CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Jeffrey A. McNeely Kenton R. Miller Walter V. Reid Russell A. Mittermeier Timothy B. Werner
WORLD RESOURCES CONSERVATION
INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL WORLD BANK WWF INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL WORLD WILDLIFE FUND-US WORLD BANK
CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
By Jeffrey A. McNeely Kenton R. Miller Walter V. Reid Russell A. Mittermeier Timothy B. Werner
Agency tol International Development Library Room 105 SA-18. Washington, D.C. 20523 0
Gland, Switzerland, and Washington, D.C.
Prepared and published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, World Resources Institute, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund-US and the World Bank
Copyright: 1990 IUCN, WRI, CI, WWF-US. the World Bank. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit uses, without special permision from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. IUCN, WRI, CI, and WWF-US would appreciite receiving a -:opy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. For inquiries regarding use of material in this book for other purposes, please contact WRI, 1709 New York Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purpose without the prior writ ten permission of the copyright holders.
Citation: McNeely, Jeffrey A., Kenton R. Miller, Walter V. Reid, Russell A. Mittermeier and Timothy B. Werner 1990. CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; WRI, CI, WWF-US, and the World Bank, Washington, D.C. ISBN: 0-915825-42-2 0-8213-1384-3 (The World Bank) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 89-051386 Book design, layout and illustration: Stephen D. Nash Printed by: Consolidated Business Forms, Lock Haven, PA Available from: IUCN Publications Services, 1196 Gland, Switzerland WRI Publications, P.O. Box 4852 Hamden Station, Baltimore, MD 21211 World Bank Publications, P.O. Box 7247-8619, Philadeiphia, PA 19170-8619 The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the participating organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of' its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries The ijiterpretations and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily repre sent the view of IUCN, WRI, and CI, or the other participating or sponsoring organizations.
Cover photos (clockwise from upper-left): Galapagos hawk (by R. Mast); coral reef (by J. Post): chameleon (by R.A. Mittermeier); muriqui (by R.A. Mittertneier): caterpillar (by A. Young): Papua New Guinean highlander (by R.A. Mittermeier); succulent plant from Campo Rupestre, Brazil (by R.A. Mitnermcier); (center) agriculture in Thailand (by Y. Hadar, World Bank).
4 Authors
Jefrev A. McNeelyv is Chief Conservation Officer of IUCN, RussellA. Mittermeieris President of Conservation Inter where he is responsible for designing the organization's con- national. Prior to this, tic served as Vice-President for servation programs, providing the main liaison on technical Science at World Wildlife Fund (1987-89) and as Director matters with international institutions including various agen- of that organization's programs bOr Brazil and the Guianas cies of the United Nations, the World Bank and the World (1985-89), Madagascar (1985-89), Species Conservation Wildlife Fund. Also with IUCN, Mr. McNcely served (1986-89) and Primates ( 1979-81)). He has served as Chair previously as Deputy Director General for Conservation, man of the Primate Specialist Group of the International Director of the Policy and Progrannc Division, and Ex- Union tor Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources' ecutive Officer of the Coimission on National Parks and Species Survival Comnission (IUCN/SSC) since 1977, as Protected Areas. Prior tojoining IUCN in 1980, he was the SSC's Vice-Chairman for International Programs since 1985, World Wildlife Funid's representative in Indonesia. Mr. and as Chairman of the World Bank's Task Force on McNeely's more than 10 years field experience in Asia in- Biolgical Diversity in1988 and 1989. He is also a member cludes extensive scientific research, resource planning and of the Board of Wildlife Preservation Trust International and nature management. He has pubiished numerous books and the Belize Zoo, a Research Associate at the Museuim of Coin technical articles on these subjects. particularly on the rela- parative Zoology at Harvard University, and an Adjunct tionship between culture and natural resources. Mr. McNeely Associate Professor at the State University of New York at holds a Bachelors degree inAnthropology from the Univer- Stony Brook. Dr. Mitternicier's publications include five sity of California, Los Angeles. books and over 200 papers and popular articles on prim tes. Kemton R. Miller is Director of WRI's Program in Forests reptiles, tropical forests and biodiversity, and he is respon and Biodiversity. Prior to joining WRI's staff in 1988. Dr. sible for publishing the journal Primate Conservation. He Miller served br the years as Director General of IUCN. has conducted field work on three continents and more than Before that, lie was Associate Professor f Natural Resources 20 countries in the tropics, and his most recent field work and Director, Center for Strategic Wildlife Management has been on primates, protected areas and other conserva Studies, School of Natural Resources, University of tion issues ill the Atlantic forest region of eastern Brazil. in Michigan. During this period, lie served for seven years as Suriname and on the islana of Madagascar. Dr. Mittermeier Chairman of IUCN's Commission on National Parks and received his B.A. (summna cume laude, Phi Beta Kappa) from Protected Areas. Dr. Miller also acted as Secretary Genemal Dartmouth in 1971, and his Ph.D. from Harvard in for the Third World National Parks Congress in 1982 in Bali, Biological Anthropology in 1977. Indonesia. Previously, he served for ten years with the Food Timothy B. Werner is a Research Associate at Conserva and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations direct- tion International, where he specializes in biogeographical ing wildlands management activities in Latin America and analyses and issues in conservation biology, and also coor the Caribbean. His work has carried him throughout the dinates new program initiatives in Oceania. Before joining world and he has published extensively on national parks CI, tie worked at World Wildlife Fund in the Science Depart planning and wildland managenient. Dr. Miller holds degrees ment as a Research Assistant, and prior to that as an intern in Forest Management and a Ph.D. in Forest Economics from on the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems Project, located the State University of New York. Syracuse. in Brazil's Amazon region. He holds a degree in History Walter V. Reid is Associate with the WRI Program in (cure laude) from Boston University. Forests and Biodiversity. Before joining WRI in Juie 1988, Dr. Reid was a Gilbert White Fellow with Resources for the Future where tie studied the management of Southern Ocean fisheries and examined environmental issues related to sus tainable development. He has taught courses in natural history and environmental sciences at the University of Washington and workc I as a wildlife biologist with the California and Alaska departments of Fish and Game and the U.S. Forest Service inAlaska. Dr. Reid earned a Ph.D. in Zoology with specialization in Population and Commun ity Ecology troni the University of Washington. TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREW ORD , by M .S. Swarninathan ...... 9 ACK NOW LEDGEM ENTS ...... 10 EX ECUTIV E SU M M A RY ...... 11
I. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT ...... 17 Biological Diversity and Development ...... 19 Modern Approaches to Conserving Biological Diversity ...... 20 Developing a Global Biodiversity Conservation Strategy ...... 21
II. THE VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 25 Ethics, Economics, and Biological Diversity ...... 25 Assessing the Value of Biological Resources ...... 27 D irect Values of Biological Resources ...... 28 Indirect Values of Biological Resources ...... 31 Conclusions ...... 34
III. HOW AND WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARE THREATENED ...... 37 The Dim ensions of the Problem ...... 39 Economic Factors Stimulating Overexploitation of Biological Resources ...... 47 Social Factors that Threaten Biological Resources ...... 49 Major Obstacles to Greater Progress in Conserving Biological Diversity ...... 51
IV. APPROACHES TO CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 55 Policy Shifts, Integrated Land Use, and Biodiversity ...... 55 Protecting Species and Habitats: The Need for an Integrated Approach ...... 56 Contributions of Ex Situ Mechanisms to the Conservation of Biodiversity ...... 62 Management Action in Response to Pollution and Climate Change ...... 66 A New Global Convention on the Conservation of Biological Diversity ...... 68
V. THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 71 Types of Inform ation Needed ...... 71 Information Needs at National and Local Levels ...... 74 Information M anagement at the International Level ...... 77 Inform ation on Legislation ...... 80 Conclusions ...... 30
VI. ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 83 Establishing Priorities within a Nation ...... 83 International Approaches to Determining Priorities ...... 86 Conclusion: Guidelines for Determining Priorities for Conservation Action ...... 104
VII. THE ROLE OF STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLANS IN PROMOTING CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIV ER SIT Y ...... 109 Strategies and Action Plans for Conserving Species or Species Groups ...... 109 Action Plans for Conserving Habitats ...... III Cross-Sectoral Strategies and Action Plans ...... 112 Conclusions ...... 115
PrevLous FaS"- BlaIc 7 VIII. HOW TO PAY FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 117 The Issue of Property Rights to Biological Resources ...... 118 Mechanisms Useful Prim !ri!v at National and Local Levels ...... 118 Mechanisms Useful Primarily at the International Level ...... 123 C o nclusio ns ...... 125
IX. ENLISTING NEW PARTNERS FOR CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ...... 129 The Contributions of Biological Resources to "Non-Conservation" Sectors ...... 129 T he Special C ase of the Military ...... 13 1 New Approaches to Managing Areas for Sustainable Production of Biological Resources ...... 132 C onclu sio ns ...... 13 2
ANNEX 1: CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE ON EARTH BY PHYLUM ...... 133 ANNEX 2: THE WORLD CHARTER FOR NATURE ...... 134 ANNEX 3: INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION SUPPORTING CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 137 ANNEX 4: THE BALI ACTION PLAN ...... 140 ANNEX 5: THE WORLD BANK WILDLANDS POLICY ...... 147 AN N EX 6: G LOSSA RY ...... 153 BIB L IO G RAPH Y ...... 157 IN D E X ...... 18 5 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... 192
8 FOREWORD By Dr. M.S. Swaminathan President International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources President, World Wildlife Fund India Trustee, World Resources Institute
When I began writing this Foreword on 7 February, 1989. genes across Sexual barriers. Thus genetic engineering has the television screen in front of te was showing millions enhanced the value of the rich genetic estate we have in of pilgrims at Allahabad in India having their bath at the con- hcritcd. The need for conserving wild species of plants and ftluence of the rivers. Ganges. Y'niuna,. and ile invisiblc animals has hence hecome even more urgent. Saraswathi. Joseph Campbell in his book C(n'uie Mv'tlulov What%'iarc Otr hiessing.s in ternis of biological diversity? wrote: "For those in whom a local ivitolohhv still works, I Would like to Cntu.merate atfew. there is an experience of'both accord with the social order, * All our food comes from wild species brought into and of harmony with the universe.'" domestication, and the cultivated varieties are fighting a In the mythology of mian civilizations around the world. constant evolutionary battle with the pests who find their living in harmony with nature is always a recurrent refrain. fruits to be a tempting target. Continuous research. often The mythology of the Ganges revolves around its glacier drawing on wild species. is therefore essential to main origin, the dual role of mounitain forests as catchments and tain the productivity of the plants that provide our main containments. and the estuarine mouth creating a swamp sources of sustenance (over hal'f human nutrition is pro forest of rich genetic diversity in both flora and fauna. The vidcd by just three plants: rice, wheat, and maize). pilgriris who have their holy bath at Allaliabad believe that * Our water is supplied by one of nature's most important God manifesting as Ganigadhara held the might of the tor- pracesses. technically known as the hydrological cycle. rential Ganges in the locks of his hair. in a way. this myth Forested watersheds provide clear. high-quality water for symbolizes the control of the gushing streams by the detise domesti, or industrial use. and nealthy rivers provide forests of Tehri Garhwal. Unfortunately. today the forests water. transport, and fish. are disappearing and the gushing streams flow down un- * Species living and log-extinct support industrial proc checked, cauing siltation of rivers and frequent floods. When csses. Oil and coal - from living creatures who captured forests disappear, the associated fauna and flora also the sun's energy before dying tens of millions of years disappear. ago - ate major feedstocks for the chemical industry, keep When scenes of's, vere floods appear on television screens, us warm, and fuel our transportation systens. Cement few people living comfortably in urban areas see the linkages coties from limestone, which is made up of the shells and between floods downstream and deforestation upstream. skeletons of long-dead corals and other forms of marine Vhen markets are full with a wide range of' foo~l material. life. Rubber, paper, wood. pesticides, and many other we tend to forget that we live on this earth as guests of the natural products support our industries, and forests and green plant. that convert Sunlight, nutrients, and water into wetlands help cleani up the pollutants afterward. fend. If green plants cease to exist, aniiials cannot exist. * Most of our medicines came originally from the wild. in In nature a delicate web of inter-dependence is spun among eluding our major painkillers. birth-control agents, and all living organisms as well as between the biosphere and malaria drugs. While many are now produced synthetica; the geosphere. ly. medicinal plants are still important in many parts of Biological diversity provides the foundation for further pro- the world. In India, traditional doctors use 2,500 plants, gress in enhancing the biological productivity of our planet, and over 5,000 medicinal plants have been recorded in on a sustainable basis. The basic building blocks for this loun- China. Quinine. digitalis, arid morphine all still come from dation are the genes contained in plants and animals, which plants, and over 40 percent of all prescriptions in the USA by their diversity can enable the whole organisms to adapt still depend oti tia1ural sources. to the changing environment. These few examples demonstrate that abusing our limited Recent advances in molecular biology and genetic stock Of natural resources is self-destructive and irrational. engioeering have opencd up new opportunities for moving But instead of nurturing these resources to provide benefits
9 that can be sustained f'ar into the l'uture. too much of*modern inc natural resources, and tileuse of modern inlormation development is doing the oppo site: abusing nature to pro- technology 10 enisure that decisionls are based on lull vide excessive benefits for a generation or two of limans. knowledge ,)fthe likely consequences. The syni ptomls of this abuse are all around us. t'ron local Most of tilenajor policy decisions that affect the use of defores(lition to lobal clinnate change. natural resources are taken in the cities. far removed 'roni (olservin,. the lf,'h'i s Bilogic'al Diversitv is a guide to the realities of the limitations imposed by n;ture's produc all who WouIhl like to turn tie tide Of destructi o iInto a iie. ivity. Policies on trade. international cooperation. land positive relationship between people and nature. A new fori tenure, defense, agriculture. forestry. fisheries, education. of civilization based oii tilesustainable use of renewable health, and finance all affect tileway bilogical resources resources is not only possible, but essential. This book sue- are used or abused. This book can help ensure that urban gests the principles and tools that are available to promote decision-makers do not torget that tie wellspring of humian the new civilization, based oi comnunity sell-reliance, diver- prosperity is in tilecountryside, and that new policies are sity in both nature and human cultures. economic syst, nIs required to ensure a continuing flow of benefits f'roml that consider a!l costs and benefits of alternative actions, biological resources to all of humanity. scientific research that isapplied to the challenge., of nanag
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document has been prepared with the financial sup- have also contributed. Joanna Erfani and Jeanne Colombo port ofhthe Asian Development Bank, Cl, HighGain. Inc., have been tireless in their secretarial support. IUCN. John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The first draft was discussed at a meeting of the World the Pew Charitable Trusts. the Rockefeller Foundation. Bank's Biological Diversity Task Force, chaired by Ken Pid USAID, W. Alton Jones Foundation, Inc., Waste Manage- dington and John Spears and organized by Mar, Dyson and ment. Inc.. the World Bank. WRI. WWF-US, and the Russ Mitterncier. A large number of comments were re Governments of Denmark. Finland. the Netherlands. Nor- ceived during that session and are reflected inthis document. way. Sweden, and Switzerland. Gerardo Budowski, Bill Conway. Proinila Kapoor, Torn The ideas contained herein have benefitted froii discus- Lovejoy. Larry Mason, Norman Myers, George Rabb, John sions held in Nairobi. Kenya, on 29-31 August 1988 with Seidensticker, Michael Sould, Tonn Stoel, Bill Weber, and Martin Holdgate. Tom Lovejoy, David Munro, Reuben many others made important contributions. Olembo. Pe-ez Olindo, Peter Raven, - J Michael Soulk. at The first draft was also sent to a large number of experts the invitation of UNEP Executive Director Mostata Tolba. in all parts of the world. Helpful comments were received The document has drawn heavily from previous work by from: Warren Brockelnan (Thailand): David Chivers (Cam IUCN, particularly in regards to economics and biological bridge, UK): J.C. Daniel (India): Doug Fuller (Washington, diversity (McNeely, 1988). and the draft white paper on D.C.), Jorg Ganzhorn (Tubingen. Federal Republic ofGer biodiversity prepared by WRI under a grant from the many): Colin Groves (Canberra. Australia): Barbara Har Rockefeller Foundation. Many of the issues discussed were risson (Netherlands): K. Elaine Hoagland (Washington, originally called to the world's attention by Norman Myers, D.C.): Cynthia Jensen (Washington, D.C.): Molly KuIx who has often been years ahead of his time: the paper also (Washington. D.C.); David Langdon (Australia); Jeremy owes intellectual debts to Ray Dasiann. Jared Diamond, Mallinson (Jersey. UK): Clive Marsh (Sabah, Malaysia): David Pearce, Duncan Poore. Robert and Christine Prescott- Sharon Matola (Belize): Norman Myers (Cambridge, UK): Allen, and Jerry Warford. A number of IUCN staff. in- J.C. Ogden (St. Petersbu!g, Florida): Junaidi Payne (Sabah, eluding Steve Davis. Pat Dugan, Jerry Harrison, Vernon Malaysia); Jordi Sabater Pi (Barcelona, Spain); Ajay Rastogi Heywood, Peter Hislaire. Martin Holdgate. Robin Pellew, (India); Pranote Saiwichian (Bangkok. Thailand): Shirley Jeff Sayer, Hugh Synge, Simon Stuart. and Jim Thorsell, Strum (Kenya); and Judith Weis (Washington, D.C.).
10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Our species entered the industrial age with a population destruction than would otherwise be the case. The situation of one billion and with biological diversity - the total of is continually worsening through the ramifications of the genes. species, and ecosystems on earth - possibly at an developing world's debt crisis and related high interest rates. all-time high. Biological resources - the portion of diver- Governments, industry, development agencies. and the sity of actual or potential use to people - were freely general public are therefore becoming increasingly concerned available for exploitation to support development. about the depiction of biological resources, with the grow In the late 20th century. we are coming to realize that ing awareness that development depends on their biologicalresourc. "t iave limits, and that we are eXceeding maintenance. those limits and :heieby reducing biological diversity. This How can the scientific knowledge be mobilized that will is therefore a time of extraordinary chinge in the relation- best enable the planet's biological diversity to be conserved? ship between people and the biological resources upon which How can the process of change be managed so that biological their welfare depends. Each year. more people are added resources can make their best contribution to sustainable to the human population than ever before, species are becom- development? What information is required to address the ing extinct at the fastest rate known in geological history, problems of conserving biological diversity'? Which prob and climate appears to be changing more rapidly than ever. lemIs need to be addressed first? How can the many initiatives Human activities are progressively eroding the earth's in conservation of biological diversity be coordinated most capacity to support life at the same time tht growing numbers effectively? Where can the financial resources be found to of people and increasing levels of consumption are making respond to these issues at a scale that will be commensurate ever greater demands on the planet's resources. The com- with the problems? bined destructive impacts of a poor majority struggling to This document seeks answers to these questions. stay alive and an affluent resource-consuming minority are inexorably and rapidly deskroying the buffer that has always The Values of Biological Diversity existed, at least on a global scale, between human resource consumption and the planet s productive capacity. Biological resources provide the basis for life on earth, The erosion of the planet's life-support systems is likely including that of humans. The fundamental social, ethical, to continue until human aspirations come more into line with cultural, and economic values of these resources have been the realities of the earth's resource capacities and processes, recognized in religion, art, and literature from the earliest so that activities become sustainable over the long term. The days of recorded history. The great interest that children have problems of conserving biological diversity therefore can- in nature, the numerous wildlife clubs, the generous dona nnt be separated from the larger issues of social and economic tions made to non-governmental conservation organizations, development the political support for "Green Parties," and the popular Maintaining inavitum biologicai diversity assumes far ity of zoos and widlife films are economic expressions Df greater urgencY as ratesof environmental change increase, preference and show that the general public does uot think Diversity in genes, species, and ecosystems provides the raw of biological resources merely in terms of a cash value. materials with which different human communities will adapt But in order to compete for the attention of government to change, and the loss of each additional species reduces and commercial decision-makers in today's world, policies the options for nature - and people - to respond to chang- regarding biological diversity first need to demonstrate in ing conditions. economic terms the contribution biological resources make The tropics harbor a major proportion of the planet's to the countr 's"social anil economic development. Even par biological diversity. The industrialized countries also depend tial valuation in monetary terms of the benefits of conserv on tropical resources, as industrial materials, sources of ing biological resources can provide at least a lower limit breeding material, pharmaceuticals, tourism sites, and a wide to the full range of benefits and demonstrate that conserva range of other tangible and intarnible benefits. So far, tion can yield a profit in terms that are meaningful to na however, the exploitation of the tropics by the industrialized tional accounts. societies has yielded great benefits without making commen- Three main approaches have been used for determining surate investments in conservation and without paying the the value of biological resources: environmental costs of over-exploitation. Cheap labor, raw a assessing the value of' nature's products - such as fire materials with low prices that do not reflect their true value, wood, fodder, and game meat - that are consumed direct inappropriate development aid, and the control of commodity ly, without passing through a market ("consumptive use prices and interest rates, among other factors, have encour- value"); aged much more rapid levels of resource depletion and 0 assessing the value of products that are commercially
II harvested, such as timber, fish, game meat sold in a other sources 01 livelillooL and who must pay tile en market, ivory, and medicinal plants ("productive use vironmental costs of over-exploitation. value"); and, 0 Tile species and ecosystems upon which human survival assessing indirect values ,f ecoSystem functions, such as depends ar. stil! poorly known. watershed protection. photosynthesis, regulation of 0 The available science is insufficiently applied to solving climate, and production of soil ("non-consunptive use management prIblems. value"), along with thc intangible values of keeping op- 0 Conservation acti\ ities by most organizations have focused tions open for the fttuie ("option value") and simply too narrowly. knowing that certain species exist ("existence value"). * Institutions assigned responsibility ,or conserving biodiver sity have lacked sulficient financial and organizational How and Why Biological resources to do tile Job. Resources are Threatened Approaches to Conserving The proximate causes of the loss of biological resources are clear. Biological resources are degraded and lost through such activities as tl~e large-scale clearing and burning of Conserving oiological diversity needs to address both prox forests. overharvesting of plants and animals, indiscriminate imate and ultimate causes. The complex threats to biological use of pesticides, draining and fi!ling of wetlands. destruc- diversity call for a wide range of responses across a large tive fishing practices, air pollution, and the conversion of' number of private and public sectors. All are necessary, with wildlands to agricultural and urban uses. the mix of respmises adjusted to the local conditions. Since Whon the problem of b:odiversity loss is defined in terms government policies are often responsible for depleting of its immediate causes, the response is to take defensive biological resources, it stands to reason that policy changes and often confrontational actions, such as enacting laws. clos- are often a necessary firq step toward conservation. National ing access to resources, and dech'ring additional protected policies dealing directly with wildlands management or areas. Such responses are neces:;ary in tones of rampant over- forestry, or influencing biodiversity indirectly through land exploitation. But they are seldonm really sufficient to change tenure, rural development, family planning, and subsidies the so'ialand economic causes of the threats to biological for lood, pesticides, or energy can have significant impacts diversit'v. on the conse:rvation of biodiversity. National and sub-national The foundations of over-exploitation include demands for conservation strategies can often provide the mnechanism for commodities such as tropical hardwoods, wildlife, fiber, and carrying out such reviews. agricultural products. fhe growing human population, even Protecting species can best be done through protecting without accompanying economic growth and development, habitats. Most national governments have established legal places increasing demands on natural resources and mcans for protecting habitats that are important for conser ecosystem processes that are already impoverished and stress- ving biological resources. These can include: national parks ed. Settlement policies promote the movement ni the grow- and other categories of reserves (some 4.500 major reserves ing unemployed labor forces to frontier zones. The debt exist, covering nearly 500 million hectares), local laws pro burden forces governments to encourage the production of tecting particular forests, reefs, or wetlands; regulations in commodities that can earn foreign exchange. Energy policies corporated within concession agreements, planning iestric encourage inefficiency in many nations, and in so doing add tions on certain types of' land; and customary laws protect to the burden of air pollutants and the risk of substantial ing sacred groves or other special sites. The responsibility global climate change. Inappropriate land tenure ar- for such management is often spread widely among public rangements discourage rural people from making the in- and private institutions. While accomplishiints to dalc are vestments that would enable sustainable use of the available impressive, the amount of habitat protected needs to be in biological resources, creased by a factor of three if these areas are to make the When the problem is defined in terms of its root causes, necessary contribution to conserving biological diversity; a more constructive response can be stimulated that seeks these new areas may need more flexible approaches to cooperative effi)rts to address the social and economiP'fotnt manvgement than is usual in national parks. dations of resource depletion. In addition, the protected areas will succeed in realizing Six main obstacles to greater progress in conserving their ccnservation objectives only to the extent that the areas biological diversity need to be addressed: them:,elves are effectively managed, and to the extent that SNational dlevelopment objectives give insufficient value to the management of the land surrounding them is compatible biological resources. with the objectives of the protected areas. This will typical * Exploiting biological resources yields the greatest profit ly involve protected areas becoming parts of larger regional for traders and manufacturers (who can externalize en- schemes to ensure biological and social sustainability, and vironmental costs), not for the local people who have few to deliver appropriate benefits to the rural population.
