, John U., Donald R. Lehmann, and Alan Sawyer (1995), Moisio, Risto and Mariam Beruchashvili (in press), “Questing for “Empirical Marketing Generalization Using Meta-Analysis,” Well-Being at Weight Watchers: The Role of Spiritual Thera- Marketing Science, 14 (3), G36–G46. peutics in a Support Group,” Journal of Consumer Research. Fiske, J. (1987), Television Culture. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. Muñiz, Albert M., Jr., and Thomas C. O’Guinn (2001), “Brand Franke, Nikolaus and Frank Piller (2004), “Value Creation by Community,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (4), 412–32. Toolkits for User Innovation and Design,” Journal of Product ——— and Hope Jensen Schau (2005), “Religiosity in the Aban- Innovation Management, 21 (November), 401–415. doned Apple Newton Brand Community,” Journal of Con- Giesler, Markus and Mali Pohlmann (2003), “The Social Form of sumer Research, 31 (4), 737–47. Napster: Cultivating the Paradox of Consumer Emancipation,” ——— and ——— (2007), “Vigilante Marketing and Consumer- in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 31, Barbara E. Kahn Created Communications,” Journal of Advertising, 36 (3), and Mary Frances Luce, eds. Toronto: Association for Con- 187–202. sumer Research, 94–100. O’Hern, Matthew S. and Aric Rindfleisch (2007), “A Typology of Goulding, Christina and Michael Saren (2009), “Performing Iden- Customer Co-Creation,” working paper, Department of Mar- tity: An Analysis of Gender Expressions at the Whitby Goth keting, University of Wisconsin. Festival,” Consumption Markets & Culture, 12 (1), 27–46. Østerlund, Carsten and Paul Carlile (2005), “Relations in Practice: Holt, Douglas B. (1995), “How Consumers Consume: A Typology Sorting Through Practice Theories on Knowledge Sharing in of Consumption,” Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (June), Complex Organizations,” The Information Society, 21 1–16. (April–June), 91–107. ——— (1998), “Does Cultural Capital Structure American Con- Prahalad, C.K. and Venkatram Ramaswamy (2000), “Co-opting sumption?” Journal of Consumer Research, 25 (June), 1–25. Customer Competence,” Harvard Business Review, 78 Jaworski, Bernie and Ajay K. Kohli (2006), “Co-creating the Voice (January–February), 79–87. of the Customer,” in The Service Dominant Logic of Market- Prügl, Reinhard and Martin Schreier (2006), “Learning from ing, Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. Vargo, eds. Armonk, NY: Leading-Edge Customers at the Sims: Opening Up the Innova- R&D Management M.E. Sharpe, 109–117. tion Process Using Toolkits,” , 36 (3), 237–50. Jenkins, Henry (1992), Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Par- Ramirez, Rafael (1999), “Value Co-production: Intellectual Ori- ticipatory Culture. New York: Routledge. gins and Implications for Practice and Research,” Strategic Kalaignanam, Kartik and P. Rajan Varadarajan (2006), “Customers Management Journal, 20 (January), 49–65. as Co-producers: Implications for Marketing Strategy Effec- Reckwitz, Andreas (2002), “Toward a Theory of Social Practices: tiveness and Marketing Operations Efficiency,” in The Service- A Development in Culturalist Theorizing,” European Journal Dominant Logic of Marketing, Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. of Social Theory, 5 (2), 243–63. Vargo, eds. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 166–79. Schatzki, T. (1996), Social Practices: A Wittgensteinian Approach Wired Koerner, Brendan (2006), “Geeks in Toyland,” , (February), to Human Activity and the Social. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 104–112, 150. University Press. Kozinets, Robert V. (1997), “‘I Want to Believe’: A Netnography Schau, Hope Jensen and Albert M. Muñiz Jr. (2007), “Temperance of the X-Philes’ Subculture of Consumption,” in Advances in and Religiosity in a Non-marginal, Non-stigmatized Brand Consumer Research, Vol. 24. Provo, UT: Association for Con- Community,” in Consumer Tribes: Theory, Practice, and sumer Research, 470–75. Prospects, Bernard Cova, Robert Kozinets, and Avi Shankar, ——— (2001), “Utopian Enterprise: Articulating the Meanings of eds. Oxford: Elsevier, 144–62. Star Trek’s Culture of Consumption,” Journal of Consumer Schouten, John W. and James McAlexander (1995), “Subculture Research, 28 (June), 67–88. of Consumption: An Ethnography of the New Bikers,” Journal Lave, J. and E. Wenger (1991), Situated Learning: Legitimate of Consumer Research, 22 (March), 43–61. Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Sherry, John F., Jr., Robert V. Kozinets, Diana Storm, Adam sity Press. Duhachek, Krittinee Nuttavuthisit, and Benet DeBerry-Spense Leigh, Thomas W., Cara Peters, and Jeremy Shelton (2006), “The (2001), “Being in the Zone: Staging Retail Theater at ESPN Consumer Quest for Authenticity: The Multiplicity of Mean- Zone Chicago,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30 (4), ings Within the MG Subculture of Consumption,” Journal of 465–510. the Academy of Marketing Science, 31 (4), 1–13. Simmel, Georg ([1907] 1990), The Philosophy of Money, 2d ed., Lusch, Robert F. and Stephen L. Vargo (2006), “Service-Dominant Tom Bottomore and David Frisby, trans. London: Routledge. Logic as a Foundation for Building a General Theory,” in The Szmigin, Isabelle and Alexander E. Reppel (2004), “Internet Com- Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing, Robert F. Lusch and munity Bonding: The Case of Macnews.De,” European Jour- Stephen L. Vargo, eds. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 406–420. nal of Marketing, 38 (5–6), 626–40. Martin, Diane, John Schouten, and James McAlexander (2006), Thomke, S. and E. von Hippel, (2002) “Customers as Innovators: “Claiming the Throttle: Multiple Femininities in a Hyper- A New Way to Create Value,” Harvard Business Review, 80 Masculine Subculture,” Consumption, Markets & Culture, 9 (4), 51–61. (September), 171–205. Thompson, Craig J., Aric Rindfleisch, and Zeynep Arsel (2006), Mathwick, Charla, Caroline Wiertz, and Ko De Ruyter (2008), “Emotional Branding and the Strategic Value of the Doppel- “Social Capital Production in a Virtual P3 Community,” Jour- gänger Brand Image,” Journal of Marketing, 70 (January), nal of Consumer Research, 34 (April), 832–49. 50–64. Mauss, Marcel ([1925] 1990), The Gift: The Form and Reason for Tissiers-Desbords, Elisabeth and Eric J. Arnould (2005), “Hyper- Exchange in Archaic Societies, W.D. Halls, trans. New York: modernity and the New Millennium: Scientific Language as a W.W. Norton. Tool for Marketing Communications,” in Marketing Communi-

50 / Journal of Marketing, September 2009 cations in Emerging Trends and Developments, Allan J. Kim- Warde, Alan (2005), “Consumption and Theories of Practice,” mel, ed. Cambridge, UK: Oxford Press, 236–55. Journal of Consumer Culture, 5 (2), 131–53. Van Evra, Judith (1990), Television and Child Development. Hills- Wenger, Etienne (1987), Artificial Intelligence and Tutoring Sys- dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. tems: Computational and Cognitive Approaches to the Com- Vargo, Stephen L. and Robert F. Lusch (2004), “Evolving Toward munication of Knowledge. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann a New Dominant Logic for Marketing,” Journal of Marketing, Publications. 68 (January), 1–17. Woodruff, Robert B. and Daniel J. Flint (2006), “Marketing’s Ser- Von Hippel, Eric (2005), Democratizing Innovation. Cambridge, vice Dominant Logic and Customer Value,” in The Service- MA: The MIT Press. Dominant Logic of Marketing, Robert F. Lusch and Stephen L. Wagner, Mitch (1998), “Apple Newton Users Are Hopping Mad,” Vargo, eds. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 183–95. Internet Week, (March 9), 46.

How Brand Community Practices Create Value / 51