12 Er situ conservation programs - zoos, aquaria, seed The Information Required to banks, botanic gardens, and so forth - supplemenw ill Silt, Conserve Biological Diversity conservation by providing for the long-term storage, analysis, testing, and propagation of threatened and rare species of Effective action must he based On accurate information, plants and animals and their propagules. The are particularly and the more widely shared the information. tie more like- important for wild species whose populations are highly INit isthat individuals and institutions will agree on the delini reduced in numbers. serving as a backup to ill situ conser- tion of'problems and solutions, Developing and using infor vation. as a source of material for reintroductions, and as mation is therefore an essential part of conservation at all a major repository of genetic material Ioi future breeding levels, from the local to the global community. programs of domestic species. Some vx situ facilities Tile current state of knowledge about species and eco notably zoos wid botanic gardens - provide iniportant op- systems is woefully inadequate: detailed knowlcdge is still portunities for public education, and many make important lacking on the distribution and population sizes of even such contributions to taxonomy and field research. large and well-studied animals as African primates. It seems Measures to curb lit' pollution of,he biosphere, perhaps self-evident that increasing knowledge about the kind and the most widespread conservation measures, are the most variety of organisms that inhabit the earth - and the ways exp msive, and have attracted the greatest attention from both that these ,rganisms relate to each other and to humans the public and government. Biological diversity is threatened must he a foundation of conservation action. Therefore, a by various foris of chemical pollution, but the gravest threat major effort is required to: may be climate change brought about by air pollution and * document the wealth of the world's species ofplants and the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide due to deforesta tion and the bumning of fossil fuels. Mean world temperatures aimas, ivin muses, s.aqiabtn could increase by about 2 C and mean sea levels rise by *gardens, universities, and research stations: around 30-50 centimeters in the next 40 years. While the * carry out ecological fieldwork to show how the various species and ecosystems contained within protected areas will pieces certinlbycliatechage.ithea Iketd i unealsti to species fi together, discover the population dynamics of c e r tai nl y b e a ffec te d by cl i nate cha ng e , i t i s u of particular concern, assess the effects ofl'fragmen nr e a li s t ic to ai n o n t u l h b t t s a d d e r m e w at a ag e t expect the boundaries of existing protected areas to change tan onaurl verymuc,thy bcaueae uualy suroudedby ore tatsand etem t manaremet very m uch. because they ar eUsually Surrounded steps are required to enable ecosystems to flourish with intensive humlan land uses. Instead, e 'rso byaaem ore theirt e r fullf l complementso p e e t off species;s e i s inentinve ti will ses. I ear new forms of manage- ' develop new mechanisns flor cv situ conservation, in ment intervetion will be required to maintain systems eluding both captive propagation and eventual release in to "natural" ecosystems; Many of the responses just discussed hive been supported * monitor the changes in ecosystem diversity and function by international legislation that has fostered useful coopera- as the influences of humans become more pervasive, in tion in conserving biological diversity. However. species and eluding climate change, deforestation, and various forms ecosystems are still being exploited at rates that far exceed of pollution; their sustainable yield. Recognizing the growing severity of a assess the ecological differences between relatively large threats to biological diversity and the increasingly interna- but minimally disturbed ecosystems and ecosystems that tional nature ot the actions required to address the threats, have been heavily affected by humans, as a basis for en IUCN and UNEP have embarked on the preparation of an hancing productivity and restoring degraded ecosystems International Convention on the Conservation of Biological to a more productive state; and to Diversity. This effort has gained tile broad support of govern- * carry out research in the social sciences to determine how ments, including a joint resolution from the US Congress. local people manage their resources, how changes in People form the foundation for the sustainable use of resource availability and land use affect human behavior, bioiogical resources. Local communities need to be more in- and how people decide how to use their biological volved in the management of biological resources, and to resources. benefit from their sustainable use. Because groups of in digenous people in many parts of the world regard natural Such basic inventory and fundamental research work resources, particularly wildlife, as essential to their cultural should be carried out simultaneously with field action, with continuity and economic well-being, th'y should he given the two forms of activity reinforcing each other. particular attention in all conservation programs. Local peo- Government agencies, local communities, a d conserva pie should be closely associatco with the authorities respon- lion organizations all need injirnationto enable them to sible for die management of biological resources and for the manage their biological resources more effectively. Infor establishment and management of protected areas. However, mation tools that can help mce: this need include basic the tension between local interests and national interests in descriptions of fauna and flora, practical handbooks for fie!d conservation requires great sensitivity and site-specific identification, rapid inventory techniques, and basic corn solutions. puter programs for use with micro-conputers.
13 The inforination nee'ds in the tropi's are pfarticutlar"'yia- ferent types of conservation action and will result in the con portant, becau;e these areas hold the majority of the world's servation of' different subsets of the world's biological biological diversity and they are losing species at rates that resources. Each system has its own strengths and weaknesses. far exceed the world's capacity to record them. Highest with the major point of' difference being the objective jbr priority for basic inventory work should be given to the sites whit'l the system was devised. of greatest diversity and local endemism coupled with the greatest threat, for the information contained by the species The Role of Strategies and in these areas could disappear before humanity even knows what it is losing. Action Plans in Promoting Development agencies .,hould support national efforts to Conservation of Biological Diversity establish local, sectoral, (Otl nationl itnrnrtiotlallage- One of the best wviys to ensure that the various institutions ment s.Ystemns, through demonstrating methodologies, pro- involved in conservation are in general agreement on viding training opportunities for taxonomists and biologists, priorities is to prepare a strategy that def nes the basicpr'oh and subsidizing the publication of status reports. Universities, enls imid atgr(ees to appr priate objectives. Strategies are research institutions, and non-governmental organizations turned into action through a more tactical process of plan (NGOs) need to be strengthen'xl so that they canl help govern,- LN s nning specific activities to address the broad strategies: this ments assess their biological resources. Closer working rla- often involves the preparation o,"an action plan. tionships should be established between museuls and other A global itratcgy is required to provide the framework for ta 14 vation, at the national level to ensure that government policies Conclusion are compatible with such incentives, and at the international level to ensure that the wealthy nations benefitting f'ron the The elements now exist that will reverse the trend biological resourc'es of thle tropics aire able to invest in con1- the hiotic inipovcrishment of the world. Novel appro~aches.toacrd servig the productive capacity oI those resources, new financial mechanisms, and ne\\ policies Approaci tises l pi need to be ap imarly at the ina aesel inc de plied at the appropriate Appoacesiiariy sefll a th level of responsibility to translate wiionl lvelincude tile new approaches into a reality qfi'il-cVa trllua well charging entry and other fees to national parks. levyin tc o charges fbr ecologi.2alchares',al 'orsrviescollctigservices. collecting special taxes. heing and a secur' biotic heritage. New partners in conser col secia taes, vation need Ito be 1101.n11dinvolving till ministries, departments building fuinding linkages with large development projects, returning profits 1'rom exploitation of biological resources, and private institutions that are directly dependent on building conditionality into conces;sion agreeinents. seeking biological resources. National parks departments, I'rexam support from the private sector, and establishing foundations ple, should be joined in habitat management by a wide range for conservation. Approaches useful at the international level of other institutions to represent ,4 interests. Furthermore. other line agencies need to develop the capacity to manage include international conventions that provide financial sup- odierity ofi parti reln to t respecaie port, direct assistance from international conservation biodiversity of particular relevance Io their respective organization:, debt-for-nature swaps, restricted currency missions. holdings, anu conservation concessions. The 1990s may be the last decade during which construc In general. conservation should be supported to the max tive and creative decisions, activities, and iivestnients imum extent possible through the marketplace, but the rather than emergency rescue efforts - can bc made to en dthrough appropriate sure that many of the world's species and ecosystems are marketpilace needs to be established t appropiae maintained, examined for their material and ecological value, policiesand pooted for sustainable use to support new and in by all the ftunding mechanisms described in this book is op- r portunity costs: any funds earned might be used by the novative approaches to development. The combination of government in other ways that the government considers of* maintaining the ma.inum possible biological diversit', the higher priority. The attraction of the methods suggested is mIrinun possible cultural diversity, and the greatest possi that the income is being earned by*/he biological r'csourc's, be scientific emleavor would seem the most sensible ap and some of the funding is being provided by the public in proach toward dealing with the dynamic future facing exprssioiexpression reuresu(If their support t for non-consumptive uses of humanity. oWe are at a crossroads in the history biologicaltion. Our actions in the next few years will ofdetermin, human civiliza-hether In many countries. funding is not the major constraint to tnO actoni the n fawil e teri e by conservation achievement. While conservation agencies we take a road towvard a chaotic future characterized by consrvaionacheverentWhle onsevaton genies overexploitation and abuse of our biological resources, or never have sufficient funding, and additional funding i:,cer- overepoitoad a of our biological tainly called for, even generous budgets will not lead to con- take the opposite road - toward maintaining great biological servation if government policies in other sectors are incom- diversity and using biological resources sustainably. The patible with conservation. Theref'ore. any new funding ]imture welI-being of human civilization hangs in the balance. mechanisms need to be part of a package that includes necessary policy changes in national securit.', land tenulre, energy, frontiersettlement, foreign trade, transportation, and SO O/I. The major requirement from government policymakers is that they recognize the many values of biological resources, and take advantage of o)portunitiesto invest in the continued productivity that such resources require. They also need to be persuaded to create conditions whereby the local com munity or the private or NGO sector can assume total management control of certain important biological resources or areas, and can seek their own funding in an attractive tax and investment climate. Through the use of innovative fur d ing mechanisms backed by compatible government policies, one of the major obstacles to progress in conservation can be overcome. Following page: A southern elephant seal (Miroungaleonina) pup (photo by W.V. Reid). 15 TtPoo CHAPTER I BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT As the fundamental building blocks for development, biological resources provide the basis for local self sufficiency. At the same time, iiological diversity is a global asset, bringing benefits to people in all parts of the world. Efforts to maintain the diversity of biological resources are urgently required at local, national, and international levels. Our generation has a great opportunity, and a great respon- But the prosperity of our future is far from assured, and sibility. We have inherited the most diverse community of if present trends continue our generation will be responsible living creatures that has ever occupied our planet (Wilson, for destroying much of the natural wealth we have inherited. 1988b), and we have the most sophisticated technology that The decisions we make in the next few years about how has ever existed. Using our modern technology to exploit natural resources will be used will determine the future evolu.. the resources our planet provides, people living in the 20th tion of both human civilization and life on earth. century have also witnessed the greatest social and The combination of energy from the sun and natural demographic changes out species has ever experienced. We resources on the earth provides the basis for human prosper live in momentous times indeed. ity. Some of these resources, such as oil, coal, gold, and Box 1: What is Biological Diversity? "Biological diversity'" encompasses all species of hierarchical system that reflects evolutionary relationships plants, animals, .,id microorganisms and the ecosystems among organisms. In ascending order, the main and ecological processes of which they are parts. It is an categories, or taxa, of living things are: Species, Genus, umbrella term for the degree of nature's variety, including Family, Order, Class, Phylum, Kingdom. Humans, for both the number and frequency of ecosystems, species, example, are classified as follows: Animalia (Kingdom), or genes in a given assemblage. It is usually considered Chordata (Phylum), Mammnalia (Clas;), Primates (Order), at three different levels: genetic diversity, species diver- Hominidae (Family), Homo (Genus), sapiens (Species). sity, and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity is the sum These last two designations, together referred to as the total of genetic information, contained in the genes of in- Latin binomial, are used to identify an organism, and dividuals of plants, animals, and microorganisms that in- distinguish it from any other. Species differ from one habit the earth. Species diversity refers to the variety of another in at least one characteristic and generally do not living organ;m,; on earth and has been variously estimated interbreed (Raven and Johnson, 1989). In geneial, the to tv between 5 and 50 million or more, thou_,hi only about higher the category ranking of an organism, the more 1.4 million have actually been described. Ecosystem ancient the evolutionary divergence. Thus, with Homo diversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic com- sapiens, it was more recently that the species became munitics, and ecological processes in the biosphere, as established than the genus, and more :ccently that the well as the tremendous diversity within ecosystems in genus evolved than did the family (Hominidae), and so terms of habitat differences and the variety of ecological on up to the Kingdom level. Most biologists recognize processes. Ecosystems cycle nutrients (from production five kingdoms of organisms: Prokaryotae (bacteria), Pro to consumption to decomposition), water, oxygen, toctista (includes algae and protozoans), Fungi methane, and carbon dioxide (thereby affecting the (mushrooms, molds, and lichens), Animalia (animals), climate)- and other chemicals such as sulphur, nitrogen, and Plantae (plants) (Margulis and Scl'wartz, 1982). Cur and carbon. rently, app-oximately 100 phyla are recognized (see Biologists classify life on earth into a widely accepted Annex I for listing). 17 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Box 2: The Dimensions of the Issue: How Many Species Exist? The foundation for assessing the iinportance of available for study. For convenience, many assume that biological diversity is an inventory of how many species about 10 million species exist, though the final figure is exist, and which species exist where. At the global levei, likely to be 30-50 million. the plants and vertebrates are relatively well known, Given these limitations, the following represents a sum though major discoveries are reported regularly among mary of the current state of knowledge (from Wilson, fish and some groups of plants. But scientists can only 1988a, except where otherwise noted): guess at the numbers of many groups of insects (especially Group No. of described species the beetles of the tropical forest). Erwin (1982), for ex- Bacteria and blue-green algae: 4,760 ample, suggests as many as 30 million species in total, Fungi: 46,983 with most undescribed species living in tropical forest';. Algae: 26,960 Mites and nematodes could also number in the hundreds Bryophytes (mosses and 17,000 (WCMC, 1988) of thousands, if not millions, of species. Since most liverworts:) (Raven et al., 1986) are based on extrapolations, the Gymnosperms (conifers): 750 estimates of extinctions Angiosperms lack of precise estimates of total numbers has led to con- (flowering plants): 250,000 (Raven et al., 1986) siderable imprecision regarding extinction rates. May Protozoans: 30,800 (1988) suggests that research on food webs, relative abun- Sponges: 5,000 9,000 dance, and the relationship between numbers and physical RoundwormsCorals & Jellyfish: & earthworms: size of organisms could reveal patterns that would enable 24,000 the total diversity of plants, animals, a,.d microorganisms Crustaceans: 38,000 to be deduced from appropriate rules. Insects: 751,000 But the fact remains that basic knowledge of the Other arth!-opods and minor 132,461 orgaitisms that make up most ecosystems, especially in invertebrates: Mollusks: 50,000 the tropics, is woefully inadequate. The Committee on Starfish: 6,100 Research Priorities in Tropical Biology (NAS, 1980) con- Fishes (Teleosts): 19,056 cludes that at least a five-fold increase in the number of Amphibians: 4,184 systematists (above the current estimated 1,500 trained Reptiles: 6,300 (Clements, 1981) professional systematists competent to deal with any of Birds: 9,198 4,170 (Honacki et al., 1982) the tropical organisms) is necessary to deal with a signifi- Mammals: cant proportion of the estimated diversity while it is still Total 1,435,662 species iron, are non-renewable; once they have been consumed, they ecosystems, and ecosystems proviK',e the life-support systems cannot be replaced in time frames meaningful to us. Other for humans. Modern technologies, capital investments, in resources are renewable; water c:n be recycled repeatedly, frastructure, social organization, and so forth can enhance and wildlife, forests, and crops reproduce themselves and or deplete these life-support systems, but such recent even increase when managed appropriately, phenomena as carbon dioxide increase, global warming, and Considerable care needs to be given to decisions on how the depletion of tile globe's ozone shield demonstrate that non-renewable resources shall be consumed, and con- nature has limits to her capacity to absorb environmental siderable efforts are being devoted to finding substitutes for abuse. those which are being depleted (Borman, 1976), to seeking Biological diversity is an umbrella term covering tlh-total more effective means of recycling, and ensuring the most ity of species, genes, and ecosystems, but biological efficient practical forms of use (including reduction of waste). resources can actually be managed, they can be consumed But far more attention needs to be given to the management ," replenished, and they can be the subject of directed con of renewanle resources, because they provide the basis for servation action. The way biological resources are managed long-term sustainable production of goods and services essen- can enhance or reduce biological diversity. Effective systems tial for human welfare, of management can ensure that biological resources not only Biological resources - genes, species, and ecosystems survive, but increase while they are being used, thus pro that have actual or potential value to people - are the viding the foundati,., for sustainable development. Practical physical manifestation of the globe's biological diversity applications will need to involve actions to address both the (sometimes shortened to "biodiversity"), which simply abstract biological diversity and the tangible biological stated is the variety and variability among living organisms resources. and the ecological complexes in which they occur (Boxes Many development plans fail to recognize that the reten I and 2) (OTA, 1987). Species are the building blocks of tion of natural systems often constitutes the optimal use of 18 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT the land in question, in econinic as well as ecological terms. Transforming natural areas often brings greater risks than Box 3: Recent Advances in Concepts of benefits, because in their natural state these systems Conserving Biological Diversity. equilibriate water runoff. are reservoirs of valuable plants Considerable scientific work has been done to address and animals, can yield timber on a sustainable basis, build the needs for conserving biodiversiy, and to describe the soils and prevent erosion, and attiact tourist revenues. ll technology available for doing so. Notable examples of proving management of species and habitats could pre';rve the 1980s include: for societies tie resources available in their ecosystems, while 0 PlaningNational ParksforEcodevelopment (Miller, producing living. L_1980).sufficient surplus to support better standards of9 living. ConseriationBiology: An Evolutionary-EcologicalAp But instead of conserving the rich resources of forest, olo An"rair lo- 190 wetland, and sea. current processes of development are * onson andEvluon ( en,) depleting many biological resource:s at such a rate that they * Genetics aid Conservation:"A Reference r Manag are rendered essentially non-renewable. Once a tropical f'orest ing Wild Animal and Plant Populations(Schonewald- is cleared of its trees, for example, the nutrients are removed Cox et al., 1983) from the system and it may take millennia for the systenl National Parks, onservation, and Development to recover (Gomez-Pompa et al., 1972: Whitmore, 1984). The benefits to society are therefore substantially less than (McNeely and Miller, 1984) * Marineatd CoastalProtectedAreas: A GuideforPlan could be realized if' the resources were managed on a SS- tiers and Manages (Sam and Clark, 1984) tainable basis. Experience has shown that market forces alone 9 The Value o Conserving Genetic Resources (Oldtield, will ofien lead to such overexploitation. largely because many 1984) of the cost: are external to those doing the exploiting: they e Plant Genetic Resources: A Conservation hnperative gain the bencfits without paying the costs. ~(YeatmanSince insufficient et al., 1984) biological resources will be conserved by current market C 7he Gaia Atlas of Planet mechanisms alone, the conservation needs of society must M Management (Myers, 1985) to b me I~ itcominatonfinerntioal copeatin, f- • ManagingProtectedAreas in the Tropics (MacKinnon to be met 1y a combination of international cooperation ef'- et al., 1986) fecive governrnent intervention and greatly increased par- 9 Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and ticipation by business, industry, sintist ts u ti, ans d .D olocal h e r communities, univer- i verIsi ty (S o u ld , 1986 ) sities. and other institutions. e Technologies to Maintain BiologicalDiversity (OTA, 1987) • Gene Banks and the World's Food (Plucknett et Biological Diversity and Development 1987) al., The contribution of conservation to developrment was e Biodiversity (Wilson and Peter, 1988) acknowledged by the World Commission on Environment 9 Economics andBiologicalDiversity (McNeely, 1388) and Development, drawing on a decade ofwork in this field 9 Wildlands: 7heir Protection and Management in (Box 3). "The challenge facing nations today," said the Economic Development (World Bank, 1988) WCED (1987), "is no longer deciding whether conserva- 0 Keeping Options Alive: 7he Scientific Basisfor Con tion is a good idea, but rather how it can be implemented serving Biodiversity (Reid and Miller, 1989) in the national interest and within the means available to each country.' to improve conservation efficiency and to integrate conser Conservation in the modern sense is part of develop- vation and development. It specifically identifies the preser ment. As defined by the World Conservation Strategy, it vation of biological diversity as one of the three main foun means: "The management of human use of the biosphere dations of conservation: the second - to maintain essential so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to pres- ecological processes and life-support systems - provides ent generations while maintaining its potential to ice' the support to biological diversity: the third objective - to en needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus, conser- sure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sus vation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sus- tainable - deals with the uses to which biological resources tainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of the are put. natural environment" (IUCN. 1980). While government institutions responsible for wildlife and The World Conservation Strategy has provided a useful protected areas need strengthening, even the most successful rationale ior people involved in both conservation and species conservation programs and protected area systems development, providing policy guidance on how conserva- are only part of a larger package of appropriate conserva tion can support sustainable development. Itconcentrates on lion policies and programs in other sectors. Progress in sus the main problems directly affecting the achievement of con- tainable approaches to forestry, agriculture, rural develop servation objectives, and identifies the action needed both mnit, international trade, disaster prevention, energy, climate 19 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIV5 .tSITY 8 7 6 CU 0 198 5 U, 4 -0ho *0CD 3 0 ,2 7000 5000 3000 1000 1 1000 2020 ,4B.C. I A Fig. 1. Human population growth. change, population, national security, and other areas are (Sondaar, 1977) Despite these illustrations of the power of essential to the success of efforts to conserve biological diver- hunting and agricultural societies to drive species to extinc sity. This will involve policy shifts and improved rianage- tion, the natural world at the dawn of the industrial age was ment in a wide variety of sectors that have impacts on characterized by highly divrse ecosystems and human biological resources, often calling for line agencies - cultures. ministries of forestry, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, corn- But in our era, the pas, few generations or so, economic munications, health, and defense - to assume new respon- growth based on the conversion of fossil fuels to energy, sibilities for conservation. greatly expanded international trade, and improved public health measures has spurred such a rapid expansion of human Modern Approaches to numbers tFigure 1)that new approaches to resource manage ment have been required. Within the past 100 years, govern- Conserving Biological Diversity ments have established explicit policies aimed at conserving For most of human history, the natural world has been pro- wild living resources. Today, all but a small handful ofcoun tected from the most disruptive human influences by relative- tries have national parks and national legislation promoting ly humble technology, cultural/ecological factors sach as conservation. Most governments have joined international taboos preventing over-exploitation, tribal warfare that kept conservation conventions, and built environmental considera wide areas as wilderness "buffer zones" between groups, tions into the national education system. Non-governmental land ownership by ancestors or lineages rather thim in- organizations arc active in promoting public awareness of dividuals, relatively sparse human populations, and many conservation issues, including those dealing with biological other factors. But the "Garden of Eden" vision contains its diversity. weeds. Where human hunters moved into new habitats filled But still the devastation continues, and even accelerates. with game animals that had no prior experience with humans, Why'? major extinctions often occurred: the Americas, Australia. Part of the problem may be that conservation has not yet Madagascar, and New Zealand are well-known examples involved the right institutions. The conservation movement (Martin, 1984). Humans are also implicated in the extinc- has been led by naturalists, including both interested amateurs tion of some 90 percent of the endemic mammalian genera and trained biologists. While their contributions have been of the Mediterranman after the development of agriculture fundamental, they are unable to address fully the basic prob 20 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: WHAT IT IS AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT lems of conservation because the problems are not biological, In order to implement new action for conserving biological but rather political, economic, social, and even ethical. The diversity in a time when many tropical governments are feM decisions affecting the natural environm,.ent are influenced ing the squeeze ofexternaO debt, the acti,'ities of the various by pressures and incentives that go far beyond the relatively interested agencies - both national and international, govern straightforwar'] technical considerations of what might in mental and non-governmental - need to reinforce each other theory be best for biological resources, rather than work in opposition born of ignorance. Int':rna Conservation action therefore needs to be based on the best tional agencies need to support government action, and NGO available scientific information and implemented by develop- activities need to stimulate new approaches at both national ment practitioners, engincers, politicians, rural sociologists, and local levels. agronomists, and economists. Local resource users are often A global strategy for conserving tilegreatest possible the ones who make local-level decisions, and their decisions biological diversity is required to provide the franework For are affected above all by enlightened self-interest. Those local and regional ef'forts, and to gi'e concise guidance on seeking to conserve biological diversity need to be able to the opt,)ns and opportunities for action capable of achiev identifly the legitimate self-interests of rural people, and ing global goals while addressing local priorities. Such a design ways of ensuring that the interests of conservation strategy needs to be supported by regional, national, local, and community self-interest coincide, and sectoral strategies and action designed to meet specific No simple recipe exists for determining how biological needs. resources in each locality can best be conserved, and how The global and regional strategies need to seek solutions land should be used to best achieve the objectives of'conser- to the problems facing biological diversity in several ways: vation. Ecological, social, political, economic, and * seeking apprepriate policy refbrm and management ac technological factors all enter into the decisions made, aind tion in areas outside the "conservation sector," as tradi each of these factors can change over time; because these tionally perceived, that have major impacts on biological factors are interrelated, a change in one can have effects diversity (e.g., agriculture, forestry, tourism, transport - sometimes unpredictable - on all the others. In the final and communications, education, defense, etc.); analysis, decisions need to be taken by people exercising their * ensuring that "traditional" development activities are car best judgement at the current state of' knowledge. The ied out in such a way that they contribute to conserving dynamic state of development throughout the world is like- biological diversity (i.e., implementing sustainal'e devel ., to continue, and building the capacity to adapt to constant opnent in the sense used by the World Commission on change will require concerted action. Environment and Development): " enhancing the role of development ager.cies in contributing Developing a Global Biodiversity directly to the conservation of biological diversity; * providing a strong legal basis for international coopera Conservation Strategy tion in conserving biological diversity, and for support of The increasing international interest in biodiversity stems national initiatives: from the growing dangers of species extinctions, depletion 9 strengthening the institutions in tile"conservation sector," of'genctic diversity, and disruptions to the atmosphere, water through enhanced training, new financial mechanisms, and supplies. fisheries, and forests. As climatic, political, and stronger mandates, and building greater public support for economic conditions change over the coming decades, the conserving biological diversity. various populations of' Homo sapiens are going to be Such a global strategy, dealing with all aspects ot(biodiver challengef! to live up to their name. Biological diversity pro- sity, including both marine and terrestrial ecosystc.ns at all tile vides building blocks with which each human group can latitudes, is currently being prepared by a coalition of the use its intelligence and acquired wisdom to adapt to change. World Resources Institute, IUCN, and UNEP, in close col and having more blocks available will prm.vide more options laboration with WWF, CI, the World Bank, the Asian for adapting to new conditions. Development Bank. and other key governmental and The growing awareness about the importance of biodiver- non-governmental institutions in both tropical and temperate sity on the part of both governments and the general public nations. It is expected that FAO and Unesco will also par has resulted in a desire to ensure that no part of the world's ticipate in the process. As an important part of the new WorlM natuial heritage is lost through inadvertence or ignorance. Conservation Strategy, it aims to: Biodiversity brings together a variety of constituencies: • establish a common perspective, foster international .orestry, agronomy, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and in- cooperation, and agree to priorities f'or action at the in ternational trade, to name but a f'ew. All these diff'erent con- ternational level: stituencies look at biodivcrsity in their own ways, but all ap- * examine tilemajor obstacles to progress at the international proaches are founded on a common perception of the vari- level and analyze tileneeds for national and international ety of' lif'e as a raw material, a resource, and a priceless policy ref'orm; heritage in its own right. 0 specify how conservation of biological resources can be 21 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY integrated with development more effectively and iden tify the linkages with other related issues facing human ity; and * promote the further development of regional, national, and thematic action plans for the maintenance, study, and sus tainable use of biological diversity, and promote their implementation. The 1990s must be a time of intensive action, involving major national and international investments in conserving biological diversity. As eminent Harvard biologist Edward 0. Wilson has said, "How the human species will treat life on Earth, so as to shape this greatest of legacies, good or bad, for all time to come, will be settled during the next 10 years" (Wilson, 1988b). This document suggests the kinds of approaches that will enable this generation of humans to enrich rather than impoverish the earth. Following page, overleaf: Boy and lemurs, Madagascar (photo by R.A. Mittermeler). 22 'Will* .- -~~~~' - - CHAPTER II THE VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY While the values of biological resources are not always represented in the marketplace, they are nonetheless signifi cant. New approaches are required for cnsuring that these values are incorporated in national development planning so that costs and benefits come into closer balance. Biological resources provide the basis for life on earth. Ethics, Economics, and The fundamental social, ethical, cultural, and economic logical Dveri values of these resources have been recognized in religion, Biol i rsity art, and literature from the earliest days of recorded h'-!orv. Before examining the economics of conserving biological Given these multiple values, it is not surprising that most resources, it is worth noting that the governments of the cultures (and governnints) have embraced the principles of world have already made an important, but little noticed, conservation. The great interest that children have in nature, ethical commitment to nature. The World Charter for Nature, the numerous wildlife cl',,bs, the generous donations made "adopted and solemnly proclaimed" by the General to non-governmental conservation organizations, the political Assembly of the United Nations on 28 October, 1982 (An support for "Green Parties.' the popularity of zoos and nex 2), expresses absolute support by governments of the wildlife films, and many other intangible indicators are strong principles of conserving biodiversity. It recognizes that evidence that the general public does not think of biological humankind is part of nature, that every form of life is unique resources merely in terms of a cash value, and warrants respect regardless of its worth to human be But in order to compete for the attention of government ings, and that lasting benefits from nature depend upon the decision-makers in today's world, policies regarding maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support biological diversity first need to demonstrate in economic systems and upon the diversity of life forms. It calls for terms the vaiue of biological resources to a country's social stratcgies for conserving nature, scientific research, monitor and econo.oic development. Some have argued that biological ing of species and ecosystems, and international coopera resources are in one sense beyond value because they pro- tion in conservation action. But the World Charter for Nature vide the biotic raw materials that underpin every major type has been all but forgotten by both governments and conser of economic endcavour at its most fundamental level vationists, and needs to be given far greater exposure in the (Oldfield, 1984). But ample economic justification can be future. marshalled by those seeking to exploit biological resources, Drawing on the principles of the World Charter for Nature so the same kinds of reasoning need te be used to support and the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1980), IUCN's alternative uses of the resources. Working Group on Ethics and Conservation has produced an ethical foundation for conservation (Box 4). It concluded However, somedserious problems in economic analysis re- that the ethical ba:is for conserving biological diversity needs main: The standard models dc not give sufficient weight to to be consistent with ecological principles and that it is ia long-term benefits; approaches to assessing the economic portant to promote activities that are sustainable in the long values of natural processes such as watershed protection or run. People need to recognize that the reasons tbr the exist amelioration of climate remain rudimentary at best; and the ence of species and ecosystems may be more subtle and in aesthetic, ethical, cultural, and scientific considerations that scrutable than simply supporting the economic desires of the must be part of the economic equaticn are usually ignored. current generation of consumers. When a gene pool is driven New approaches to economic assessment would ensure that to extinction by the current generation of humans who are economic values incorporate both monetary and non- maximizing their personal benefit, all future generations pay monetary expressions of preference, ind not be limited to the cost (Rolston, 1985b; Norton, 1986; Ehrenfeld, 1972, simply attempting to put a price tag on nature. Assigning 1988). these qualitative and quantitative values would provide a Nature also has considerable abstract importance, such as justification for more effective government action, often symbolizing the wild world of nature, the opposite of the through the use of ecoiiomic incentives for conserving urban life that many people find so stressful. This symbolism biological resources (McNeely, 1988). is communicated to the public through films, television, P25ank Prevlm~m Pcc9- 1fl CONSERVNG THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL, I)IVERSITY books, commercials, photographs. calendars, and maIIny other Box 4: An Ethical Basis for media. Judging from the popularity of these symbolic Conserving Biological Diversity. representations of wild nature, they must be helping to keep the stresses of' urban dwelling within be:arable bounds. * The world is an interdependent whole made ip of Ehrenfeld (1988) cautions that arguments for conservation natural and human communities. The well-being and should not be based simply upon CConomic considerations: health of any one part depends upon the well-being and "It is certain that if we persist in this crusade to determine health of the other parts. value where value ought to be evident, we will be lelt with " Humanity is part of nature, and humans are sub ject to nothing but our greed when the dust i'inallv settles. I should the m,,,e immutable ecological laws as all other species make it clear that I am referring not just to the effort to put on the planet. All life depends on the uninterrupted an actual price on biological diversity but also to the attempt functioning of natural sysIems that ensure the supply to rephrase the price in terms of a nebulous survival of energy and nutrients, so ecological responsibility value . . . As shown byv the example of the faltering search among all people is necessary for the survival, secur- for new drugs in the tropics, economic criteria of value are ity, equity, and dignity of' the world's communities. shifting. fluid, and utterly opportunistic in their practical ap Human culture must be built upon a profound respect plication. This is the opposite of the value system needed for nature, a sense of being at one with nature and a to conserve biological diversity over thc course of decades recognition that human affairs must proceed in harmony and centuries." and balance with nature. Further, many scientists will ague. nobody knows enough " The ecological limits within which we must work are about any gene, species, or ecosystem to be able to calculate not limits to human endeavour: instead, they give direc- its ecological and economic worth in the larger scheme of tion and guidance as to how human affairs can sustain things. And. Ehrenfeld (1988) adds, "'the species whose environmental stability and diversity, members are the fewest in nunber, the rarest, the most nar " All species have an inherent right to exist. The rowly distributed - in short, the ones most likely to become ecological processes that support the integrity' of the extinct - are obviously the ones least likely to be mised biosphere and its diverse species, landscapes, and by the biosphere.'" On the other hand, many of' these may habitats are to be maintained. Similarly, the full range be greatly missed by people: one dramatic example is the of human culture adaptations to local environments is population of the wild rice (Orvza 'ivara)which is the only to be enabled to prosper. source of resistance to grassy stunt virus. (Many other ex * Sustainability is the basic principle of all social and amples are contained in Myers. 1983a, and Prescott-Allen economic development. Personal and social values and Prescott-Allen, 1982a.) should be chosen to accentuate the richness of flora, fauna, and human experience. This moral foundation will enable the many utilitarian values of nature - for food, health, science, technology. industry, and recrea tion - to be equitably distributed and sustained for future generations. " The well-being of future generations is a social respon sibility of the present generation. Therefore, the pres ent generation should limit its constunption of non renewable resources to the level that is necessary to meet the basic needs of society. and ensure that renew able resources are nurtured for their sustainable .. . productivity. * All persons must be empowered to exercise respon sibility f'or their own lives and for the lif'e of the earth. Various strains of rice that have heen bred at the International Rice Research Institute in Los Banos, Philippines (World Bank They must theref:ore have f'ull access to educational op- photo by Edwin G. Huffman). portunities. poliical enfranchisement, and sustaining livelihoods. Such perspectives are well worth bearing in mind, but the " Diversity in ethical and cultural outlooks toward nature fact remains that major decisions affecting the status and and human life is to be encouraged by promoting rela- trends of biological resources are based on economic fac tionships that respect and enhance the diversity of life, tors, inluding the establishment of' their value. Even par irrespective of' the political, economic, or religious tial valuation in monetary terms of the benefits of conserv ideology Joininant in a society. ing biological resources can provide at least a lower limit to tile ful range ofbenefits and demonstrate to governments 26 'rHE VALUFS OF IIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY that conservation can yield a profit in terms that arc mean- Assessing the Value of ingful to national accounts. EfIlctive management of Biological Resources biological resources cannot avoid addressing issues of* economic value, even realizing the ethical limitations of these In order for governments to assess the priority they will issues. Food for the stomach coimes before nourishment for give to investments in conservation of biological resources, the spirit, and the rural people who must worry most about they need to htave a firm indication of what contribution these where their next meal is coming from often live in the midst resources make to their national economy. Economists have of the greatest diversity. devised a variety of nethods for assigning values to natural However, economic methods have their limitations, and biological resources (see Barrett, 1988: Brown and Gold should not always be assumed to be highly accurate. As stein, 1984: Cooper, 1981: Fisher. 198 1b: Hufschmidt et World Pank economist Jeremy Warford (1987b) states, "If al., 1983; .ohansson, 1987: Krutilla and Fisher, 1975, economic methods are to be successful, it is crucial that their Pearce, 1976: Peterson and Randall, 1984: and Sinden and limitations be understood and continually kept in mind. In Worrell, 1979 for details). This multiplicity of approaches particular, it should be recognized that value judgments about is to be expected, because the benefits derived from a distributional and irreversible effects are unavoidable, but biological resource may be measured for one purpose by quantification in nonetary terms of*as many variables as methods that ,nay not be appropriate for other objectives, possible is important in crystallizing those issues involving and the ways to measure one resource may not be the same implicit value judgments which may otherwise be ignored." for others. The value of a forest in terms of logs, foar exam- The mainstream economic approach today, as exemplified ple. would be measured in quite a different way from the by USAID (1987). is to compile a utilitarian calculation ex- value of the forest for recreation or for watershed protection. pressed in money values and includiro (in raw or modified Three main approaches have been used for determining form) thL commercial values that are expressed in markets, the value of biological resources: However, it expands the account to include considerations • assessing the value of nature's products - such as that enter human preference structures but are not exchanged firewood, fodder, and game meat - that are consumed in organized markets. This extension and completion of a directly, without passing through a market ("consump utilitarian account, where conservation of biological tive use value"); resources is at issue, is useful because it demonstrates that 0 assessing the value of products that are commercially commercial interests do not always prevail over arguments harvested, such as game meat sold in a market, timber, based on broader economic considerations (Randall, 1988). fish, ivory, and medicinal plants ("productive use value"); Completing such a utilitarian account does not depend on and any prior claim that the utilitarian framework is itself' the e assessing indirect values of ecosystem functions, such as preferred ethical system. Ethical goals may also be served watershed protection, photosynthesis, regulation of by completing a utilitarian account that demonstrates the climate, and production of soil ("non-consumptive use value implications of human preferences that extend beyond value"), along with the intangible values of keeping op commercial goods to include biodiversity. While some peo- tions open for the future and simply knowing that ,ertain pie might argue that a complete discussion of the value of' species exist ("option value" and "existence value," biodiversity should extend beyond utilitarian concerns, "even respectively). these people would. presuinably, prefer a reasonably con- Some biological resources can be easily transformed into plete and balanced utilitarian analysis to the truncated and revenue through harvesting, while others provide flows of distorted utilitarian analysis that emerges from commercial services that do not carry an obvious price tag. Therefore, accounts" (Randall, 1988). in order for governments to base decisions on allocating The ethical commitment contained in the World Charter scarce resources on the best available information, a number for Nature provides a powerful justification for conserving of different methods are required to quantify the magnitude biological diversity, but it is only "soft law" that does not and value of the positive and negative impacts. Governments bind governments. It has therefore seldom been invoked or should be seeking means of determining total valuation, quoted; indeed, it has been honored more in the breach than which requires a wide range of assessment methods. The ma the observance. Nor can the ethical principles in Box 4 be jor approaches are summarized in Box 5, and discussed expected to lead by themselves to major changes in human below (drawn from McNeely, 1988). behavior. Additional justification is required to change the Assessing benefits and costs of protecting biological way governments take decisions, and this will usually re- resources provides a basis for determining the total value quire economic arguments. Biological diversity has funda- of any protected area or other system of biological resources. mental valut s in material, aesthetic, and ethical terms and Since the value of conserving biological resources can be while the general public often recognizes the more intang- considerable, conservation should be seen as a form of ible values, the processes of' development tend to stress economic development. And since biological resources have im,,2rial benefits. economic values, investments in conservation should be 27 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY judged in economic terms, requiring reliable and credible cent of the total primary energy needs in Nepal, Tanzania. means of measuring the benefits of conservation, and Malawi and more than 80 percent in many other coun tries (Pearce, 1987a): this contribution to the economy could Box 5: Classification of be assigned a financial value. In Africa, harvested species make a considerable contribu Values of BiologicalResources. tion to human welfare intileform of food for rural people, Direct Vahes and especially to the poorest villagers living in the most " Consumptive Use Value (non-market value of fire- remote areas. Much of this is consumed directly rather than wood, game. etc.) being sold in the marketplace. but the value is nonetheless * Productive Use Value (commercial value of timber, significant and economic values can be assigned. In fish. et".. Botswana. over 50 species of wild animals provide animal Indirect Values protein exceeding 90 kg per person per .i,:niun in some areas * Non-consumptive Use Value (scientific research, bird- (some 40 percent of their diet): over 3 million kg of meat watching. etc.) is obtained yearly from springhare alone. In Ghana. about * Option Value (value of maintaining options available 75 percent of the population depends largely on traditional for the future) Fources of protein, mainly wildlife, including fish, insects, " Existence Value (value of ethical feelings of existence caterpillars, maggots, and snails. In Nigeria, game constitutes of wildlife) about 20 percent of the mean annual consumption of animal protein by people in rural areas (including 100,000 tons of the giant rats known as "grasscutters," per Myers, 1988b), Direct Values of Biological Resources while 75 percent of the animal protein consumed in Zaire comes from wild sources. Senegal's population of 5 million Direct values are concerned with the enjoyment or satisfac- consumes at least 373,631 metric tons of wild mammals and tion received directly by consumers of biological resources. birds per year (Sale, 1981). They can he relatively easily observed and measured, often by ass:gning prices to them. Consumptive Use Value This is the value placed on nature's products that are con sumed directly, without passing through a market. These values can be considerable: for example, some 84 percent of the Canadian population participates in wildlife-related recreational activities in a given year, providing Canadians - with benefits that they declare to be worth $800 million an nually (Fillon et a., 1985). While relatively few detailed studies have been carried out , on the consumptive use value of species in developing coun tries, the available information has been well summarized by Myers (193b), Oldfield (1984), Krutilla and Fisher Indigenous use of forest resources inSiberut, Indonesia, where (1975), and Fitter (1986). Of particular interest is the study monkeys are hunted for food (photo by R. Tenaza). by Prance et a!. (1987), which presented quantitative data on the use of trees Dy four indigenous Amazonian Indian Consumptive use value can be assigned a price through groups. "Use" was defined rather narrowly, including uses such mechanisms as estimating market value if the product as food, construction material, raw material for other were sold on the market instead of being consumed. In technology, medicinals, and trade goods; uses as firewood Sarawak, Malaysia. for example, a detailed field study found or as food for harvested animals were not included. The that wild pigs harvested by hunters had a market value of percentage of tree species used by the four groups varied some $100 million per year (Caldecott, 1988). from 48.6 to 78.7, indicating that the rain forests of A cautionary note: In many tropical countries, the con Amazonia contain an exceptionally large number of species sumptive use value of wildlife has stimulated over :hat are useful to local people. exploitation (see. for example, Davies, 1987, for details on Consumptive use values seldom appear in national income Sierra Leone). While wildlile has been consumed by humans accounts, but no serious obstacles appear to prevent the in- for hundreds of thousands of years, today's increasing clusion of at least some consumptive use values in such populations and changing social and political structures have measures as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Repetto et at., removed most traditional controls on hunting. If wildlife is 1989). For example, firewood and dung provide over 90 per- to continue to make its important contribution to economies, 28 TlE VAILIiES 0F IOLOGICA. )IVERSITY more effective controls are often required to ensure that Productive Use Value wildlife populations are maintained at productive levels. The means of doing this will vary from place to place, but the his valu e in to p rou t s th erciall foundations must be based On Sound economic andli harvested for exchnge in formal markets, and is therefore principles. ms often tileonly value of biological resources that is reflected In terms oflecononic development, perhaps the most iil- illnational inCOClle accounts. Productive Use of such portant point of* consumptive use is that some rural coin- biological resource products as luelwood, timber, fish. munit ies closest infibers.to the forestsclosestor otherooerntr-natural areasea canla animal skins, musk,resns ivory, rathns medicinal Conrestsio plants. honey,Maeias beeswax. prosper through the sustaiinabie harvesting of wild species, fibers, gums. resins. rattans. construction materials, or and almost all rural communities can gain at least some namentals. animals harvested for game meat, fodder. development benefit through proper management of mushrooms, fruits, dyes. and so forth can have a major ima biological resources that are consumed directly. Relatively pact on national economies. Estimates of'such values are usually made at the production end (landed value, small investments aimed at ensuring that such management value,. farmgate value, etc.) rather than at the retailharvest end. systems continue to prosper canlhelp avoid the much rger where values are mutCh higher because of the costs and value investments often required when biological resources have bnesmens terelgrd thaensgivl bee n s r.s reniroenhale added through transport, processing, and packaging: e ve r e ly d eg rad ed t h a t e xpen s iv e env i ronm enta l a i l .t e e t n a e r d c i n v for ex rehabilitation projects a.re needed. ample. the estimated productin valuel eof o cascara' a c r (aalaxative l x t v rehailiatioar neeed.derived prject fromn tree bark) in tle United States is $1 million Economically efficient and productive sytems exist out- derived fro treain hei e S millions side the market economy, drawing on biological resources per year. but the retail value is $75 million per year (Prescott to support basic human needs. These systems should be well Ald P resole 19it). understood before attempts are made to replace them by Wild biological resources also contribute to te produc modern approaches that may not be as sustainable or pro- til o etic resources inse veralals ductieun.inthe ong wild genetic resources are used to improve established domesticates (a contribution valued as billions of dollars per year): 9 rangeland and wild lorage species contribute to livestock production: * wild species - especially of plants - serve as sources of new domesticates (Plotkin, 1988); a wild pollinators are essential to many crops, and wild ,.,enemies of pests help control their depredations on crops. In this regard, a clear distinction needs to be drawn be tween products that are continuously taken fron nature, such as ivory or medicinal plants, and ones that are harvested once or infrequently to provide a small "founder stock" that is " I then propagated or used as agenetic blueprint. With plants, tile latter is often much the most important, as virtually any plant can be propagated and cultivated. The value of these -. plants as genetic resources may be compared to an intellec tual property right (Williams, 1984; de Klemm, 1985). Prescott-Allen (1986) concluded that the productive use value of wild genetic resources demonstrates that genetic resources are indispensable to modern agriculture, that most of them come from 'i country other than where they are util ized, that the turnover of domest.c genetic resources is rapid, and that use of new genetic resources is increasing (therefore requiring the lines of supply from other countries to be kept open and a great diversity of genetic resources to be main _. -. tained). The wild relatives of domestic plants will be an ~century essential(Hoyt, component 1988). ofIUCN, ensuring WWF, food and security IBPGR forhave the called next for a "search and rescue operation" to locate and conserve wild crop relatives, both in situ and ex situ, to complement the existing and equally vital work on conserving the Wood-gathering in lurkina Faso (World Bank photo by '. cultivated diversity, mainly the land-races, of the major Hadar). agricultural crops. 29 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 14- 400- 2000 PROTEIN YIELD S TOTAL YIELD MONETARY YIELD 4 300- 1500 3 .200 .. 1000 0)0 2o 100 500 0 7 0o7 °0 CO HATUAL YIELD YIELD POTENTIAL - RESEARCH Fig. 2. Pasture production in comparisoq to other land uses in Pard State, Brazil (Source: Chris Uhl, unpublished data, 1989). Exchanges of genetic material among developing countries biological resources can be estimated, carried out adetailed are particularly important in view of the economic impor- analysis of the contribution wild species of plants and animals tance of such perennial crops as rubber, oil palm, and cocoa, made to the American economy, concluding that some 4.5 and annuals such as cassava and sugarcane. Such crops are percent of GDP is attributable to wild species. The combined often far more productive outside their native habitats, but contribution to GDP of wild harvested resources averaged they are also subject to attacks from various pests and diseases some $87 billion per year over the period 1976 to 1980. that can be counterattacked by fresh infusions of genetic The percentage contribution of wild species and ecosystems material (Frankel and Bennett, 1970; Frankel and Hawkes, to the economies of developing countries is usually far greater 1974; Plucknett et al., 1987). than it is for an industrialized country like the USA, especial Productive use value can be derived directly from the ly if consumptive use value is included. Timber from wild market demand curve for the resources consu *-d, which forests, for example, is the second leading foreign exchange measures consumers' willingness to pay for various quan- earner for Indonesia (after petroleum), and throughout the tities of the resource. Where close substitutes are available, humid tropics governments have based their economies on the demand curve will be fairly flat and the productive use the harvest of wild trees; total exports of wood prcducts from value can be approximated by market price. Where close Asia, Africa, and South America averaged $8.1 billion per substitutes are not available, a "consumers' surplus" exists year between 1981 and 1983 (WRI/IIED, 1986). over and above the market price. In this case, use of price Non-wood forest products can also be of considerable data may severely underestimate productive use value, value. Indonesia, for example, earned some $200 million in Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen (1986), in a ground- foreign exchange from non-wood forest products in 1982 breaking study that demonstrated how the dollar value of (Gillis, 1986), while non-wood forest products in a recent 30 THE VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY year provided 40 percent of the total net revenues accruing value can be an important indicator of value. However, as to the Indian government from the forestry sector, and 63 will be demonstrated by the discussion of indirect values percent of the forestry exports (Gupta and Guleria, 1982). below, the market 1rice is not always an accurate represen In comparing wood and non-wood forest resources, Myers tation of the true economic value of the resource, and does (1988b) concludes that a tropical forest tract ol"50,000 hec- not deal effectively with questions of distribution and equity. tares could, with effective management, "produce a self- It is also apparent that consumers may value resources in renewing crop of wildlife with a potential value of at least ways different from producers; tropical forests are valued $10 million per year, or slightly more than $200 per hec- by consumers of scenic beauty differently than by consumers tare. These revenues contrast with the return from commer- of lumber products, but no market is available to mediate cial logging in the area of only a little over $150 per hec- these claims. tare. Moveover, with present timber-harvesting practices, commercial logging tends to be an ecologically disruptive Indirect Values of Biological Resources procedure, whereas wildlife harvesting can leave forest Indirect values, which deal primarily with the functions ecosystems virtually undisturbed." of ecosystems ("environmental services"), do not normal Similar results came from a study that attempted to assess ly appear in national accounting systems, but they may far market values from all economic trees in a one-hectare tract outweigh direct values when they are computed. They tend of species-rich forest in Peruvian Amazonia (Peters et al., to reflect the value of biological diversity to society locally 1989). The hectare of forest, located on the Rio Nanay about 30 ko frmIqito,te ciycotaied 75 pecis o tres, or at large rather than to individuals or corporate 30 km from the cit y of l Iqu i to s , c on tai ne d 2 75 spec ie s o entities. f tr e es,D i e t v l s of n d r v e r mi d r ct a u s b c u e with a total count of 842 trees greater than 10 cm in diameter. Direct values often derive from indirect values because Over 41 percent of the trees yielded fruit, timber, or latex harvested species of plants and animals are supported by the with a local market value. Fruit and latex yield about $700 goods and services provided by their environments. Species per year ($422 net of labor and transport), but given that without consumptive or productive use value, may play ir both these resources are renewable and can be harvested portant roles in the ecosystem, supporting species that are annually, the present net value of fruit and latex is estimated valued for their productive or consumptive use. In Sabah, at $8,400. The merchantable timber in the tract amounts to for example, recent studies suggest that high densities of wild about 94 cubic meters, but the maximum sustainable harvest birds in commercial Albizia (silk tree) plantations limit the would amount to about 30 cubic mecters every 20 years, abundance of caterpillars that would otherwise defoliate the yielding a present net value of $490 for timber. Fruit and trees; the birds require natural forest for nesting (Fitter, latex therefore represent over 90 percent of the total market 1986). value of the forest; sustainable yields of wildlife and As another example, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries medicinal plants would add considerably to the non-timber Service estimates that the destruction of U.S. coastal estuaries yield of the forest, between 1954 and 1978 cost the nation over $200 million In comparison to other uses of Amazonian forest, a one- annually in revenues lost from commercial and sport hectare tract in Brazil harvested for pulpwood was similarly fisheries. The commercial fisheries provide productive use valued at $3,184, and valued even less as a cattle pasture value and the sport fisheries provide consumptive use value, at $2,960. These values are considerably lower than the one to which the estuaries contribute without being consumed. calculated for the sustainable harvest of fruit and latex, and also assume - contrary to the knowledge of most tropical Non-consumptive Use Value systems - that such uses are sustainable. Environmental resources -- generally speaking, nature's The returns from wildlife usually will bc far less in drier services rather than her goods - often provide value without habitats, though often exceeding alternative uses. In Zim- being consumed, traded in the marketplace, or reflected in babwe's Zambezi Valley, for example, Cumming (1985) national income accounts. Still, efforts are being developed estimates that potential gross returns from wildlife utiliza- to evaluate economically the benefits provided by these tion amount to $12 per hectare. "These returns," he states, resources (Oldfield, 1984, Peterson and Randall, 1984; "are as good ifnol better than returns from the best-run coin- Sinden and Worrell, 1979; de Groot, 1986). It is apparent mercial beef ranches in the country and the profit margins that the benefits of"environmental services are much easier are probably higher." to measure at the local level than at the global level. Quanti While sport hunting by foreigners certainly has some prob- fying the hydrological benefits of a watershed, for example, lems of image, tending to appear imperialistic to some local is relatively straightforward, while measuring the value of people who are themselves prohibited from hunting, these the global carbon cycle would be a daunting exercise and problems can be overcome when local people are also able would in any case be of little practical value. Box 6 and the to benefit through consumptive uses of-surplus" meat that following paragraphs summarize some of the indirect non can be harvested on a sustainable-yield basis. consumptive values of biological resources, particularly of In conclusion, market prices represented by productive use ecological services provided by nature. 31 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVERSITY Box 6: Non-Consu ptio Benefio f ahigh quality. well-regu -d water flow throughout the year, x 6 NetsJ producing over 40 percent of the water supply to Tegucigalpa Conserving Environnyental (the capital city). Some 25 small collection facilities scat Resources. tered throughout the park require only limited maintenance because the water is so pure and free of sediments. Because The benefits accruing to society in return for in- of its value for watershed protection. La Tigra is the focus vestments in censerving environmental resources will vary ot'a major investment program invol,'ing aseries of'economic considerably' fron area to area and from resource to incentives for villagers living in the surrounding regions. resource. Most such benelits will l";l1 into one or another Another estimate placed the economic value of a hectare of the following categories: of Atlantic Sparlina miarsh at over $72,000 a year. Accord • Photosynthetic fixation of solar energy, transferring this ing to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, retaining a wet energy through green plants into natural food chains, lands complex outside of Boston, Massachusetts realized an and thereby providing the support system for species annual cost savings of $17 million in flood protection alone that are harvested: (afigure that did not include the many other benefits - such * Ecosystem functions involving reprduction, including as sediment reduction. fish and wildlife production, and pollination. gene flow. cross-fertilization: ,maintenance aesthetic values -- that the wetlands aflorded area residents) of environmental forces and species that influence the (Hair, 1988). acquisition of usef'ul genetic traits in economic spec.ies: In many cases, the total costs of establishing and manag and nilaintenancC of evolutionary processes, leading to ing reserves that protect catchnent areas can be met and constgesnpdnrcelic tensionl annob competitors in eco ssteas justified as part of the hydrological investment. In Thailand, Hufschmidt and Srivardhana (1986) have shown that anl an * Maintaining water cycles, including recharging ground- nual expenditure for watershed protection related to the Nam water, protecting watersheds, and buffering extreme Pong Reservoir of about $1.5 million per year Would be water conditions (such as flood and drought): * Regulation of climate, at both macro- and micro- justified in terms of' benefits to the reservoir. And in In climiatic levels inclucng influences oil temperature, donesia, the Dumoga-Bone National Park was established pciatiol s (nudgilu ences oby a loan of'$1.2 million from the World Bank, justified on precipitation, and air turbulence): the basis of the protection the park provided to a major ir "Soil production and protection of soil froni erosion, in cluding protecting coastlines from erosion by the sea; riga ti goin the lolndselo. * Storage and cycling of essential nutrients, e.g.. carbon, Protecting soils. Good soil protection by natural vegeta Storagen and oxygen, and maintenance of the oxygen- tion cover and litter can preserve the productive capacity of' nitrogen, doxge ah m a land, prevent dangerous landslides, safeguard coastlines and Absorption and breakdown of pollutants. including the riverbanks, an I prevent the destruction of coral reefs and decbsompotion ofdraon watepstiis, ndir freshvater and coastal fisheries by siltation. In Malaysia, and water pollutants: and the suspended sediment load following logging increased 70 to Pnd teroo eanti s tc s a s97 percent in comparison with a non-logged area (Kasran, tific. educational, spiritual, and historical values of 1988). Thus, management of watershed as a natural environments, protected area can greatly reduce sediment loads (and can therefore con tribute significantly to the longevity of reservoirs and irriga Stabilizing hydrologicalfitnctions. Natural vegetation cover tion systems downstream). A startling example of' soil con on water catchments regulates and stabilizes water runoff. servation is provided by Nepal's Royal Chitwan National Deep penetration by tree roots or other vegetation makes the Park. where villagers have cleared and grazed the north bank soil more permeable to rainwater so that runoff is slower of the Rapti River (which forms the park boundary) so in and more uniform than on cleared land. As a consequence, tensively that it has be"i subject to rapid erosion. On the streams in forested regions continue to flow in dry weather south bank, within .ie park, the protected vegetation binds and floods are minimized in rainy weather. Daniel and Kulas- the soil so that whmen nionsoon rains swell the Rapti it is the ingham (1974) showed that the peak runoff per unit area of north bank that is washed away. As a result, the course of forested catchiments in Malaysia is about half that of rubber the river has shifted and in less than a decade roughly one and oil palm plantations, while the low flows are roughly hundred hectares has been taken f'rom villagers and added double. Watershed protection has helped juistify many to the park by natural forces (Roberts and Johnson, 1985). valuable reserves that otherwise might not have been MgwFlitaining the naturalbalance n'the environnent. The established, so irrigation and energy agencies can make existence of' a protected area may help maintain a more powerful potential allies for protected areas that safeguard natural balance of the ecosystem over a much wider area. watersheds (McNeely, 1987). Natural habitats af'ford sanctuary to breeding populations of In Honduras, for example, La Tigra National Park, a birds that control insect and mammal pests in agricultural 7,500-ha area consisting mainly of' cloud forest, produces areas. Bats, birds, and bees that nest, roost, and breed in 32 THE VALUES OF JIIOGICAL DIVERSITY reserves may range far outside their boundaries and pollinate Species can also have non-consumptive use value, as in fruit trees in the surrounding areas. Ledec and Goodland bird watch.-ig and some scientific research (especially (1986) have shown how the production of Brazil nuts depends ecological field studies). And people derive indirect non on a variety of poorly known forest plants and animals. Male consumptive use value from species th,'ougl media such as euglos,,;ine bees that pollinate the flowers of the Brazil nut film, video, and literature. tree gather certain organic compounds from epiphytic or chids to attract females for mating. The hard shell covering Option Value the 'mit is opened naturally only by the forest-dwelling agouti (a large rodent). thereby enabling the tree to disperse seeds. The future is uncertain, and extinction is forever. Prescott- Thus maintaining Brazil nut production lippears to require Allen and Prescott-Allen (1986) suggest that society "should conserving enough natural forest to protect bee nesting prepare for unpredictable events, both biological and socio habitat, other bee food plants, certain orchids and the trees economic. The best preparation in the context of wildlife use upon which they grow, the insects or hummingbirds that is to have a safety net of diversity - maintaining as many poliinate the orchids (and all their necessities in turn), and gene pools as possible, particularly within those wild species agoutis. that are economically significant or are likely to be.'" Op Another good example comes from Tanzar ia, where the tion value is a means of assigning a value to risk aversion poaching and Uncontrolled hunting of elephants and rhiros in the face of uncertainty. to the south-east of Tarangire National Park led to bush en- Natural habitats preserve a reservoir of continually evolv croachment because the main browsers no longer had a ma- ing genetic material - irrespective of whether the vajues of jor influence on the vegetation. This in turn caused an in- that material have yet been recognized - that enables the crease in tsetse flies, which reduced the population of various species to adapt to changing conditions. The plants domestic livestock in the area. Far from being just an ethical and animals conserved may spread into surrounding areas action, the conservation of elephants and rhinos would have where they may be able to be cropped at some future date, enhanced the productivity of the livestock industry (Peter- or may eventualy contribute genetic material to domestic son, 1976). crops or livetock. Protecting natural habitats can therefore ...... Ivy Protected areas are not only haveins for iald species, but also maintain ecological balances. The resulting change in water flow froml a hillside that has been11delorestcd could ruin a lowland irrigation systemn (World Bank photo by E.G. Hoffnman). 33 ,. \r,; The M ri'a ll ephant acts as a w,i stonew slpecies it%iiii its halitit Its hW( ill SInJig ill eget ati'mli il ies tile habital a11d Createi sci'di tinis l bliheCor othlier species (phoito %hN. Nh.%ers) he Seen as a eans for nations. especially illose il tihe species- in deternilil "gexisivncevalule." which reflects hlie sylin riclh tropics. it keep at least part o ltheir hiolouical res ources path . responsibilit . anld conce rn that some people ma' feel intact J*0rlthe fllture helnefitl of, their populace. toward species and ecosystems. Aln ac'cUrLate cost-belnefit As a result, society s a whole nla' he w\illing to pay to anilly.,sis (1f such values is clearl' i lmpoSSihle. hil the retain the option ol ha\ving futlure access to a ci\,ll species aIllitude of tlh.Ce values is Sc t(cd h' tihe sithele volin or le'cl o1 diversity. A . fhe demand f'Or biolooical resources lar contributions to private conservation awencies in the in grows while the sihuppl)' continJues to dwilldIC (i'curi-elh trends dist rial world by peo)ple who do not expect to visit or itse c(nitlinue), their vaueie is likely to inclease. Therif'Ore, sOllic tile reMulrtC they ari-c helpi int to clnse rye. (WW F ahlone ecoionliSt ugCSt ,11hat coTiventional cost-hCifit relation- receives nearly SI(S(1 nmillion pcr y'e11' in such dollnalions Oln Ships need toincorporate nllechalisills to deal with the proh- a worldw\ide hasis.) ildit\ of"hieher l'ulLi'e values and the irretrievability lIost opportunities to preserve natLiral environments and geletic COnclUsions material. Wild species and the genetic variation within then make Exi.d ('c VlU/ contrihtlliOls to aWricullur. medicine, and illistLr.y worth Illanv billions o f dollars per ear. Perhaps even more ini- Man peoplc. especially in the industrial nations, also al- portanit arc the essential lifl processes that are cairricd out tach vailuc to the existence fola1spcies or habitat tlit that nallrC. inclhdine stahilizatiloll of climlalte. protection of have no intention olfever visitigl oI using: they might hope Watersheds. prOtctClion o' soil, protcCtion o1 nui ,cries and that their descelLdant Ior futlUre eeiirl'IiltIOinS iti generll) mV breline el-OUndts. alld so oil. Conserving these processes derivc some benefl'it troin the existence of' these species. or cannot he divorced froill colnserviuc the illi\'idial species may iust find satisflaction ill ktimoing tha tilet occals hold that constitute natural ecosystels'. whales. tie Himilayms have snow leopard". and tihe Screellti The dcvelpilng coilllics" ar icia:tiicularl \ vlhne.rahle to has antelope. The clhical dimension is thetef'o-e Hiiportatit aISCS of' bioloiCial reSOtICCs hus)C e the\' tend to he 314 THE VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY agrarian societies with the bulk of their populations living terest into financial support are presented in Chapter VIII). on the land rather than in cities. Biolo,:ical resources make Wealthy individuals or nations may be more concerned about a far greater contribution to these Ioul economies (at least option value than nations that are carrying a heavy debt in percentage terms) than they do to the r,ational and inter- burden and that may be forced into unsustainable produc national industrial economies. Species that are important to tive uses. human wellare in both industrial and developing countrie., But whatever methodology is used, valuation is only a fun are not limited to wild plants that are relatives of agricultural damental first step. It informs planners, resource managers, crops, or to animals or plants that are harvested for food, and local people about how important biological diversity fuel, or medicine. They also include species such as earth- may be to national development objectives, it demonstrates worms, bees, and termites that may make even more im- how important an area is for the biological resources it con portant contributions to society in terms of the role they play tains, it reveals common interests in conservation among in maintaining healthy and proiuctive ecosystems. various sectors, and it facilitates comparison of costs and Biological resources have multiple values in all societies, benefits of different development proposals. but different approaches to valuation are relevant at different The second step is to determine how these species and areas levels. At the local level, consumptive use value is often the can be conserved. It is here that ezonomnic incentives and most relevant, while national governments tend to be most disincentives can play their important role in ensuring that interested in productive use value, often in terms of the the benefits suggested above are in fact delivered to the com foreign exchange earned. Although many products from munity, and that the community in turn is enabled to protect biological resources are traded internationally, the world the resources upon which its continued prosperity depends community is also likely to be interested in existence value (McNeely, 1988). and non-consumptive use value (ways of converting this in- Following page: Forest destruction in Brazilian Amazonia (photo by R.O. Bierregaard). '.v. ' ...... K. Erosion in Ethiopia (photo by lIED), 35 4w CHAPTER III HOW AND WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARE THREATENED Today's threats to species and ecosystems are the greatest in recorded history. Virtually all of them are caused by human mismanagement of biological resources, often stimulated by misguided economic policies and faulty institutions that enable the exploiters to avoid paying the full costs of their exploitation. In seeking ways to conserve biological resources, it is This chapter attempts to define the problems of conserv necessary to have a clear understanding of the mniJor threats ing biological diversity in a more comprehensive way that to biological resources on the ground and in the water. Solu- will lead to more effective solutions being developed. tions depend above all on how the problem is defined, and it appears that the problems fiwing the conservation of biological divrstitv have tended to be dhfiW(l in was that dIo not lead )toacceptable Solutions. When the problems are defined in terms of insufficient pro tected areas, excess poaching, poor law cniOrcenent, land encroachment, and illegal trade, possible responses include cstablishing more protected areas, improving standards of managing species and protected areas, and enacting inter national legislation controlling trade in endangered species. All of these measures are necessary. But they respond to only part of the problem. Biological diversity will be conserved only partially by protected areas, wildlife management, and international conservation legislation. Fundamental problems lie beyond protected areas in sectors such as agriculture, min ing, pollution, settlement patterns, capital flows, and other factors relating to the larger international economy. Two scenes of the advance of human settlement on wild lands: The IPantanal region of Brazil, where a dike project to produce year round agricultural land has created significant changes in the seasonally flooded ecosystem, and the Impenetrable Forest in Uganda, where agricultural activity extends right up to the park boundary (phlots by R.A. Mittermeier). 37 CONSERVING THE WORLI)'S BIOLOGICAL. DIVERSITY harming willif'e through the accumulation of persistent pesticides, and the release of' many compounds of heavy metals and other toxic substances from industrial sources. with an impact on the Iitfe of' land, fresh waters. and in shore seas. *.Climatic change, often related to changing regional v'egeta tion patterns, this problem involves such factors as global ,n- .- carbon dioxide build-up, regional effects such as El Nifio (Graham and White, 1988) and monsoon systems, and local ef'fects, often involving fire management. Climate change, which appears to be taking place at the fastest rate in history, could have drastic effects on boreal fbrests, cor al reefs, mangroves, and wetlands, as well as change the boundaries of the world's biomes. Introduced species, which on many oceanic islands have virtually replaced the native species of' plants (Fosberg. 1988). Even reasonably well protected islands such as the Galapagos have as many introduced species of plants as native ones (Adsersen, 1989). Continental areas are also affected, and the problem of introduced species of plants has been identified as the most serious threat facing the U.S. national park system. Animals are not immune to Dead trees on Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina, 1988. Acid rain such threats; for example, in some of the African Rift is helieved to have contributed to the decline of' Appalachian Valley lakes. which have remarkably high levels of forests in the United States (photo by Jim MacKenzie, WRI). endemis, introduced species of fish have threatened most native species with extinction (Miller, 1989). Mongooses, Both problems and solutions are built on economic founda- snakes, and other introduced animals can rather quickly tions. Major threats to biodiversity include: lead to the extinction of the native fauna, while introduc * Habitat alteration, usually from highly diverse natural ed herbivores such as goats and even reindeer can ex ecosystems to far less diverse (often monoculture) tinguish the native lora (Savidg, 1987; Pi)., 1987: agroecosystems. This isclearly the most important threat, Mooney, 19S5). often related to land-use changes on a regioial scale that -- , involve great reduction in the area of natural vegetation. ,.-'. Such reductions in area - often involving fragmentation of species habitats - inevitably mean reductions in popula- , , tions of species, with a resulting loss in genetic diversity . and an increase in vulnerability of species and populations to disease, hunting, and random population changes (Sould and Wilcox, 1980). 4 " Over-harvesting, the taking of*individuals at a higher rate than can '" sustained by the natural reproductive capac ity of the population being harvested. When species are -.. protected by law, harvesting is called "poaching."' " Chemical pollution, which has been implicated in the dy .. . ing forests of Europe, deformities in birds (Anderson, 1987), and premature births in seals (DeLong ei al., 1973), has becomec a major threat in virtually all parts of the. A herd of goats introduced on Santa Catalina Island, Califor nia, roam the denuded landscape they helped create (photo by world. Chemical pollution is complex and all-pervasive. B.Cohlentz). It is expressed in such different forms as: atmospheric pollution with sulphur and nitrogen oxides and with oxi- Increase in population, accompanying the industrial dants. directly damaging vegetation and harming fresh revolution, global trade, harnessing of' fossil fuels, and waters through the deposition of' "acid rain"; excessive more effective public health measures. Our species reached use of agricultural chemicals, contaminating watercourses a population of I billion at the beginning of the 19th cen and causing ecological imbalance in wetlands and shallow tury, reached 2 billion in the 1920s, and totals over 5 seas through the runoff' of nitrate and phosphate and billion today. Optimists predict that a combination of' 38 HOW AN) WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARE THREATENEi development, education, the provision of reproductive Ultimately, the solution isto redress this imbalance through health services, and intelligent self-control will cause the ensuring that exlloiters pay the/MIl costs oftheir ieqvloita population to level off at around 8 to 10 billion in the lat- uion, and that conser'ers ea1rn1tor'e oj'the benefits of their ter part of the next century. A dispassionate external actions. This requires a more comprehensive perspective on observer must question whether such a population is sus- conservation and development, and a more integrated ap tainable, given the degradation in the resource base that proach to decision-making. has accompanied the recent increase. The danger that the raw forces of nature - drought, flood, famine, strife, and The Dimensions of the Problem disease - will dominate in at least some regions will cer- While the various threats to biodiversity tend to be tainly continue to place very heavy dt.mands on biological cumulative in their effects, it is informative to look more diversity. It is apparent that the longer it takes limit their fertility, the more certain it is that miserypeople will to closely at the nnifest'ations of these rhr~ats on species and prevail (Holdgate, 1989). habitats (realizing how closely intertwined species are with their habitats). It is important to bear in mind that from The above list of major threats is primarily a list of the tropical habitats - the most species-rich formations on earth symptoms rather than a description of the fundamental prob- - only 10 percent of the total number of species has even lems that lead to these threats. While the specifics of the prob- been described; without understanding the parts of the lems will vary from place to place, the main source of all these symptoms can be found in the distribution of costs and system, it is difficult to understand the systems themselves. bhenefiyptsomsboh eondi thedistributionto benefits of both exploitation and conservation. Thoseose whowo Our ignorance of tropical organisms and ecosystems is vast. have reaped the benefits from exploitation have not paid the Species full costs, and those who have paid most of the costs of con servation (especially opportunity costs) have gained few of Extinction has been a fact of life since life first emerged the benefits. from the primordial ooze (Figure 3). The present few million Geological Time (106 years) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 I I I i I 800- 1.Late Ordovician (-12%) 2. Late Devonian (- 14%) 3. Late Permian (-52%) 4. Late Triassic (- 12%) 600 5. Late Cretaceous (-11%) E LL U 0 400 .0 E Z 200 01 .0, 00 -N e 0 c Fig. 3. The five major extinction episodes of life on earth as exemplified by the changes through geological time in family diversity of marine vertebrates and invertebrates (Source: E. Wilson, 1988b). 39 CONSERVING THE WORL)'S BI()LOGICAL DIVERSITY species are the modern-day survivors of the estimated several I species becoming extinct every 27 years over the past 400 billion species that have ever existed. All past extinctions million years. with tile rate increasing in more recent times have occurrcd by natural processes, but today humans are as the number of species of higher plants has increased. overwhelmingly tile main cause of extinctions. Within the last few hundred years. major waves of human- The average duration of a vertebrate species is some 5 caused extinctions haVC \vashed over oceanic islands, in large million years. The best current estimates are that on average part dUe to the dL stlCti n of Ito\lland IOrests and to the ili 900,000 ver'ebrate species have become extinct every I trodtuction of'predators. mammalian herbivores, diseases, and million years during the last 2(X) million \,ears, so the average aggressive, weedy plants. Aboul 75 percent of the mannals "background rate" of extinction has been very roughly 90 and birds that have become extinct in recent history were species of vertebrates each century (Raup, 19X6). Myers island-dwelling species (Frankel and SouLk. 1981 , and even 1988c) quotes a crude estimate Ior higher plants of about more island extinctions are likely. Over 10 percent of the ...... ~ ~..-. .i: .... .i ...... + 4140 High rises and favelas (shanty towns) encroach (in remaining habitat in Rio de janeiro, Brazil (photo by P'. Ahniasy). 40 HOW AND WHY I()I.()GICAIL RI-S()IRCIS ARE' "'TIRITAIINEI) world's species of birds are confined to individual islands. Sinilarly, the island floras tend to be fair more endangered BoX 7: IUCN Categories of Threat. than the continental ones, and (inseveral islands (Ascension. Extinct (lEx): Species not definhiely' located in the wild Lord Howe, Norfolk, Rodrigues, and St. Helena) more than during the past 50 \'cars (criterion as uscd by CITES). 90 percent of the endemic vascular plant species are rare. Eniangered (E): Taxa (species and sub-species) in threatened, or extinct (Table I). danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue operating. Included are taxi whose -- ______nunibers have been reduced to a critical level or whose Table 1: Status of Endemic Vascul fr PlantTaxa habitats have been so drastically reduced thai they are on Selected Oceanic Islands. decned to be in iniediatl danger of extinction. Also in- Cluded are taxa that are possibly already extinct but have Rare, definitely been seen in tilewild inthe past 50 years. Not iisuf'ficiently 'I'hreatened Vutnerable (V): Taxa believed likely to move into the Island Ttlhireattntd Known or Fxtinct "Endangered" category in the near future if tie causal Ascens ion Island I I .. 0 ...... I. 10 91 1(,) factors continue operating. Included are taxa of which Azores...... 56 ... 14 ...... 10. 32 (57' ;) most or all tilepopulations are decreasing because of over Canary i antls ...612 ...169 ...... 407 (67,; exploitation, extensive destruClion of'habitat, or other en Galhi gis ...... 222 ... 89...... 130 (595 ! viron meintal distu rbnice: ta xa with populations that have JuanI Fernandez . 119 ... 6 ...... 17 .....95 (81/ been seriousl depleted and hOs tiltinate security has Lord Ho\%e Island 78 ... 2 ...... I .....75 !96, Mdeira...... 129 ... 23...... 19..87 (07/ not yet been assured; and taxa with poptlations that are Maurititis ...... 280 ... 31 ...... 18 ..... 194 (69'/ still abundant but are under threat from severe adverse Norf'olk Island ... 48 ... I...... 2 .....45 (94(, factors throughout their range. Rodrigucs ...... 55 ...... 2 .....50 (91 ?,) Rare (R): Taxat with small world populations that are St Hecni ...... 49 . 0 ...... 2 . ... 47 (961)w not at present 'Endangered'" or ''Vulnerable" but are Seychelles* .. .. 90 . .. 0...... 72 (81 )' at risk. N.B. in practice, "Endangered" and Socona ...... 215 . 81...... 132 (61 17) "Vulnerable" categories may include, temporarily, taxa * Refers to granitic islands only,. whose populations are beginning to recover as a result Source: Davis etal.. 1986. of remedial action. but whose recovery is insufficient to justifly their transfer to another category. These taxa are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or The rapid destruction of the world's most diverse habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive ecosysteiis, especially in the tropics, has led most experts range. to conclude that perhaps a quarter of the earth's total Indeterminate (I): Taxio known to be "Endangered," biological diversity is at serious risk of extinction (luring the *'Vulnerable." or "Rare'' but where there is not enough next 20-30 years (Raven, 1988). By many indications, the infilorniation to say which of the three categories is world is already oxperiencing extinction rates of greater scale appropriate. and impact than at anry previous time inthe earth's history (Wilson, 1988a). More species than ever before are threat ened with extinction, with thousands - mostly insects Such knowledge is available for relatively few taxa. Whit disappearing each year, many before they are ever described. ten ei al. (1987), for example, discovered in the course of A recent comprehensive reviev of the world's avifauna con- their work incompiling information on the natural history elided that ol the glohe's 9,000 birds, over 1,000 (I I per- of Sulawesi (Indonesia) that the Caerulean paradise-flycatcher cent) were at some risk ol extinction, Up from just 290 bird (Eutrichonmvias rowhe'vi) had not been seen inseveral decades, species threatened in 1978 (inincrease at least partially due nor were recent records to be found for many of the endemic to nmore complete infornation becoming available in the past species of the fish family Adrianichtyidae: at least seven other several years)(Collar and Andrew, 1988). species of endemic Sulawesi birds had apparently not been The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is observed in over a decade, but had not fotind their way into the major repository of data on threatened species (see Red Data Books. Further, the Red Data Books cannot be ex Chapter Vi). Using the Red Data Boojk categories established pected to deal with tropical forest invertebrates, of which by IUCN (Box 7). it has recorded tihe degree of threat to millions of' species are undescribed but are certainly tinder sonie 60,(XX) plants and 2,(X) aniimals. These categories have threat as their habitats are cleared otit from under thieni. Dia received some criticism (Fitter and Fitter, 1987), particularly nond (1987) has pointed out that even the lists that do exist oti the grounds that they can only be used where fill data include primarily species known to be threatened and sug are available on the decline of a species, and ol the threats gests instead that species must be presumed extinct or en to its survival throughout its entire range. dangered unless shown to be extant and secure. Such a 41 CONSIiRVING THE WORI.IYS BIOLOGICAL. DIVERSITY "Green List" might be much shorter than Red Data Book distributed rarities of type D.which occur illsmall popula lists. tions over a wide geographic range in a variety of habitats. To cope with tropical plants, the IUCN Plant Information are likely to become endangered only in the face of Plan (TPU,1988) proposed the listing of extinction-prone widespread habitat destruction and therefore deserve relative species, defined as species confined to endangered vegeta- ly low priority lor management attention. Rabinowitz eIat. tion types, as well itsof threatened species falling into Red (1986) conclude that "the preponderant attention which con Data Book categories. It also proposed the identification of servationists pay to endemic species is well justified." as plant-rich sites for conservation, as a further way of identi- these narrowly distributed species are easily threatened by fying threatened plant diversity (see Chapter VI). The in- habitat destruction or over-exploitation. They found that con formation in Red Data Books and threatened species lists serving habitats remains the most effective way to conserve should, therefore, be taken as only indicating part of the prob- species, and that conservationists concerned with rare species lem. The full picture is far worse, need to consider geographic range. habitat specificity, and Recen. work has indicated that the concept of rarity is far local abundance in their assessments. more complex than is represented in the Red Data Books. The very real limitations in the level of' current understand Rabinowitz etal. (1986) suggest no less than seven forms ing about the concept of rarity and its causes can be increas of rarity for plants, based on three factors: ingly overcome by advances in knowledge and field tech * Geographic range: Does a species occur over abroad area niques. In the meantime, the concept of threatened species or is it endemic to a particular small area? has been avery effective instrument in promoting conserva * Habitat specificity: Does a species occur in a variety of tion of biological diversity. Keeping the limitations in mind. habitats or is it restricted to one or a few specialized sites'? Table 2 presents the current state of knowledge of threat " Local population size: Is a species foMd in large popula- ened species. tions somewhere within its range or does it have small populations wherever it is found? Table 2: CurrentStatus of ThreatenedSpecies. While these factors are really continuous variables. Rabinowitz et al. (1986) for convenience constructed the Total Globally dichotomous table in Box 8. In this model, the only set that Ex E V R I Threatened Taxa can be considered common in the ordinary sense are those Plants ...... 384 3325 3022 6749 5598 .....19078 with wide ranges. many habitats, and large population sizes: Fish ...... 23 81 135 83 21 .....343 all others are rare. Species with narrow distribution, Amphibians . . 2 9 9 20 10 ..... 50 specialized habitat. and small numbers (type G in Box 8) are Reptiles .....21 37 39 41 32 ..... 170 the ones that are "rare" in the public mind, but species shar- Invertebrates . 98 221 234 188 614 .....1355 ing six other combinations of attributes should also be con- Birds ...... 113 Ill 67 122 624 .....1037 sidered rare and deserving of' special management attention. Mammals ....83 172 141 37 64 .....497 Key: Ex Extinct (post-1600). E = Endangered, V = Vulnerable. R = Rare, I = Indeterminate. Box 8: Forms of Rarity. Source:. Reid and Miller. 1989 WCMC. unpublished data, Jan. Geographic distribution: Wide Narrow 1989. flahitat specificity: Broad Restricted Broad Restricted Local population size: Even many animal species not in immediate danger of ex Somewhere large COMMON RARE (A) RARE (B) RARE (C) tinction are suffering from declining populations and declin ing genetic variability. While some wild species - sparrows, Everywhere small RARE (D RARE E RARE(F) !RARE (G) starlings, opossums, rats. raccoons, coyotes, white-tailed Source: Rabinowitz etal..1986. deer, and other opportunists - are expanding their ranges and populations, far more are suffering catastrophic popula tion crashes. Low populations make species far more The different forms of rarity have considerable practical vulnerable to disease, climate change, habitat alteration, in relevance for conservation biology, helping to determine the breeding, and many other factors that can threaten their sur management strategy employed and the priority allocated to vival. Declining populations also have important implications certain species. For example, management of "endemic for development, as reduced populations have less potential rarities" of type C in Box 8 might focus on protecting the for utilization. Where heavy hunting pressures, for exam specific habitat where the species occurs, that of' endemic ple, have reduced populations of game aninals to levels far rarities of type G might call tor attempting to reintroduce below the carrying capacity of the habitat, the economic the species to appropriate habitats elsewhere, and the strategy benefits of harvesting are much less than they would be with for "patchily distributed rarities" of type E might focus on harvesting at a sustainable yield level that maintains the legal restrictions on trade and direct consumption. Patchily harvested population at the carrying capacity of the habitat. 42 HOW AND WHY BIO[)GICAI. RESOURCES ARE THREATENED ILI, Yr The Madagascar flat-shelled spider tortoise (Acinixysplanicauda)is a very rare endemic species found only in a highly restricted area in the dry forest region of southwestern Madagascar (photo by R.A. Mittermeier). The planet is also being impoverished by the loss of races 1987). Some have called for greater attention to be given and varieties within domesticated species. The variety of to a more broad-based ecosystem approach aimed at prevent genetic riches inherent in one single species can be seen in ing species from becoming endangered, because it is easier the variability manifested in the many races of dogs, cats, and more cost-effective to protect intact, functioning cattle, or horses, or the many specialized types of potatoes, ecosystems with all their species than to initiate emergency apples, or maize developed by breeders. But whole races or conservation measures for one endangered species after cultivars are being lost at a rate that quickly reduces their another, or to wait until common species become endangered genetic variability and thus their ability to adapt to climatic before acting to save them (Scott et al., 1987). change, disease (O'Brien and Evermann, 1988), or other On the other hand, the ecosystem approach can sometimes foims of environmental adversity. The remaining cultivated ignore the role of individual species in favor of processes gene pools in the major crop plants such as maize and rice and community organization; therefore, a species-specific amount to only a fraction of the genetic diversity the)' har- approach is required to address the needs of taxa that might bored only a few decades ago, even though the species otherwise be neglected. The Red Data Books have been very themselves are anything but threatened and the various seed important in drawing public attention to the conservation banks still retain many of the previously cultivated forms. needs of a number of such species. But little evolution and adaptation can take place in a seed bank. Thus for Liological resources, both loss of species and Habitats loss of gene reservoirs are significant, and many agriculturalists argue that the loss of genetic diversity among According to one estimate, almost 40 percent of the net domestic plants and animals looms as an even greater threat primary terrestrial productivity (associated with plants, algae, to human welfare than does the loss of wild species (Plucknett and photosynthetic bacteria) is directly consumed, diverted, et al., 1987; Frankel and Hawkes. 1974). or wasted as a result of human activities (Vitousek et al., The hidden danger of ever-growing lists of threatened 1986). This estimate provides an excellent indication of how species is that individual recovery efforts are diluted each powerful the ecological influence of humans is on our planet. time a new plant or animal is added to the list (Scott et al., For many centuries, landscapes have been altered and 43 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAl. I)IVERSITY simplified by humans through deforestation, lire, and Since the infornation base is so poor, figures on how long pastoralism, it will take for all tropical forest to disappear can only be Tropical moist forests cover only 7 percent of the earth's estimates. Raven (1988), for example, suggests that about land surface but contain at least bialf of the earth's species. 48 percent of the world's plant species occur in or -around If estimates ot the millions of undescribed torest beetles are Iorest areas that are going to be destroyed ovcr more than accurate. they could contain 90 percent or even more of all 90 percent of their area during the next 20 'ears. leading species. Some sites are extraordinarily rich: Whitmore etal. to about a quarter of those species being lost. Further, as (1985) counted 233 species of vascular plants in just 100 deforestation becomes a more severe problem and tile ac square meters of*i lowland tropical rain forest in Costa Rica. cessible torests are exploited, harvesting rates (and income equivalent to about one-sixth the total flora ot the British Islcs 'rom forestry exports) tend to slow down. MMV major on half the area of it singles tennis court, tropical timber exporters of the 1960s and 1970s have stopped exporting, and some -- such as Thailand -- are now even net importers. But given the proected growth in both 11huma) popUltion and economic activity. tile rate of ldeforestation is Iar more .likely' to increase than stabilize. The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) concluded that by the end ot the century, or shortly thereafier, little virgin tropical moist forest outside of protected areas may remain outside of the Zaire Basin, the extreme northeast Brazilian Amazonia adjacent to tile southern Guianas, western Amazonia. the Guianan tract of forest in northern South America. and parts of the island of New Guinea (see Chapter VI). The accessi ble lorests in these zones are unlikely to survive beyond a tIfw further decades, is world demand for their produce con- Tropical rainforest in eastern coastal Brazil, a highly endangered tinues to expand. Forests oil steel) slopes, on the other hand. hione that now covers only an estimated 1.5% ot its original are quite likely to endure even 'ery dense Ihuoman popula extent (photo by R.A. Mittermneier). tions because of their inaccessibility and their important Surprisinmgly, no generally agreed estimate on the amount economic functions in protecting watersheds. oftropical forest remaining has been produced, with figures .lThe dimensions of these habitat changes have been assessed ranging trom 800 million to 1,200 million hectares. tor sub-Saharan Africa (IUCN/UNEP. 1986b) and tropical However, it is apparent that deforestation is continuing at Asia (IUCN/UNEP, 1986c) (Tables 4 and 5. The implica a rapid pace, with "cry conservative estimates suggesting tions of these habitat changes for primates in tropical Asia rates as high as 6.5 percent per year in C(tc d'Ivoire and are summarized in Table 6 (IUCN/UNEP, 1986c. In these averaging about 0.6 percent per year (about 7.3 million ha) tables, "original habitat" was determined on the basis of for all tropical countries (Table 3). At this rat', which is a vegetation , ..tps prepared by Unesco for Africa (White, net figure incorporating reforestation and natural regrowth, 1983) and r-ooical Asia (van Steenis, 1958). These maps all closed tropical forests woulers depict the idea. climax vegetation based on climatic, eleva be cleared within 177 years tinwould (FAO, 1981). Including both closed and open tropical forests tion, and edaphir factors, without significant human interven (woodlands), FAO/UNEP (1982), estimate that II. 1million ha are eliminated outright each year, and at least a further 10 million ha are grossly disrupted annually. But even dis may be tar too conservative. The Brazilian Space Research Institute has reported that forest tires in 1987 destroyed 20 million ha of Brazilian forest, including 8 million ha of primary rain forest, these tigures exceed the FAO figures for the entire world. In short, estimates of world forest cover and deforesta tion rates sutfer trom a surprising lack of tirm statistics. Since so much conservation action depends on sound data. and ' because remote sensing technology isavailable tor providing fairly precise estimates, a global study' would seem a very high priority. A systematic assessment of current forests and deforestation rates for tile entire tropics could he carried Out Deforestation iii Peruvian Amazomia (photo by R.A. Nitter for about $5 million per year (B':othi, 1989). mticier). 44 HOW AND WIHY BIOL()(ICAI. RESOURCES ARE TIREATENED tion, and usually correspond to the area of tilecountry, they Angola, Congo, Djibouti. Gabon, Kenya, Namibia, Somalia, are therefore an ideal that needs to he tempered by reality. Tanzania, and Zambia in Africa and Bhutan, Brunei, and The estimates of*natural habitat remaini'ig were derived from Ma!aysia in Asia have lost less than 50 percent of' their a wide variety of sources of variable accuracy, so the figures wildlife habitat. From the species point of view, habitat losses should be taken as indicative rather than deiinitive. for Southeast Asian primates (which can be taken as Despite these disclaimers, it is apparett from the figures reasorable indicators of the other fauna and flora in the presented that original wildlife habitat has beer. greatly re- region) have been significant. But the impacts on species duced in virtually all nations in the Old World Tropics. Only varies considerably; compare the primates from denscly Table 3: Estimates of Forest Areas and Deforestation Rates in the Tropics. Closed Forest Percent Closed Forest Percent area detorested area delorested Country (1,000 ha) per year Country (1,000 ha) per year Tropical Africa: ('61e l'hvoire ...... 4.458 ....6.5 Haiti ...... 48 . 3.8 Nigeria ...... 5.950 ....5.0 E l Salvador ...... 14 1.....3.2 Rwanda ...... 120 ....2.7 Jamaica ...... 67 .....3.0 Burundi ...... 26 ....2.7 N icaragua ...... 4,496 .....2.7 Benin ...... 47 ....2.6 Ecuador ...... 14,250 .....2.4 GuinCa-B issau ...... 660 ....2.6 Honduras ...... 3,797 .....2.4 Liberia ...... 2,000 ....2.3 G m :eniala ...... 4,442 .....2.0 G uinea ...... 2,050 ....1.8 C olombia ...... 46,400 .....1.8 Kenya ...... 1,105 ....1.7 Mexico ...... 46,250 .....1.3 M adagascar ...... 10,300 ....1.5 Panam a ...... 4,165 .....0.9 A ngola ...... 2,900 ....1.5 Belize ...... 1,354 .....0.7 Uganda ...... 765 ....1.3 Dominican Republic ...... 629 .....0.6 Zam bia ...... 3,010 ....1.3 Trinidad & Tobago ...... 208 .....0.4 G hana ...... 1,718 ....1.3 Peru ...... 69,680 .....0.4 M ozam bique ...... 935 .... 1.1 Brazil ...... 357,480 .....0.4 Sierra Leone ...... 740 ....0.8 Venezuela ...... 31,870 .....0.4 Tanzania ...... 1,440 ....0.7 Bolivia ...... 44,0 10 .....0.2 I ...... ogo 304 .... 0.7 Cuba ...... 1,455 .....0.1 Sudan ...... 650 ....0.6 French G uiana ...... 8,900 .....(a) C had ...... 500 ....0.4 Suriname ...... 14,830 .....(a) Cameroon ...... 17,920 ....0.4 Guyana ...... 18,475 .... (a) Ethiopia ...... 4,350 ....0.2 TOTALS ...... 678,655 . 0.6 Sonm lia...... 1,540 .....0.2 Equatorial Guinea ...... 1,295 ....0.2 Tropical Asia: Zaire ...... 105,750 ....0.2 Nepal ...... 1,94 1.....4.3 Cc:i-al A frican Republic ...... 3,590 ....0.1 Sri Lanka ...... 1,659.....3.5 G .bon ...... 20,50() .... 0.1 Thailand ...... 9,235 .....2.7 Congo ...... 2 1,340 ....0.1 Brunei ...... 323 .....1.5 Zim babwe ...... 20 0. (a) Malaysia ...... 20,995 .....1.2 Nam ibia ...... (a)..... (a) Laos ...... 8,4 10 .....1.2 Botsw ana ...... (a).....(a) Philippines ...... 9,5 10 .....1.0 M al;...... (a) ....(a) Bangladesh ...... 927 .....0.9 Burkina Faso ...... (a).....(a) Viet Nam ...... 8,770 .....0.7 N iger ...... (a) .....(a) Indonesia ...... 113,895 .....0.5 Senegal ...... 220 .....(a) Pakistan ...... 2,185 .....0.3 M alawi ...... 186 .....(a) Burm a ...... 31,94 1.....0.3 Gambia ...... 65 .....(a) Kampuchea ...... 7,548 .....0.3 TOT ,ALS ...... 216,634 ...0.61 India ...... 51.841 .....0.3 Bhutan ...... 2,1 00 .....0.1 Tropical America: Papua New Guinea ...... 34,230 .....0.1 Paraguay...... 4,070 ....4.7 TO ALS...... 305,510. 0.6 Costa Rica ...... 1.638 .... 4.0 (a) No data; in most cases this is where the areas arc very small. Source: FAO, 1981; most other sources consider these figurcs t be !e best available, but far below actual rates of deforestation. 45 CONSERVING THI WORID'S BIOLOGICALI DVI-RSITY populated Java (Javan Gibbon and Javan Lutong) and lndo- A- Table 4: Wildlife HabitatLoss in Afica South of china (Francois' Leaf Monkey) with those from the sparse ly populated Mentawai islands (Mentawai Gibbon). the Sahara. If adequate information on the status and value of forest Country Original Wildlife Amount Hlabitat Loss land is available, the governments of tropical countries (Haiteta Re(1ainin (percent) (1_0_ hectares)_(1000_hectares) out of a sense of enlightened self-interest - will wish to stabilize the ai a of forest at an amount that enables them Angola ...... 124.670 ...... 76,085 ..... 39 to meet national development goals of watershed protection, Benin ...... 11.580 ...... 4,632 ..... 60 56 tourism, firewood, construction, and species coiiservation. Botswana .Fa...... 58,540 ...... 25,758 ..... Responsible governments today are constantly seeking ways Burkina Faso ...... 27,380 ...... 5,476 ..... 80 toespns ile govre t sc ndanribe ,totl v e eintgowals Burundi ...... 2,570 ...... 359 ..... 86 to ensure that forestry can contribute to the development goals Cameroon ...... 46,940 ...... 19,245 ..... 59 of the nation. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan, prepared Central African Republic 62,300 ...... 27,412 ..... 56 by FAO in collaboration with World Bank, UNDP, and Chad ...... 72,080 ...... 17,299 ..... 76 World Resources Institute in cooperation with other institu- Congo ...... 4,200 ...... 17,442 ..... 49 tions, specifies the kinds of actions that are required (FAO C6te d'lvoire ...... 31,800 ...... 6,678 ..... 79 ai al., 1987; see also Chapters VI and VII, this volume). Djibouti ...... 2,180 ...... 1,112 ..... 49 But tropical forests are far from being the only highly Equatorial Guinea ...... 2,500 ...... 920 ..... 63 diverse ecosystems. Mediterranean-climate regions (that is, Ethiopia ...... 110.100 ...... 3.030 ..... 70 Gabon ...... 26,700 ...... 17,355..35 89 with a cool, wet winter and a hot, dry summer) also have Gabia...... ,0...... 124. 4 . 80 very rich floras with high levels of endemism. For exam- Gana 30...... 24,590 ...... 7,377 ..... 70 pie, the Cape Region of South Africa has about 8,600 species Guinea ...... of plants, of which 68 percent are endemic; California has Guinea Bissau ...... 3,610 ...... 794 ..... 78 5,000 plants (30 percent endemic); and southwest Australia Kenya ...... 56,950 ...... 29,614 ..... 48 has 3,600 plants (with about 68 percent endemic to the Lesotho ...... 3,040 ...... 973 ..... 68 region) (Reid and Miller, 1989). In temperate woodland:s Liberia ...... 11,140 ...... 1,448 ..... 87 soils, species diversity may approach one thousand species Madagascar ...... 59,521 ...... 14,880 ..... 75 of animals per square meter, with populations exceeding 2 Malawi ...... 9,410 ...... 4,046 ..... 57 million individuals. When microfloral communities are add- Mali ...... 75,410 ...... 15,836 ..... 79 ed, the numbers are even more impressive (Stanton and Lat- Mauritania ...... 38,860 ...... 7,383 ..... 81 57 tin. 1989). Mozambique ...... 78,320 ...... 3.678 ..... Nam ibia ...... 82,320 ...... 44,453 ..... 46 W hile wetlands are not noted for high species diversity Niger ...... 56,600 ...... 12,788 ..... 77 or local endemism (in pait because they tend to be somewhat Nigeria ...... 91,980 ...... 22,995 ..... 75 more ephemeral than most other ecosystems), they do com- Rwanda ...... 2,510 ...... 326 ..... 87 prise very complex ecosy-tems and some old lakes display Senegal ...... 19,620 ...... 3,532 ..... 82 very high diversity indeed. Each of the gr.'at lakes of the Sierra Leone ...... 7,170 ...... 1,076 ..... 85 African Rift Valley contains more spc'ios than any other lake Somalia ...... 63,770 ...... 37,624 ..... 41 in the world, with very high levels off endemism. Lake South Africa ...... 123,650 ...... 53,170 ..... 57 Tanganyika has more than 140 endemic species, Lake Vic- Sudan ...... 170,300 ...... 51,090 ..... 70 toria has over 200 endemics, and Lake Malawi has at least Swaziland ...... 1,740 ...... 766 ..... 56 Tanzania ...... 88,620 ...... 50,513 ..... 43 500 endemic species (with estimates indicating that nearly Togo ...... 5,600 ...... 1,904 ..... 66 as many more still need to be described) (Miller, 1989; Rib- Uganda ...... 19,370 ...... 4,261 ..... 78 bink et al., 1983). Zaire ...... 233,590 ...... 105,116 ..... 55 Biological diversity in marine ecosystems is also Zambia ...... 75,260 ...... 53,435 ..... 29 remarkable, and indeed coral reefs are sometimes compared Zimbabwe ...... 39,020 ...... 17,169 ..... 56 with tropical forests in terms of diversity (Connell, 1978). TOTAL...... 2,079,641 ...... 773,774 ..... 65 Marine ecosystems are far more diverse than terrestrial ones Note: Data for Mauritania. Mali, Niger, Chad. and Sudan cover at the higher taxonomic levels. For example, of the 33 animal only the sub-Saharan portion of those countries. Islands other phyla, only II occur on land (one endemic) while 28 (13 than Madagascar are not included. endemic) are found in the seas (May, 1988). Further, Ray Sorce IUCN/UNEP. 1986b. (1988) points out that filter feeders, especially zooplankton, create extra levels in aquatic food chains that do not exist on land, and the oceans contain far greater diversity in body size - from whales to picoplankton - than is found on land. trophic levels. In addition, marine organisms are highly Consequently, aquatic food webs tend to be more complex diverse at the genetic level, with individuals in many taxa than terrestrial ones and aquatic food chains contain more being heterozygous at 5 to 15 percent of their genetic loci 46 HOW AND WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARE THREATENED (as compared with the average of 3.6 percent for mammals and 4.3 percent for birds) (Polunin, 1983). All these factors Table 5: Wildlife Habitat Loss in Tropical Asia. give coastal and marine ecosystems a form of diversity that Original Wildlife Amount Habitat Loss differs from terrestrial systems, often requiring diftrent ap- Country Habitat Remaining (percent) proaches to conservation. (1000 hectares) (1000 hectares) Bangladesh ...... 14,278 ...... 857 ...... 94 Bhutan ...... 3,450 ..... 2277 ... 34 Brunei ...... 576 ...... 438 ...... 24 Burm a ...... 77,482 ...... 22,598 ...... 71 China (a) ...... 42,307 ...... 16.500 ...... 61 Hong Kong ...... 107 ...... 3...... 97 India ...... 301,701 ...... 61,509 ...... 80 Indonesia ...... 144,643 ...... ?4,686 ...... 49 Japan (b) ...... 32 ...... 14. 57 Kampuchea ...... 18,088 ...... 4,341 ...... 76 Laos ...... 23,675 ...... 6,866 ...... 71 Malaysia & Singapore 35,625 ...... 21,019 ...... 4i Nepal ...... 11,707 ...... 5,385 ...... 54 Pakistan ...... 16,590 ...... 3,982 . 76 Philippines ...... 30,821 ...... 6,472 ...... 79 Sri Lanka ...... 6,470 ...... 1.100 ...... 83 Taiwan ...... 3,696 ...... 1,072 ...... 71 Thailand ...... 50,727 ...... 13,004 ...... 74 A view of diversity on a coral reef (photo by J. Post). Viet Nan ...... 33,212 ...... 6,642 .....80 TOTAl...... 815186...248,765 ... 67 In conclusion, highly diverse ecosystems are found in many ote.. parts of tile world, and all ecosystems make important con- Nts prtns teorld,hu and ll eecstie mkeiranton- a.Tropical portion only (i.e., area south of Yunnan high hills, in tributions to human wel fare. Effective conservation of these cluding the southern coastal strip and the island of Hainan). ecosystems is unlikely to come only from direct protection b. Tropical portion only (i.e., southern Ryukyu archipelago). of small samples of them; instead, governments seeking to Sorc: IUCN/UNEP, 1986c. carry out their conservation programs more effectively also require improved policies that deal with other resource management issues that have major impacts on management Table 6: Range Loss and Habitat Protected for of species and ecosystems, such as communications, defense, forestry, international trade, energy, and agricultural Selected Primates in Southeast Asia. development. Species Original Range Remnaining Range Percent Percent (1000 hectares) (1000 hectares) Loss Protected Economic Factors Stimulating Orangutan ...... 55,300 ...... 20,700 ....63 .. 2.1 Siarnang ...... 46,511 ...... 16,980 ....63 .. 6.8 Overexploitation of Biological Resources Agile gibbon ...... 53,227 ...... 18,435 ....65 .. 3.7 The many factors working to lead species to extinction and White-handed gibbon 28,070 ...... 10,024 ....64 .. 13.5 habitats to destruction are building in force and combine .....39,500 ...... Nentawva,Bornean gibbongibbon ...... 650 ...... 25,300 450 ....3136 ... .22.95.1 to result in what sonic have considered an "impend- Javan gibbon ...... 4,327 ...... 161 ....96 1.3 ing extinction spasm" (Myers, 1987b). The information Indochinese gibbon ..34,933 ...... 8,753 ....75 3.1 quoted above suggests that considerable alarm is justified. Burmese gibbon .....16,835 ...... 5,638 ....67 5.1 But species and habitat loss are just the painful symptoms Pileated gibbon ...... 7,000 ...... 1,120 ....84 9.9 of the problem. The real causes are built on economic Long-tailed macaque .38,318 ...... 12,332 ....68 3.4 foundations. Pig-tailed macaque .. 156,862 ...... 48,169 ....69 4.1 A growing number of economists have recognized that cur- Stump-tailed macaquel54.696...... 5,647 .... 64 3.7 Assamese mnacaque .. 80,219 ...... 33,500 ....59 rent economic systems have stimulated the major threats to Rhesus macaque .... 173.227 ...... 56,864 ....67 2.8 2.5 biological resources (see Clark, 1973a; Dasgupta, 1982; Proboscis monkey ....2,950 ...... 1,775 ....40 4.1 Fisher, 1981b; Norgaard, 1984; Pearce, 1976; and Randall, Snub-nosed langur ....2,969 ...... 906 ....70 1.5 1979 for more detailed discussions). These problems arc ex- Douc langur ...... 29,600 ...... 7,227 ....76 3.1 acerbated by the fact that the tropical countries (including Javan lutong ...... 4,327 ...... 161 ....96 .. 1.6 China) have 75 percent of the world's population (rapidly Silvered langur.....41,217 ...... 16,997 ....59. 3.9 growing) but only about 15 percent of the money. Clearly, Francois' leaf monkey .9,740 ...... 1,411 ....86 .. 1.2 different types of biological resources suffer from different Phayre's a onkey 70.857 ...... 19,317 ... 3.8 problems; open-access fisheries, tropical forests, and land Source: IUCN, 1986. 47 CONSERVING "IE \VORIA)'S III)I0)(iICAI I)IVI'RSITY suitable for agriculture havxe differeit econoilic biological diversity is iniadverlence, an external CoSt of the characteristics and need to be treated indifferent ways. more direct iinancial justil'ication for harvesting certain However. six naor issues are of particular concern here biological resources. (adapted f'rom McNeelv, 1988). Fourth, the specie.S, eCosvstenis. and ecosyslel services First, biological resources are often not given appropriate that are most overexploited tend to be the ones with the prices in the marketplace. Even where a biological resource weakest ownership. Many of these are open-access resources is traded directly in the market, it may have associated values for which the traditional control mechanisms have failed in that are not reflected in its price. Further, the benefits of the face of growing demrands of' centralized government, tile existence of any given level of biological diversity are national development. international trade, and population conferred on all who value thein,and tie diversity enii, ycd growth. Within ir LIdel'n an d ccLitraliIzed svslels OIf ad in a non-consuiptive way by one individual does not redice nMinistration, tile forests and tilewildlife tihey contain are o ten the amLount a'ailahle to others. Biological diversity is publiclv owned resources that are not valued at market rates, therefore a 'public good," and individuals and industries but rather are treated as free colnlnodities for exploitation can oftei gain its benefits witholt paying fIr them (the "free by concessionaires. Generally speaking, the iore well rider" problen). The olen-intangible and widespread costs defined, secure, and exclisive (whether held by individuals, of depleting biological diversity usually provide inefflect ual commiinunities. or corporate entities) the propel'tv riglts to just ification fOr conservalion when halanced against projected biological resources are, the inore effectively can the use If monetary benefits of exploitation (which typically accrue to these resources be allocated by markets. When ownership relatively few individuals), rights are weakly enf'Orced (either by the government or by Second. the benefits of prolectng natural areas are in prac- a private owner), exploitation is allocated not to those who tice seldom fully represented in cost-benefit analyses because valtie the resource most. but rather to those who cal pay tile fhe social beneits of*conserving hio logical resources are olteni niost Iml the exploitation rights. In a market situation intangible, widely spread, and not fully reflected inmarket characterized by ceitral goveri'nient control over resource prices. In contrast, the benefits of exploiting tileresolurces use and high consuner demand. the costs if' protecting supported by natural areas are often easily Measured. Hence, spLcies and ecosystems fron exploitation are often pro cost-benefit analyses usually underestimate tilenet benefits hibitive for governnient 'ovners- 'fhat usually lack suoffi of'conservation or, eqLivalently, overestimate the net benefits cient resources and local knowledge of' management needs of tileexploitation alternative. As Oldfield (1984) puts it. to control overexploitation through the mechanism of enfore "Developments are proposed, tiledevelopment alternatives ing regulations or other restrictions. are evaliated. the social costs olhabitat losses or extinction Fifth, the discount rates applied by current economic plan are ignored or casually considered, and the decision to ning tend to encourage depletion of biological resources develop is given the go-ahead, actually on the basis ifin- rather than conservation. While conservation seeks optiium conplete economic infornmation. It is by this gradual proc- current benefits and broadly equal access to the same stock ess if' land conversion that entire ecosystems and wildlile o"resources for future generations, economic analysis usually species have disappeared.*' In short, today's land use pat- discounts future benefits and costs because society tends to terns are determined primarily by the rent-producing capacity value benefits sooner rather than later, to consider future of the area in question, irrespective of its total value to society costs as being of' less significance than costs today, and to in a more natural state. counting all the Values discussed assign value to capital in terms of its opportunity cost in the above, national economy. The higher the discount rate, the greater Third. those who benefit from exploiting a forest, wetland, the likelihood that a biological resource will be mined. Clark or coral reel seldom pay the ill social and economic costs (1976) has shown that when discount rates are high and of their exploitation: instead, these costs (to be paid either biological growth rates are low (is in whales or tropical now or in the future) are transfierred to0 society as a whole, f'orests), the economically efficient use of a resource nilay or to individuals and institutions who had gained little beniefit be to deplete it, even to extinction: economic activity would fron the original exploitation. Such "'external costs" are be devoted entirely to the interests oflthe present generation, often accidental side-effects of development projects. so the at the expense olffLture generations. Further, the higher the loss is not recognized in either private or social cost-benefit discotint rate, the lower the priority that the planning proc analyses. Timber corcessionaires, for example, do not need ess will give to investments in conservation (Perrings. 1988): to concern thcM:Seves with the downstreani siltation they are very simply, the returns from such investments may causing, or tilespecies they are depleting, because they do sometimes be so distant in the futLire that, when discounted, not pay the lull cost of these effects. Once they have logged they add little by Way if'cUrreiit net benefit. However, a low "their" forest, they Will leave, and the downstream farner discount rate may make the ftltlre better ol't" than tilepres will have to pay for tle siltation dainage, and tie nation or ent. but the gain tit lie future nlay be in tile form of either world at large for the reduction in biolgical diversity. It iay greater biological diversity or greater COnsulniption (Barrett, well be that the greatest cause tf' the reduction in global 1988). 48 HOW AND WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOUR(T'S ARI" THRI-ATENIEI) Sixth, and finally, as Warford (1987b) has observed. con- government can control the land better for that national in ventional measures of national income (such as per capita terest than any local authority could. This assertion has often gross national product) "'do not recognize tiledrawing down followed on the heels of a central government's proclaim of the stock of natural capital. and instead consider tiledeple- ing ownership and use rights over the forests, and is coi tion of resources, i.e.. the loss of wealth, as net income."- plicated by land tenture systens that are a combination of Many ofithe national economies oftihe Iropics are based on feudal. colonial, and democratic approaches. biological resources, especially forests, that are being In many tropical countries, the government is responsible depleted at a rate faster than the net formation of capital. for exploiting tileforests (often through concessionaires) and As tile a result, total assets of the economy are declining even it establishes protected areas as part of the national land-us if per capita gross natitonal product (GNP) isgrowing (Repel- plan. In such situations, the rights or needs of the local peo to e' a/., 1989). Warf'ord estimates that tileeconomic costs pie are often overlooked. and it is not surprising that of unsustainalble forest depletion in major tropical hardwood- "poaching" and "'encroachment" are common problems. exporting countries range between 4 and 6 percent of GNP. In a perio of rapid exploitation of the nationalized tropical offsetting any economic growth that may otherwise have been forests, national parks have sometimes been used explicitly achieved. Growth built on resource depletion is clearly very as mechanisms for extending central goverraent influence different from tF.,t obtained from productive efforts, and may into the Ino.ct distant and least secure parts of the nation, oftien be quite unsustainable, along international boundaries (Thorsell, 1986). Second, national parks have boundaries. By their very Social Factors that Threaten nature, as being legally established units of land manage Biological Resources ment. national parks have limits on the ground. often marked Biological resources need protection against inappropriate by fences or other physical manifestations of authority. Yet uses and overexploitation, not against people. Unfortunate- nature knows no boundaries, and recent advances in con ly. conservation programs have often treated local people servation biology are showing that national parks are usual as opponents rather than partners. Little distinction has been ly too small to effectively conserve the large mammals, birds made between recent migrants into wildlands who lack ap- of prey, or trees they are designed to preserve. The boun plicab!e cultural and technical practices for the particular dary post is too often also a psychological boundary, sug ecosystems and those peoples with a long tradition of sus- gesting that since nature is taken care of by the national park. tainable resource use. The former may require assistance and local people can go ahead and abuse the surrounding lands, support to locate and manage their farms adequately on thereby isolating the national park as an "island" of habitat suitable soils and perhaps away from key sites of outstand- that is subject to tileusual increased threats tFl'a go with in ing ecological value. The latter may collaborate in the sularity (see, for example, Soul. 1986). management of protected areas and support research efforts Further, virtually all land is already "occupied" in the with unique knowledge and experience. In situations of'ex- sense that the local people living in and around the forest tremely long habitation in particular areas, often extending consider that it is "theirs" (Box 9). The vcry considerable to millennia, there may be a case for cooperative manage- problems involving conflicts between native peoples and the nment of sites of mutual interest to conservation for society government of Malaysia over logging rights in Sarawak pro at and large, for the local people. vide a dramatic illustration of this issue (Scott, 1988). The official definition of a national park includes words Park managers in many parts of the world have therefore to the effect that it is not matcrially altered by human ex- developed a "siege mentality," feeling encroachment from ploitation and occupation. The highest competent authority all sides. The dilemma of how to conserve wildlands in a of the country having jurisdic',ion over the area is expected sea of hostile local interests is a serious one. While national to have taken steps to prever, or eliminate as soon as possi- parks have been one of the most universally adopted ble exploitation or occupation in the area (IUCN, 1985). In mechanisms for protection that has been devised in our era, one sense, this approach to habitat protection can be viewed and governments have often determincd that it is necessary is a reflection of our inability to live in harmony with our to take a centralist approach when questions of th.national natural environent: Conceptually, we would not need na- interest supersede local aspirations, more effecti /emeans tional parks if we did not have such an exploitative relation- are required to ensure that conservation and local p ople can ship with nature. This has led to two anomalies that have work together as partners rather than antagonists. The in led in turn to both social and ecological challenges for the stability described above does not bode well fcr tilelong managers of national parks. term survival of protected areas if conflicts persist. First. national parks take control for resohrce management Under today's conditions, governments need to think in away tile from people who are most directly concerned with terms of ecological and economic viability of their nations. maintaining the productivity of the resources upon which In some situations, especially where sustainable utilization their welfare depends. The central government, in ef'fect, of resources is to be a management objective (multiple-use is asserting that the area is of national interest and that the management areas). governments may wish to supplement 49 CONSERVING THE WORI.I)S BIOLOGICAI. I)IVEiRSITY their national parks though cltorts at decentralization of forms of developtint . The wild relatives of a variet', of iill power and responsibility, and a return of more resource portant crop plants occur in the forests, and these and the management to local communities (Klee. 1980: McNeely and prililiv.: cultivars grown by the swidden cultivators are Pitt, 1984; Marks, 1984). In Central America. Houseal et valuable sources of genetic material for modern plant al. (1985) have found that "native peoples have de'ised sus- breeders. Rice, for example. provides the main staple for tainahle long-term land use practices combining migrator,' all of Asia, and the traditional rice varieties grown in upland agricultural practices with arboricultire and wildlife manage- swiddens contain great genetic diversity: the swidden farmers ment. .... heir mixed agricultural and forestry systems pro- have often cross-bred domestic rice with its wild relatives, duce inore labor, more commn1odity per unit of land, are more bringing new pest resistance to their crops (Oka and Chang, ecologically sound and result in more equitable income 1961). The species grown in the swiddens are in a state of distribution than other practices currently being imposed upon continuous adaptation to the environ 'ent..nd in many places their lands. There are no other land use models for the the crops are enriched by gene exchange with wild or weedy tropical rain forest that preserve ecological stability or relatives. Altieri and Merrick (1987) contend that 'main biological diversity as efficiently as those of the indigenous tenance of traditional agroecosystenis is the only sensible groups presently encountered there.'" strategy to pr -serve ;n situ repositories of crop germplasm." Governments also may wish to establish protected areas Further. the management of traditional systems will be main that are designed specifically to conserve traditional forms rained only when guided by the local intimate knowledge of of land use that have proven their success over time. For the plants and their requirements, and by the local manage example, traditional shifting cultivation is a system that is ment practices that are likely to be most productive. well adapted to the tropical f'orest environnment, helps main- Chapter IV suggests an approach to land management that tain the biological diversity of the forest, and often provides w\,ill accommodate the need both to protect habitats from over significant benefits to wildlife populations. The maintenance exploitation and to ensure that the local people are active par of such systems is of considerable importance to modern ticipants in conservation activities. 7- .... '"" • .,_ ' a. Scientists inBrazil's Amazon region are studying the effects of habitat fragmentation on species, and are learning about the dynamics of species loss and changes inthe abundances of species and populations. Our landscape is beconing increasingly fragmented, and few, if any, large tracts of primary forest are expected to remain (photo by R.O. Bierregaard). 50 HOW AND WHY BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES ARE THREATENED Major Obstacles to Greater Progress in Natural Habitats? Conserving Biological Diversity At its most fundamental level, biological diversity is Many people assume that "natural" means "totally un- threatened because people are out of balance with their en touched by any human influence." Following such a viromnent; benefits are being gained from exploiting natural definition, no natural habitats remain on earth, because habitats without paying the full costs of such exploitation. modern human influences through pollution and climate Current human populations and standards of living are sub change are pervasive. From a longer historical perslec- sidized by non-renewable resources that have accumulated tive, humans have been influencing habitats in Africa aid over hundreds of millions ofyears, yet are being consumed Asia for hundreds of thousands of years, ever since fire in a few generations. Age-old cultures based on sustainable became a major force in human technology (Hough, use of renewable resources are being quickly replaced by 1926); most of the world's savannas are maintained modern cultures based on over-exploitation. The profound through human influences. As discussed earlier, humans changes in human society called for by the World Commis have been part of natural ecosystems in the New World sion on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987), the and Australia for tens of thousands of years, and part of World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1980). and the World Oceanian ecosystems for thousands of years (Martin and Charter for Nature will come only with levels of innovation Klein, 1984). and investment that have not yet been seriously considered Pre-industrial people occupied virtually the entire ter- by governments. restrial !and area, and have had very considerable in- At the risk of over-simplification, and in the realization fluences on natural habitats. Spencer (1966), for exam- that different settings suffer from different problems, six main pie, suggests that virtually all Asian forests have been obstacles to greater progress in conserving biological diver cleared at one time or another by people (nc"tly for shift- sity can be identified: ing cultivation), and Wharton (1968) has shown that the larger Asian animals are all adapted to feeding in forest * National dtevelopment objectives give insufficient value to clearings and therefore greatly benefitted from shifting livin natural resources. Maintaining a nation's biological cultivation, diversity is integral to maintaining its wealth, but the im portance of species and ecosystems is seldom sufficiently Sin'aarly, tribal peoples in Central and South America considered in the formulation of national development harvest certain plants and animals in ways that significant- policies. Development tends to emphasize short-term ex ly alter their ecosystems to provide them with more of ploitation to earn income or foreign exchange rather than the most-desired products of nature(e.g., Warren etal., long-term sustainable utilization of living natural 1989; Prance et al., 1987; Boom 1985; G6mez-Pompa resources. International development organizations focus 988; G6mecz-Pompa et al., 1987). All in all, historical on the expressed immediate needs of the developing na human influences on the environment, especially through tions, and tend to seek relatively short-term returns on their the use of fire and shifting cultivation, have been pervasive investments. As a result, land-use policies are often inap and even the ecosystems that appear most "natural" have propriate for the long-term benefits of society. Further, been significantly altered by humans at some point in the the international community tends to encourage this trend past (Thomas, 1956; Elliott, 1964). Efforts to totally ex- in order to facilitate the flow of commodities from south clude human influence from "natural" ecosystems, as in to north. strictly protected national parks, can lead to a situation that has not occurred for thousands of years and will have * Living natural resources are exploitedfir profit, not for unknown ecological implications. The devastating fires mneeting the legitimate needs of local people. Uncontrolled that hit Yellowstone National Park in 1988 are one worldwide use of wildlife products is contributing to dramatic example of what can happen when nature is species extinction and loss of biological diversity. Where allowed to take her own course without human interven- a significant profit can be made. as in the case of African tion. Lugo (1988) concludes that environmental change rhinos or tropical forests, the target species or ecosystems and disturbance may be required to maintain a species- can be devastated, with virtually no benefit to local peo rich tropical landscape. ple. Much of the increasing consumer demand is in Since the hunmn influence on forests and savannas has adtecmecamarkets far removed neetfrom the rnhabitat e or eeistspecies involved,h oa been a primary determinant of their current structure, any people whosec long-term welfare may depend on sus effort to establish a protected area that excludes people tamnable use of te overexploited species. will require active management to maintain its "pristine" nature (which in fact was partially created by human ac- *he species and ccos 'sntems upon which human survival tivities in historic and prehistoric times), depend are still poorlv known. The number of specialists working to acquire the necessary knowledge about species, 51 CONSERVING THi WOR.IYS BIOL()GICAI. )IVE.RSITY biological diversity, ecosystems, and human aspects of resource management is woefully inadequate to meet our collective needs. Existing expertise is located primarily in industrialized countries, not in the developing ones that depend upon this expertise to make decisions concerning sustainable utilization of their living naturn, resources: onhl 6 percent of the world's scientists and technologists live in the tropical countries (NAS, 1980). Few tropical coun tries (India isan exception) have sufficient research capac ity to address current needs in conservation. And research on biological diversity (taxonomy, inventories, etc.) tends to be located very low on the pecking order of science, thereby suffering from neglect. * he availablescience is insu/ficiently aplied to solving mialatgement jlwholenis. The considerable scientific re search carried out in recent decades has provided a far better basis for managing resources. Ways need to be developed for applying biological and social sci,'nce to managing species and ecosystems, helping to restore degraded ecosystems, and bringing the benefits of con servation to the people most directiy concerned. * Conservation activities by most organizations have hadl to fnctts too iiarrowl\. Most conservation efforts have ad dressed a sniall number of species such as iamials, birds, na,jor species of plants, or certain tree species, or the establishment of reserves or other protected areas whose inventory of biological diversity is usually not known. Likewise, management has been largely directed toward conservation of so-called flagship species, usually animals, rather than biological diversity as a whole. Conservation activities often must f'us on these narrow objectives iii A l)iologist conducts an inventory of a tropical forest in the order to obtain funding, focus attention, and achieve Atlantic forest region of Brazil (photo by A. Young). results. But attention also needs to be focused on the con servation needs of a wider range of species, to assess how far they are included in existing protected areas, and to determine whether the management plans are suitable for conservation of these identified species. Even more im. portant is research into the reasons for the human behavior that leads to unsustainable use of biological resources. Ilnstitutionsassigned responsibilitv/or conserving biodiver sitv have lacked sufficient resources to to thejob. In most countries, those responsible for managing wildlife and pro tected areas are poorly paid. have insufficient opportunities for advancement, lack specialized training, and have low prestige. Those operating in the field are often isolated from their families and from local communities. While lacking sufficient equipment and managerial capacity. the responsible institutions also suffer from a lack of absorp tive capacity and the ability to make good use of new in puts. Following page, overleaf: Aconservationist explains the impor tance of endemic primate species to local people in the interior of the state ofMinas Gerais, Brazil (photo by R.A. Mittermeier). 52 , m CHAPTER IV APPROACHES TO CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY The technologies for conserving biological diversity have tended to focus on protected areas and gene banks. While these approaches will continue to be important, conserva tion must become more innovative and cross-sectoral. Ef fective application of conservation technology will call on additional sectors and require increased resources, including personnel, finance, and political commitment. The threats to biological resources are complex and biological resources and such sectors as agriculture, tourism, multifarious, calling for a wide range of responses across water resources development, research, fisheries, and a large number of private and public sectors. Ingeneral, six communications. kinds of action can be taken by the international community The close link between rural development and conserva and by governments interested in promoting the conserva- tion of biological resources demonstrates that action in either tion of biological diversity: policy changes, integrated land- area alone will not solve the problem. Instead, conservation use management, species protection, habitat protection, ex needs to be woven together with agriculture, forestry, situ conservation, and pollution control. But this short list fisheries, transport, national defense, and other efforts. The greatly oversimplifies the matter, for each of the approaches following major policy components might be included in such depends to some extent on the others for its success, and integrated action: weaknesses or failures in any one of the approaches is like- a to promote cross-sectoral collaboration, the various institu ly to have negative repercussions on the others. tions should share information, develop agreed common objectives, and seek to define problems in the same way. Policy Shifts, Integrated Land * the many economic and financial benefits of integrated rural Use, and Biodiversity development linked with conservation of biological resources need to be quantified and brought to the atten Since government policies are often responsible for tion of policymakers. depleting biological resources, itstands to reason that policy e conflicts between the various activities in agriculture, amendments are often a necessary first step toward conser- fisheries, forestry, conservation, and rehabilitation need vation. National policies dealing directly with wililands to be identified in integrated plans and programs. ff anagement or forestry, or influencing biodiversity indirect- * institutional reform and improvement may be required as ly through land tenure, rural development, family planning, part of good design and implementation of integrated sec or subsidies for food, pesticides, or energy, can have signifi- toral development plans and programs. cant impacts on the conservation of biodiversity. For exam- 0 new legislation may need to be formulated consonant with pIe, removing subsidies for forest clearing in Brazil is a the socio-economic patterns of the target group of people powerful response to deforestation (Binswanger, 1987; or institutions and the natural resource needs, both to in Repetto, 1988), and, in some regions, giving land tenure to stitute disincentives and to ensure that incentives carry the rural people who have long lived in balance with their power of law. resources can encourage new investments required for sus- 0 policies and legislation inother sectors need to be reviewed tainable use of biological resources. for possible application to conservation of biological Earlier discussions have indicated that many policies out- resources and community involvement in such work. side the traditional conservation sector can have fundamen- * effective incentives need to be devised to accelerate in tal effects on biodiversity. Repetto and Gillis (1988), for ex- tegrated development to close any gap between what the ample, discussed the many cases where public policies have individual sees as an investment benefit and what the led to the misuse of forest resources. The World Commis- government considers to be in the national interest. sion on Environment and Development indicated a number 0 the rural population r.eeds to be involved in the design and of the cross-sectoral policy shifts that are required if follow-up of plans and projects, not simply their implemen biological resources are to be used sustainably (WCED, tation (de Camino Velozo, 1987). 1987). McNeely (1988) discussed the linkages between One means of initiating improved policy coordination is Previous Pag E!a-nk CONSERVING 'Ii F WORI.D'S BIOLOGICAL IVERSITY through preparing a national or sUh-national conservation choices among available options have been taken. The NCS strategy (NCS), basically an extremely broad national en- approach, in developing a framework where environtmental vironnental managemnrnt plan. An NCS can form tilebasis concerns can he related to development ob*jectives, offers of a new, broader pattern of well-balanuced deVelopine nt that the possibility to approach a more appropriate balance point depends upon the conservation of natural resources. Great through a process of consensus-seeking. and lasting benefits are to be gai ned by bringing the proc- Ih N LInerated rura deCopmen cal drwoiiilNS n onl essesof conservation and developlent together. The prepara- other technologies to promole environmnentally sound Lion of national conservation strategies Will assist countries management of large natural ecosystems. While such pro to realize this potential by facilitatinog tiledefiiiitioi of policies grais cai con;trihute to conservation of biodiyersity to some and actioms, iicItCdi iig the conservation If ihiological diver- extent, many of tileIllostimportant contributions are made sity. uplm which :,ustainable deeI opinent call be bult. throueh work directed at stabilizati m of resource use inareas The first requirenient for a successful NCS istileparticipa- that ;:ie not biologically diverse. These activities focus upon lion of tilewidest possible range of actors illdefining the maintaining, or restoring. natural ecosysteiils so that the issues and ideiitiIN ing possible courses for action. Prepar- ecological and hydrological processes that these support are ing an NCS involves government agencies, non-govern- mnaintained. and the benefits that they provide to human soCi mental organizations, private interests, and tilecomnmnity ely are made available on a sustainable basis. at large in analysis of natural resource issues aid assessment By nliaging these ecosystems sustaiiably and stabilizing of priority actions. In this way, sectoral interests can betier land use. the root cause of many humanai population m ove perceive their interrelationships with other sectors and new nients can be addressed, with biological diversity being a potentials for conservation and development will be revealed. beneficiary. For example. in many parts ofthe tropics, forests No matter how broadly baced a government may be, ie are being lost 'ecause of slash-and-burn agriculture. In 111ost nature Iftie public sector or indeed of any centralizat i areas. tis ag ricltuial practie is a c Iseqie ce of no us declining agriculural prod c of power) limits tilerange 0f issues that can effectively he sustainable resorce and considered. The NCS process places goverinent in partner- tivity inother ecosystels that the rural poor have been forced ship with NGOs, citize:,s" groups, universities, imdustny, to leave. By focusing attention on restoring formerly pro financial institutions, and many others in seeking to relate fuctive agroecosystenls, and by maintaining tileecological the use of biological resources to national development ob- and hydrological processes that support tileproductivity of jectives. It therefore provides an important (and generally these systems, agricultural pressure on the marginal lands n1on-threatening) forunm for reaching national c,misensus about can be reduced and tilefields can be allocated to activities policies on tie use of biological resource::. Few better more conducive to the conservation of biological diversity. mechanisls seem to exist. Integrated rural development that incorporates a compo In one Florm or another, the NCS process has beL.ul initiated nent dealing with conservation of biological resources can in over 40 countries. Focusing ol national planning and the be an attractive activity for development assistance agencies, range of decisions taken by the public sector on the use of as it is likely to fallwithin their established mandates. biological resources (either deliberately or by default), an NCS can address many fl'the most fundamental policy issues Protecting Species and Habitats: faced by governments seeking to use their biological resources ol a sustainable basis. The Need for an Integrated Approach In an analysis of how national conservation strategies have Species are tilebuilding blocks of ecosystems, and often addressed biological diversity, Prescott-Allen (1986) con- the most obvious indicators of ecosystem health. It is not eluded that no NCS has yet provided a comprehensive surprising that they have received considerable attention from description of the socio-econonlic contributions olfbiodiver- governments, NGOs, and international agencies. Interna sity to the country concerned. or a comprehensive treatment ti(nal measures to protect particular species or groups froni of the priority needs of biodiversity conservation. He called destructive exploitation include tileInternational Convention for better treatment of obstacles and opportunities, cross- for the Regulation (If Whaling (Washington. 1946), the Con sectoral coordination, and integration of conservation and vention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild development. The diOSign of policies and practices tha would Fauna and Flora, (Washington. 1973), and tileConvention enable the achievenient of devL.,opmnent and conservation at on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals the same time is tilemost basic need in 1ost NCS work. (Bonn, 1979)(see also Annex 3). At the national level, wild Several other tools have been developed to incorporate species ire protected by hunting regulations, protective what once were regarded as external considerations in legislation, and a wide range (If'other wildlife management developlent policy decisions. Environmental Impact activities. "ssessnients (EIA) are one such tol], and their application Species and their genetic resources plainly supply benefits has yielded many benefits (Airiad and Sammy, 1985). Yet to allhuman beings. While aiimals dominate tilepublic coll inEIA generally only offers guidance once fundamnental sciousness, plants are perhals even more directly important 56 Gerinplasmn from perennial corn (Zea diploperennis), recently discovered in Mexico, can be crossed with cultivated corn to increase resistence to diseases, thereby increasing agricultural productivity (photos by WWF). for human welfare: plant gerniplasm is one of the world's apparent that without access to foreign sources of fre:h germ key resources and the future of the world's food supplies plasm year by year, virtually all nations would quickly find will depend on the amount of effort and resources society their agricultural output declining. is prepared to put into its responsible collection and manage- In livestock, as with crops and forestry, controlled breeding ment. Wild genetic resources from Mexico and Central and the rapid development of varieties suitable for modern America serve the needs of maize growers and consumers high-energy commercial production iseroding genetic diver globally. Many of the principal cocoa-growing nations arc sity. The rate of loss appears worst in developing countries, in West Africa. while the genetic resources on which modern where local breeds are being replaced by imported ones. cocoa plantations depend for their continued productivity are Many of the wild relatives of domestic animals - including found in the forests of western Amazonia. wild cattle, wild sheep and goats, and wild elephants - are Coffee growers and drinkers depend for the health of the seriously threatened even though they may be important for crop on constant supplies of new genetic material from col- breeding purposes. fee's wild relatives, principally located in Ethiopia and While a number o! species protection measures have been Madagascar. Brazil, which supplies wild rubber germplasm et'flcti,,o and emergency species-specific action is often re to Southeast Asia's rubber plantations, itself depends on quired to prevent extinction. species are best conserved as gernplasm supplies from diverse parts of the world to sus- parts of larger ecosystems where they can continue to adapt tain its sugar cane, soybeans, and other leading crops. Over to changing conditions as part of their respective corn 98 percent of the agricultural produce of the USA isderived munities. Therefore, governments have long focused on from non-native species: on a continental scale, half the crop measures to protect particular habitats, such as national parks production in the Americas originated in Asia or Africa. fully and other kinds of protected areas. This approach is ex 70 percent of Africa's crop production came from Asia or emplificd at the international level by the Convention on the Americas, and 30 percent of Asia's crop production in- Wetlands of International Importance especially as Water volves species from America or Africa (Wood. 1988). It is fowl Habitat (Ramsar. 1971), the Convention Concerning the 57 CONSERVING THE WORLI)'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVI.RSITY Protection of*the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, maintain the productive capacities of ecosystems and safe 1972)(see Annex 3), Unesco's Biosphere Reserves Program, guard habitats critical for the sustainable use of species: and and parts of UNEP's Regional Seas Programs. they provide opportunities for scietiific research, education. Most national governments have established legal means training. recreation, and tourism. for protecting or regulating the use of habitats that are im- Many traditionally protected areas have been managed for portant for conserving biological resources. These can in- hundreds or even thousands of years. but the modern pro elude: national legislation establishing national parks and tected area movement began with the establishment of other categories of reserves: local laws protecting particular Yellowstone National Park in 1872. Since that time, pro forests, reefk, or wetlands: regulations incorporated within tected areas have spread steadily throughout the world as the concession agreements: planning restrictions on certain types primary neans for conserving natural habitats. Today. over of land: and customary law protecting sacred groves or other 4,50(0 protected areas of over 1,000 ha each (in IUCN special sites. The responsibility for managing such protected categories I-V) have been established, covering nearly 500 areas is often spread widely among public and private million hectares, roughly equivalent to the size of most of institutions. the countries of Western Europe combined, or twice the size Areas that have been given legal protection against con- of' Indonesia. The distribution of these nationally protected version to other uses should be among those not considered conservation areas by region is presented in Table 7. Mmy for alteration or conversion: their contribution to develop- new areas are added every year, and over 130 nations have ment is typically thuugh maintaining their relatively natural accepted the importance of protected areas as a part of' bal state. In fact. the World Bank's policy on wildlands (Annex anced land use. But many more areas need to be recognized 5) expressly prohibits the use of Bank funds to convert legally for the important contributions they make to sustaining soci protected areas to an\y other uses except under the most ety (Box 10). stringent and exceptional conditions. Box 10: Where New Protected Areas Table 7: Protected Areas of the World. The sites included in this table are all those protected areas over 1000 hec tares in size. classified in IUCN categories I to V and managed Since 1970. the area legally protected has expanded by by the highest competent authority in the country. Data of this sort more than 80 percent, with around two-thirds of the are dynamic, with new areas being established and inforation being growth in the Third World. But agreat deal more remains refined, but this table presents the best available information as of to be done; a consensus of' professional opinion suggests I May. 1989. Greenland National Park, covering 70.000,000 ha that the total expanse of protected areas needs to be in in the Nearctic Realm, has asignificant effect on the total and on creased at least three times if the global system is to comparisons with other realms as it is an order of magnitude larger achieve long-term environmentally sound management of' than any other single site. the earth's biological resoures. REALM NUtmber of sites Total area Reviews of the protected areas of tropical Asia (1000 hectares) (IUCN/UNEP. 1986a), Africa (IUCN/UNEP, 1986b), Afrotropical ...... 444 ...86.090 and the South Pacific (IUCN/UNEP, 1986c) have been Indomalayan ...... 676 ... 32,280 conducted by IUCN's Commission on National Parks and Palaearctic ...... 1684 ... 73,190 Protected Areas in collaboration with UNEP and Occanian ...... 52 ... 4.890 numerous other institutions. W hile many of the extensive Nearctic ...... 478 ... 172,560 Ncoropical ...... 458 ... 76.810 parks and reserves necessary to protect the world's most Australian ...... 623 ... 35,690 outstanding natural areas are now in place. a number of Antarctic ...... 130... 3,120 large gaps remain to be filled. In Indoialaya, ten bio Totals 4545 484,630 units (regions with unique assemblages of flora and fauna) (3.7 4erc45t 4,6landwere reported greatly under-protected, four more need (3.7 percent of land area) soeic adjustments, and only ten are noted as being ade Source: Protected Areas Data Unit. WCMC. May 1989. quately protected. In Africa, five biogeographical units As development has accelerated in the past few decades, are in need of substantially greater protection, seven need governments have recognized the importance of legally pro- only minor additions, and four are judged adequate. In tected areas as part of the overall pattern of land use. In the Oceania, dozens of sites have been identified where pro Bali Declaration (in McNeely and Miller. 1984). the world's tection measures are needed. While the systems review leading authorities on protected areas pointed out that such ffor Latin America and the Caribbean has lot yet begun. sitesar arthan indispensable element of conservation because it will probably report a roughly similar stat 'of affairs. they maintain those essential ecological processes that de Worldwide, the coastal and marine habitats theyainainatur seessentalecosystegy remain pr e dise s aey f woef'ully under-represented in the system and far more pend on natural ecosystems: they preserve the diversity of work remains if these habitats are to be protected species and the genetic variatin within them. thereby pre- effectively. venting irreversible damage to our natural heritage: they 58 APPROACHES TO CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY The nomenclature for protected areas is extremely varied, to linking protected areas to surrounding lands are required The same name can mean quite different things; for exam- if the appropriate benefits are to flow to society. While the pIe, National Parks in Canada do not feature human habita- specifics will vary from case to case, the major generaliza tion, while National Parks in the United Kingdom all con- tion as stated in the Bali Action Plan (Annex 4) isthat local tain human communities. Sig.iificantly, while uniformity of support for protected areas must be increased through such nomenclature and criteria for establishment and management measures as education, revenue sharing, participation in deci of protected areas is useful to foster management, interna- sions, complementai y development schemes adjacent to the tional communication, and cooperation, the exact form of protected area, and, \vherc- compatible with the protected protection provided to individual areas can vary greatly from area's objectives, access to resources. In shoit, economic country to country, or even from locality to locality, incentives should be used to enable people to behave accord Population growth and economic deveiopment are threaten- ing to their own enlightened self-interest, and sound govern ing many protected areas. Furthermore, the list of demands tnent policies should be designed to ensure that conserva placed by society upon wildland reserves isexpanding. Thus, tion is indeed in their self-interest (see McNeely, 1988, for governments today recognize that strictly protected areas can- more specific recommendations on how to implement such not be managed to meet society's growing list of goods and incentives). services, involving such diverse activities as genetic resource In seeking additional land management mechanisms or management, watershed protection, recreation, and educa- technologies that can contribute to conserving biological tion. Additional approaches to the management of wildlands diversity while contributing to sustainable development, are required to supplement the idea of strictly protected na- IUCN (1985) has prepared a system of categories of pro tional parks, where some sustainable harvesting of biological tected areas, each designed to achieve an array of manage resources can be among the objectives of area management. ment objectives (Box I1). While national parks by defini Following the principles outlined above, new approaches tion need to be protected against human exploitatioi on a Box 11: Categories and Management Objectives of Protected Areas. While all protected areas control human occupancy or manipulation for their perpetuation. Controlled use of resources to some extent, considerable latitude is harvesting of some resources may be permitted. available in the degree of such control. The following V. Protectedlandscapes. To maintain nationally sig categories are arranged in ascending order of degree of nificant landscapes characteristic of the harmonious direct human use permitted in the area. interaction of resident people and land while pro I. Scientific reserve/strictnaturereserve. To protect viding opportunities for public enjoyment through nature and maintain natural processes in an undis- recreaiion and tourism within the normal life-style turbed state in order to have ecologically represen- and economic activity of these areas. tative examples of the natural environment avail- VI. Resource reserve. To protect the natural resources able for scientific study, environmental monitor- of the area for future designation and prevent or ing, and education, and for the maintenance of contain development activities that could affect the genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary resource pending the establishment of objectives stac. based on appropriate knowledge and planning. II. Nationalpark. To protect outstanding natural and VII. Naturalbiotic area/anthropologicalreserve. To ."enic areas of national or international significance foster the way of life of societies living in harmony for scientific, educational, and recreational use. with the envi-onment to continue little disturbed These are relatively large natural areas not mate- by modern technology; resource extraction by in rially altered by human activity, and where com- digenous people is conducted in a traditional mercial extractive uses are not permitted. manner. III. Naturalmonunent/naturallandmark. To protect VIII. Multiple-use managementarea/nanagedresource and preserve nationally significant natural features area. To provide for the sustained production of because of their special interest or unique charac- water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor rec teristics. These are relatively small areas focused reation, with the conservation of nature primarily on protection of specific features, oriented to the support of the economic activities IV. Managednaturereserve/wildlifesanctuary.To en- (although specific zones can also be designed within sure the natural conditions necessary to protect na- these areas to achieve specific conservation tionally significant species, groups of species, objectives). biotic communities, or physical features of the en vironment when these require specific human Source: IUCN, 1985. 59 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSrY \\ Wilderness Protected Forest/Seasonal Grazing A\ EL ASpecial Management ZAnthro pological/ Biotic Study ArEa 7jJTrail SIntensive Use W Peak Fig. 4. Diagram of the Annapurna Conservation Arca in Nepal, showing different kinds of land-use (Source: National Geographic Society). commercial scale, other categories of protected areas - such can include sustainable utilization of resources as a manage as game reserves, protected landscapes, and multiple-use ment objective, to both conserve biological diversity and pro management areas - can be established around the strictly vide sustainable benefits to local human communities from protected areas to prevent them from becoming biologically the use of those resources. For example, IUCN's Cat-gory impoverished islands, or they can stand by themselves to VI can be used for protecting traditional forms of agriculture, make important contributions to systems of land management as an integral part of' a nation's protected area system. (IUCN, 1985). Sev'eral of these categories of protected areas Recent advances in conservation biology (e.g., Harris, 60 APPROACHES To CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 1984; Diamond and May, 1976; Higgs, 1981; Soul6, 1986) to deliver appropriate benefits to the rural population. In have shown that by themselves the strictly protected general, the agencies responsible for managing protected categories (Categories ., II and III) will not be able to con- areas need to seek new and more powerful partners in pro serve all - or even most - species, genetic resources, and tected area management - local communities: ministries of ecological processes. Far greater expanses are required for forestry, agriculture, and foreign affairs: development aid conservation than modern societies are willing to remove agencies and international banks: and politicians. from direct production. The best answer to this dilemma is In further elabora :ng the network of protected areas, the to design and manage differenr types of protected areas following points also need to be taken into account: including very large expanses in the categories that permit, * management of a protected area and that of the adjacent and even encourage, compatible human uses of resources land must be planned together, since few protected areas - to support among them the overall fabric of social and are self-contained entities. The establishment of "transi economic development (Figure 4). I7rou,h a planned mix tion zones," in which human activities including uses of of national parks and other categories o1 reserves, amidst natural resources in adjacent land are compatible with the l)Iwdhtive/'r.'ests, agricultutre,and grazing, protected areas conservation of biological diversity within the more strictly caI svt'e'V hluniati comintinitiesand salimgard the nell-being protected core area, are often vital to the integrity of the of ftatre generations of people living in balan' with their latter. local ecosystems. * the management context and likely ecological resilience Improvements in conservation over the coming decades of the area in the face of ciimatic trends and human will lie primarily in the establishment, implementation, and pressures need critical review, taking into account the like improved management of those categories of protected areas ly trend in human numbers in and surrounding the area where some human use will be tolerated or even encouraged, in question. or on new types of protected areas in degraded landscapes • certain "keystone" and critical species, especially of that have been restored to productive use for conservation, vertebrates, may be used as diagnostic indicators of the Strictly protected areas (Categories I,1Iand 11I)are unlike- adequacy of the protected area system, it being assumed ly to ever cover more than about 4 percent of the globe. But that if habitats capable of assuring the survival of viable since permanent agriculture seldom covers more than about populations are protected, the lesser-known species will a quarter of a nation's land area, ample land exists for also be safeguarded (though this approach has some short forestry, shifting cultivation, grazing, and other uses that comings - see Landres et at., 1988). may, with proper management, contribute to conservation o a conscious relationship needs to be established between of biological diversity. Many such areas might surround the in situ and er situ approaches to conservation and these more strictly protected national parks, helping to buffer them methods need to be integrated within overall regional against the more negative human influences, development (see following section). In addition, small reserves can also make important con- o the acceptance of protection depends on putting a suffi tributions to conservation (Simberloff, 1982, 1983). Reserves cient economic value on natural resources and biological of less than 10 ha can be effective in conserving viable diversity and, often, on demonstrating that such areas bring populations of plants, provided their boundaries can be a positive benefit to the local communities around them secured. Numerous plants have survived for as long as (see Chapter 11). botanists have recorded them as populations confined to a a the national infrastructure needs to be so designed as to hectare or so of land. D.R. Given (pers. comm.) has recorded ensure that the protected area system is properly evaluated a case where plants appear to have evolved over millions as a national asset and that adequate resources are deployed of years in a site of this size. In Mauritius. an IUCN-WVM F in its management. project will by the end of 1989 have secured a network of a management policy and practice must be reviewed, about 10 mini-reserves that will include about 80 percent of especially since these may not be best suited to the con the 300 endemic plants, a flora considered essentially doomed servation of biological diversity. For example, the cx by most scientists (H. Synge, pers. comm.). Because they cessive restrictions on collection of material for study pur are small, the reserves can be fenced and weeded ofdamag- poses that have been instituted in some national parks ing introduced plants, yet still contain populations ofas many hampers the evaluation of their biological diversity and as 240,000 specimens per hectare. also of certain management interventions that may be re Finally, the protected areas will succeed in realizing their quired to manage populations; furthermore, the approaches conservation objectives only to the extent that the areas used to address other objectives, such as tourism, may not themselves are effectively managed, and to the extent that always be compatible with the requirements of conserv the management of the land surrounding them is compatible ing particular life forms. with the objectives of .:eprotected area. This will typical- * much greater efforts must be made to ensure that research ly involve protected areas becoming parts of larger regional in both the natural and the social sciences is made available schemes to ensure biological and social sustainability, and to protected area managers, and that managers consider 61 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY all ecosystem management procedures as scientific ex- for breeding - breeders do not normally go out into the field periments to be monitored continuously as their effects for their material, though regular infusions from wild sources become apparent. Since such management needs to be are required. based on the best available information, many protected Ex situ methods suffer from some limitations. First, it is areas will find it useful - even essential - to institute not feasible economically to keep more than a limited sam their own long-term research programs to assess basic pie of the genetic diversity of a species in a zoo, seed bank, ecological relationships, dynamics of change, possible or botanic garden. Conway (1988) concludes that because results of manipulation, effects of tourism, and so forth of limitations of space and the numbers of individuals re (Thorsell, 1989). quired to maintain viable populations, it is impractical for a major effort is needed to raise public consciousness, to zoos to sustain in the long term more than about 900 species enlist the aid of professionals in the field (e.g., in univer- of vertebrates and probably far fewer in conventional sities, museums, and professional networks), and to breeding programs. Second, little directional habitat educate local communities about the value the region. responsive evolution can take place ex situ, so the captive populations are not adapting to changing environmental con Contributions of Ex Situ Mechanisms ditions. Third, the ex situ population is likely to have a nar to the Conservation of Biodiversity row genetic base, and isunlikely to have been collected so While it is universally agreed that the most effective and as to ensure the representation of awide range of genotypes. efficient mechanism for the conservation of biodiversity is Fourth, ex situ conservation depends on continuity in policy habitat protection, it is also acknowledged that off-site (ex and funding, which is far from assured, especially in the situ) facilities can be critical components of a comprehen- tropics (Ledig, 1988). sive conservation program (Conway, 1988; Ashton, 1988). In conclusion, ex situ contributions to conservation are essential for ensuring the survival of crop plants dependent Measures to promote ex situ conservation of species can in- on humans and can provide an extremely valuable insurance elude botanic gardens, game farms, captive breeding pro grams in zoos, and gene banks. The most extensive efforts policy against the extinction of wild species of plants and the past 20 animals that have been reduced to ve:y low levels inthe wild. in ex situ conservation have been applied during Yet ex situt approaches depend on insitu approaches to enable years to crop species (mainly food plants), to some trees, teini stockst epenised Throre, thentwo and to pasture plants by FAO, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)(which includes approaches should be seen as opposite ends of the total spec the International Board on Plant Genetic Resources - IBPGR trum required for effective conservation. - and 12 other inteinational agricultural research centers throughout the world), 150 or so genebanks around the Zoological gardens world, and other crop genetic resource centers. Together Over 3,000 vertebrate species are being bred in zoos and these cover about 500 species of plants (including wild other captive animal facilities, totalling some 540,000 in relatives of crops), or about 0.2 percent of the total. For the dividuals (Conway, 1988). Despite the fact that this number majority of wild species, most ex situ germplasm is main- is trivial in terms of the total wild population and is roughly tained by the 1,300 botanic gardens in the world. Interna- equal to I percent ofthe domestic cats in the USA, criticism tional coordination of the ex situ plant efforts is maintained is sometimes levelled at zoos, aquaria, and similar institu by the Botanic Gardens Coaservation Secretariat (operated tions for holding and breeding endangered animals. Zoos under the auspices of IUCN), which holds records of 20,000 were indeed once a net drain on wildlife, but today most species of which material is cultivated in botanic gardens modern zoological gardens are largely self-sufficient in terms (roughly 8 percent of the world's plants). A major expan- of animal production and some are working to reintroduce sion of this program is being planned. various species, many of them endangered, into the wild. Ex situ conservation programs supplement in situ conser- The Arabian oryx, addax, Przewalski horse, European bison, vation by providing for the long-term storage, analysis, giant panda, black-footed ferret, golden lion tamarin, testing, and propagation of threatened and rare species of Hawaiian goose, Bali starling, Guam rail, peregrine falcon, plants and animals and their propagules. They are particularly and whooping crane have all benefitted from captive important for wild species whose populatio. are highly breeding. Considerable work is still required to ensure that reduced in numbers, serving as a backup to in situ conser- species such as gorillas, giant paridas, elephants, and chim vation, as a source of material for reintroductions, and as panzees can be maintained as viable captive populations a major repository of genetic material for future breeding without needing to draw on wild populations. programs of domestic species. Soha ex situ facilities A wealth of experience is available in modern zoos, in notably zoos and botanic gardens - also provide important eluding husbandry, veterinary medicine, reproductive opportunities for public education. biology, behavior, and genetics. These facilities offer space Even for wild species that are not threatened, ex situ col- for supporting populations of many threatened taxa, draw lections are needed to make the material readily available ing on resources that do not compete with those for in situ 62 API'ROACHEST() CONSERVING BI1OI.OGICA[. DIVIRSITY An enlosurel of*the Rio Primate Center in Brazil where endanlgered primates are b~red in captiv'ity (photo by R.A. Mittkrnieier). conse~rvation. Indeed, a number of' major zoos, including populations when the wild population isstill in the.thousands. those of'San Diego. Chicago, New York, Washington D.C., Vertebrate species with populations below oneCthousand in and I'rankf'urt. have major field research and conservation dividuals in thc wild require close and swift cooperation be programs that support in sitit management of species and pro- tween field conservationists and captive breeding specialists tected areas. (IUCN, 1987b). This principle is well illustrated by the When a serious attempt is made, most species can be bred Kouprey Action Plan, which involves government agencies in captivity and viable populations can be maintained over in thc range States, a number of' zoos, and field scientists thle long termr. U.S. Seal (1l988). the Chairman of' thle in a major conservation effort (MacKinnon and Stuart, 1989). I UCN!SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group, lists thle Through their research onl captive populations, zoos arc following major contributions to successfuil captive mlanage- also learning lessons about wildliffe management that can be inent programs over the past 20) years: applied to protected areas that contain relatively small popula " imnpro ved nutrition and prepared diets: tions of certain species of'particular concern. Methodologies " chemical immobilization and anesthesia: and management techniques such as induced ovulation, * vaccinations and antibiotics: transplanting of certain individuals between populations to * individual animal identification and records combined with ensure gene flow, and various veterinary procedures a central database (tile International Species Inventory developed in zoos will often need to be applied to protected Sy'stem) (ISIS): areas that become isolated islands of habitats (and theref'ore " reproduct ive control (contraception) and enhancement: large, semni-natural zoos). * populatirmIiiology and molecular genetics-, Thle zoos are very wvell organized to contribute to conser * inf'ormat ion technology and microcomputers, and vation. with a number of national and international associa " decision analyvsis and crisis maniage me nt. tions. Both thle Inrtermat ional Un ion of Di rectors of Zoological But the establishment of captive oreeding Populations has Parks (IU DZG) and thle American Association of Zoological of'ten comle too late, when the species is perilously near cx- Parks and Aquaria (AAZPA ) have significant conservation tinction. Instead, management to best reduce the risk of cx- programs, and provide considerable support to IUCN's Cap tinction requires the establishment of' supporting captive tive Breeding Specialist Group. StUdbooks are kept For many 63 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL )IVERSITY of the most important species, masterplans are compiled for potentially well equipped for research into aspects of plant key species. breeding stock is freely exchanged, -nd a series propagation, including seed physiology, germination and of regular publications ensures that zoo professionals are well establishment, and vegetative reproduction. They are also informed of current progress. well placed to conduct research on breeding systems, The zoo community is generally well funded and zoos pathology and herbivory. sy'mbiotic relationships, and worldwide receive hundreds of millions of visitors every mininmum viable population sizes for conservation (both in year. For many people, a visit to the zoo is the only chance sit and i" situ). they will ever have to experience much of tile world's most Botanic gardens are already playing an increasing role in spectacu!ar biological resources. Today's modern zoos are conservation and the maintenance of genetic diversity. Cur educating visitors about conservation of biodiversity, sup- rent activities include: porting field conservation, providing training opportunities * doculenting tile local flora, including sending expeditions for wildlife managers, and holding in captivity breeding to explore new areas and conducting syst mlatic studies, populations of species thai are critically endangered but that and investigation of hitherto unrecog, ,, J species in the may one day be reintroduced into their historical natural flora; habitats (Kleiman, 1989). These contributions earn zoos an • maintaining specimen collections so that records of tile important role as part of the world conservation movement, distribution, abundance, and habitats of species may be available for research, including assessing species of poten Botanic ga s tial agronomic, horticultural, medicinal, or other economic garens interest; Sone 1,300 botanic gardens and arboreta have been * building up expertise among botanic garden staff through established t.) hold and exhibit plants. Many devote con- research and field investigations (often leading to recom siderable attention to investigating those aspects of plant mendations on areas for in situ conservation or on manage biology that require growing a variety of large or long-lived ment policie-s for sustained survival of plants in reserves): plants of wild origin, or that involve growing plants over * maintaining and monitoring nature reserves either within long periods or in large experimental plantings. The), are or assocated with the garden or arboretum (over 250 . .. Only one individual of this species of palm (PritchardiamunroiO remains in the wild. These plants are being grown at Hawaii's Waimea Arboretum and Botan.cal Garden (photo by Waimea Arboretum and Botanical Garden). 64 APPROACHES To CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY botanic gardens and arboreta maintain natural vegetation lion, many species have seeds that arc "recalcitrant" in that areas or reserves either inside their area or separately, they are easily killed by the usual techniques of storing under ranging from a hectare or less to over 100,000 ha): and reduced temperature and humidity. It is estimated that up preserving samples of rare or endangered species in to 15 percent of the world's flora possess recalcitrant seeds cultivation. multiplying and producing rare and endangered (i.e.. some 37,500 species) and therefore cannot be conserved species for reintroduction into the wild and for use in in seed banks with current technology (BGCS, 1989). Far restoration or rehabilitation of habitats, and maintaining greater research efforts are required to determine how such special conservation collections (such collections are grown species can be maintained e.x situ, as the most effective way by over 350 gardens and often include rare or endangered to make their genetic contributions available for research. species). Over the past few decades, significant investments have In recognizing the important conservation role of botanic been made to develop seed banks for the major world food gardens, IUCN in 1987 established a Botanic Gardens Con- crops, often using the CGIAR network. Today, more than servation Secretariat (BGCS) to mobilize the world's botanic 50 seed banks have been established worldwide, over half gardens into an effective lorce for conservation. Its objec- of them in developing countries. Most of these operate under tives include: to promote the implementation of the Botanic aset of guidelines or procedures developed through IBPGR, Gardens Conservation Strategy; to monitor and coordinate based on three main principles: germplasm shall be available C. simt collections of conservation-worthy plants; to develop to all bona fide scientists and researchers, regardless of a program for liaison and training; to arrange the Botanic political or institutional affiliation: collections made in a par Gardens Conservation Congress every three years; and to ticular country will be carried out in partnership with the develop an education program (BGCS, 1987). country concerned, and half of all samples collected will be Today botanic gardens should be viewed, and should view left in the country of origin; and all gerinplasm collections themselves, as resource centers for conservation, research, will be duplicated elsewhere. and development. Their value in conservation should not be For many of the major staple food crops - plants of global seen in a narrow sense but as linked with various aspects economic value such as wheat, maize, oats, and potatoes olapplied science. In the words of Ashton (1984): "Botanic more than 90 percent of the variation in landraces has now gardens have an opportunity, indeed an obligation which is been preserved in e "sitt collections (Plucknett et al., 1987). open to them alone, to bridge between the traditional con- For other species, such as rice, sorghum, and millet, it is cerns of systematic biology and the returning needs of estimated that the major part of the work involved in pre a.riculture, forestry, and medicine for the exploration and serving landraces will be completed by 1990 (Williams, conservation of biological diversity." 1984). This sounds promising, but Peeters and Williams It is apparent, however, that the supply of botanic gardens (1984) estimated that of the 2 million accessions of plant in the tropical countries falls far short of the needs. While germplasm in seed banks worldwide, 65 percent lack even a number of outstanding gardens have been established in basic data on source; 80 percent lack data on useful the tropics - as in Java, Sri Lanka. and Colombia - a con- characteristics, including methods of propagation; and 95 siderable expansion of such areas must be a very high priority percen, lack any evaluation data such as responses to germ as a means of augmenting the in situ efforts to conserve inability tests. Extensive data are held on only I percent of natural habitats (Table 8). Greatly increased international the specimens, and it is feared hat a substantial proportion support for the tropical botanic gardens will enable them to of the accessions not tested for germinability may be dead. participate fully in the international biological diversity.Deptthimotnacivensosedbnfreffort to conserve Despite the important achievements of seed banks, far more work needs to be done in securing crop genetic diver Seed banks sity. First, international efforts have focused on crops of widespread importance, so numerous species that may be The storage of conservation material in the form of seeds of low global importance but of high priority for particular is one of the most widespread and valuable e" situ ap- regions or countries, or for specific purposes such as proache,. Extensive expertise has been developed in this field medicinal plants, are poorly represented in seed banks by the agencies and institutions involved with plant genetic (Baskin and Baskin, 1978). resources over the past 20 years. Seed storage has con- Second, many plants of economic importance are poorly siderable advantages over other methods of e.r situ conser- represented in er situ collections because of the difficulty vation, including ease of storage, economy of space, relative- of storing their seed or because the species are normally prop ly low labor demands, and consequently the ability to main- agated vegetatively. For example, the seeds of many tropical tain large samples at an economically viable cost. forest species cannot withstand drying or freezing (Plucknett The disadvantages of seed torage (apart from those in- et al., 1987). Crops like rubber, cacao, palms, and many herent in all ec"situ methods) include their dependence on tropical fruits can only be conserved in field gene banks akin secure power supplies, the need to monitor the viability of to botanic gardens. Many root crops that are propagated the seeds, and the need for periodic regeneration. In addi- vegetatively must be planted each year to maintain the strain; 65 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY because of the expense associated with this procedure, only When selenium accumulating in water draining from irrigated potatoes among the root crops have received coverage of fields killed or deformed hundreds of aquatic birds at the more than 50 percent of landraces, even though cassava Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in California. a massive (manioc) is the fourth most important dietary source of clean-up was ordered, with a final bill that could reach $50 calories in tropical developing countries after rice, maize, million (Anderson, 1987). International measures include the and sugar cane (Cock, 1982, Gulick et al., 1983). Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dum Finally, with only two exceptions - wheat and tomatoes ping of Wastes and Other Matter (London, 1972, as amend - the wild relatives of crops are extremely poorly ed), the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer represented in ex situ collections, constituting only about 2 (Vienna, 1985) and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that percent of the varieties stored in seed banks (Table 8). While Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987). Action against pollution wild relatives of domesticated plants have traditionally been generally began with national measures to remedy acute con considered a last resort of plant breeders, they have none- tamination of rivers and urban air, but in recent years has theless played an important role in sustaining agricultural pro- extended to regional problems (like long-range transbound ductivity. Over 20 wild species, for example, have con- ary air pollution creating acid deposition in areas remote from tributed genes to potatoes. The difficulty of interspecific the source of the gases concerned) or global problems like crosses has restricted the role of wild relatives, but devel- those of stratospheric ozone depletion. opments in biotechnology may substantially increase their Biological diversity is threatened by various forms of importance in the future. chemical pollution. Sufficient evidence has been presented to convince governments that the depletion of stratospheric Table 8: Wild Relatives of MajorCropsHeld in ozone over Antarctica in springtime is linked with chloro Seed Banks. fluorocarbons released to the atmosphere through their use Only the wild relatives of few crops such as wheat, potato and as aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and generators of plastic tomato have been widely collected and preserved in seed banks, foams. New indications suggest that stratospheric ozone in In most cases, wild gerinplasm represents less than 2 percent of middle latitudes may have been depleted generally by some the seed batik holding,- for each crop and most wild relatives of 3 percent (McElroy and Salawitch, 1989), thus permitting crops still thrive ':y in the wild. more damaging ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth's sur Crop Wild species held in all Estimated percent of face, with consequences ranging from reduced production seed banks as percent wild species still to of algae in the surface waters of the sea to increased skin of total holdings be collected cancer in humans with fair skin. The deposition of sulphate CEREALS and nitrate produced as sulphur and nitrogen oxides in fossil Rice 2 ...... 70 fuel combustion has acidified lakes, rivers. and soils over Wheat 10 ...... 20-25 considerable areas of northern Europe and North America Sorghum 0.5 ...... 9 and, in conjunction with oxidans produced by reactions in Pearl millet 10 ...... 50 andin cocion with oxid eb ratin Barley 5 ...... 0-10 volving hydrocarbons and nitrgen oxide originating Corn (maize) 5 ...... 50 especially from motor vehicle emissions, is incriminated in Minor millets 0.5 ...... 90 forest dieback in these regions. ROOT CROPS But the gravest threat - or at least the straw that breaks Potato 40 ...... 30 the camel's back -- may be climate change brought about Cassava 2...... 80 by air pollution and tle increase in atmospheric carbcn diox Sweet potato 10 ...... 40 ide due to deforestation and burning lossii iuLis. WLile the LEGUMES earth has benefitted from a greenhouse effect for hundreds Beans 1.2 ...... 50 of millions of years - it is what makes the planet habitable Chickpea 0.1 ...... 50 - the effect is now becoming intensified to the extent that Cowpea 0.5 ...... 70 some habitats may become unsuitable for the species cur Groundnut 6 ...... 30 rently living there at a time when those habitats are so isolated Pigeonpea 0.5 ...... 40 by surrounding agricultural lands that the wildlife has no Source: Hoyt, 1988. other place to go (Strain, 1987). The greenhouse effect due to the accumulation of carbon Management Action in Response dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons in Managemintathe atmosphere is likely to raise mean world temperatures to Pollution and Climate Change by about 2°C by 2030 and mean sea levels by around 30-50 Measures to curb the contamination of the biosphere with centimeters on a comparable time scale (Warrick e a/., 1988). pollutants are perhaps the most widespread conservation By the end of the next century, global average surface measures, are the most expensive, and have attracted the temperatures are expected to increase by 2-6°C, with an at greatest attention from both the public and government. tendant rise of sea level of0.5 -1.5 meters (Schneider, 1989). 66 APPROACHES 1O CONSt'RVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY These effects threaten biological diversity because the con- tile fairly rapid climate changes that have characterized tile bination of the magnitude and the rate of the changes involved past 2 million years, and tileranges of many species appear lies outside the range of variation to which living organisms to he affected Itore significantly by factors such as competi have been exposed over the past hundreds of thousands tion than by climate change. MacArthur (1972) has discussed or even millions - of years (Holdgate. 1989). Rising sea this point ill soe detail, poting Ol that UMany Species tend level could outstrip tilerate of growth of coral reefs, and to be persistent once they have become established. Which compress zones of coastal mangroves so much that coastlines plant or animal species will become established in "new" are no longer adequately protected from waves and storm communities will be greatly influenced by the ones that have surges. Coral reefs are showing signs of dieback fbr unknown survived from the 'old' communities. The only safe con reasons in many parts of the world. Recent studies have cIlision seems to be that under conditions of' changing detected a very alarming trend in tle accumulation of climates, variable responses by the resident plants and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in tileoceans and aninials are to be expected and these are likely to be highly freshwater systems and their bionmagnification to elevated unpredictable given our current state of knowledge. levels in the tissues of such marine mannals as whales, But it is unrCal i!;tic to expect tileboundaries of existing dolphins, and seals (Cummins. 1988). Major international protected areas to change veky' much, because they are usual rivers like the Rhine, and major freshwater systems like tile ly surrounded by human land uses that will 1iot allow much North American Great Lakes, have been biologically ita- change. Instead, more intensive forms of management in poverished by chemical pollution. Action to ensure that this tervention - such as habitat enrichment. artificial insemina pollution does not increase in proportion to growing human tion, and borcholes to provide drinking water - will be re populations and global industrialization is of the highest irn- quired to maintain systems deemed desirable: the alternative, portance. Action to reduce pollutants should include the which might be more attractive in some cases, is to allow earliest possible phasing out of the chlorofluorocarbons in- nature to take her own course and for existing protected areas volved iii ozone depletion, reduction of the release of other to be allowed to develop their own "new" ecosystems. .,greenhouse gases" to a minimum level, and a stringent Of particular interest in this regard are the protected areas precautionary approach that minimizes the discharges of that have relatively large altitudinal gradients. thereby con harrnful substances into the world's oceans. taining numerous and diverse ecosystems. As Peters and The impacts of changes in atmos.-tieric carbon dioxide Darling (1985) pointed out. many reserves have been placed levels and attendant climate change on species and eco- in mountainous land because such areas ire generally less systems are likely to be dramatic. Strain (1987) has shown suitable for agriculture. In attempting to assess how the that increasing the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra- world's protected areas are distributed by altitudinal range, tion under experimental conditions alters the growth rate and McNeely and Harrison (in prep.) reviewed all protected areas reproductive potential of plants, and must ultimately affect of'over I,(0 ha in size in IUCN categories I to V and hay interactions at the community level and beyond. Crowley and ing altitu.iinal range data. Of the 4.5 18 sites meeting the first North (1988) have found that rapid climate change may have two criteria. altitudinal range data were available for 2,290 contributed to major extinction events in the earth's history. sites (51 percent). The results are presented in Table 9. More Looking more specifically at the effects of climate change than hal 'of these protected areas have altitudinal ranges of' on nature reserves, Peters and Darling (1985) conclude that less thai 1000 meters. because many reserves are now "islands" of habitat to which spcies are closely adapted, climate change could well cause Table 9: Altitudinal Range of ProtectedAreas. extinctions among reserve species without being compensated by immigrating "new" species. MacArthur (1972) has de- Altitudinal Range (in meters) rived some broad rules about how ecosystems respond to Biogeographic 0- 1000- 2000- 3000- 4001- 5000- 6100- climate change, and suggested that a change of 3'C can lead Realm 999 1999 2999 3999 4999 5999 6999 Totals to a shift in habitat type of roughly 250 kilometers in latitude Nearctic 171 41 27 4 6 2 2 253 or 500 meters in elevation. This is not to suggest that all Palaearctic 423 146 49 25 6 4 4 657 species will migrate together, like soldiers marching off' to Afrotropical 319 50 14 2 2 - - 387 war; different species can he expected to react differently Indomalaya 346 92 21 7 - - 466 to climate change, so the characteristic species content of Oceania 23 8 I 2 2 I 37 ecosystems will also change. Australia 85 26 - - - - Ill Nor can ecosystems be expected to react quickly to climate Antarctic 76 21 4 3 - - 104 change, except when the change is accompanied by other Neotropical 161 51 34 21 5 3 275 ecological factors such as fire or disease. Soil types change Totals 1,604 435 150 64 21 10 6 2,291 very slowly, and many trees are very long-lived and will sur vive for hundreds of years even if they do not reproduce. The implications of anthropogenic climate change for Further, the species that exist today are already adapted to biological diversity are profound, and detailed studies are 67 CONS.iRVING Tl \V(RL.I)'S 131(I.0(ICAI. )IVERSIIY required to prescribe steps that can be taken by go%-. mrlents new convention is required, and that the IUCN draft con and the international CoinniLnity to adapt to the changes that vention provided a useful starting point br such a conven seen almost certain to come (eIen though these changes are tion. Meeting in Nairobi. Kenya. in August 1988. tie ex not predictable at tile local level with a degree of certainty perts advised that the ain of a hobal convention lor cClser that will support detailed plans). Such studies should build vin bioloical diversitl' should be to engage action to Coli on three principles: serve a, Much of the world's biological diversity as possi " First. niai ntai ninlig mlaxi mului biological diversity assules life. It should proy'ide a f )ru ior international identilica far greater urgency as the world becoles increasingly tion of priorities. The obligations it imposes should relate threatened by rapid cliinatic change. Diversity in species to results, leaving the contracting parties to adopt whatever provides the raw materials with which different coin- specilic means their national legal and adniinistrative systenlis nilunities will adapt to these changes, aLnd tile loss of'each Iind most appropriate. File primary approach should be additional species reduces the options lfr nature - and through tile protection of habitats, bt within national people - to respond to changing conditions. franeworks for land-usc planning and species protection that * Second. global generalizations are unlikely to be sufficient safeguard biological diversity to tile maxinilunI extent prac as a basis for respoinse to the problems. While broad pat- ticable outside as well as within designated protected sites. terns of climatic change can be predicted, the real impacts The conventioi should also commit its parties to the adop will be felt locally, and these impacts are unlikely to be tion of measures to minimize the threats to biological diver predictable with much precision. Recommending action sity like unsustainable exploitation, pollution of the in the face o great uncertainty is a risky business, but it biosphere, introduction of undesirable alien and genetically is surely sensible to provide local communities with the modified species, and other factors. It should be recognized capacity to adapt to these changes, based (among other that the motivation I'r global action should be both the value things) oil traditional knowledge about local ecosystemis of biological diversity to huiianity and the intrinsic and and their manageinent. ethical Value of species thienselves. It should be further * Third. all indications are that climatic change is a contin recognized that as stewards of' biological diversity. States uing phenomenon that follo\Vs a nuiiber of inscrutable should not only safeguard tlieir own natural heritage but cycles. Considerably greater scientific attention needs to refrain froin actions that threaten that of other States. be given to the implications of climate change for all The central question that needs to be addressed is how a ecosystenis - terrestrial, marine. and freshwater - and global approach to the conservation of biological diversity to possible management steps that could be taken to iiain- should be financed. Some governnents are already investing tain biological diversity in the lace of it. considerable sums in national conservation programs. but A New Global Convention on the there are ample grounds for considering these to be insufli cicnt. The new convention might be financed directly from Conservation of Biological Diversity the uses nuade of biological resources. perhaps through the The international legislation cited above and summarized mechanism of imposing several small new taxes on certain in Annex 3 has proved an important means of promoting in- us,'s of biological diversity, such as the exploitation ofgeriii ternational cooperation in the conservation of biological plasni (for breeding programs. or for the development of new diversity. The World Charter for Nature (Annex 2) has pro- drugs). harvesting (in forestry, fishery. or via authorized and vided "soft law" as further support for this cooperation. licensed wildlife products), recreational use (in tourism), and However, species and ecosystems ire still being exploited for the disposal and recycling of wastes. (See Chapter Vill at rates that far exceed their sustainable yield. Far more in- for a fLirther discussion of funding mechanisms.) ternational cooperation is required to reverse this trend. Certain olher features of the proposed international con Recognizing the growing severity of threats to biological vention need emphasis. Clearly, its efficacy depends on the diversity and the increasingly international nature of the ac- soundness of its scientific foundation, without which national tions required to address fie threats. IUCN and UNEP have inventories of key areas, international assessments of priority, embarked on the preparation of an international convention and specific needs for action wvill not readily be estab!ished. on the conservatioi of biological diversity. This effort has Tile contracting parties to a convention need to ieet gained the broad support of governimients. including ajoint periodically in coniference to review the working of th con resolution from the U.S. Congress (H.R. Res. 648. 27 vention. and to this end they need a strong. prolessi,ral, and September, 1988), which called upon the President to pro- independent scientific advisory coniiiittce (or the services mote efforts "to achieve the earliest possible negotiation of of a body like IUCN in this capacity). These are matters that an internati na Iconvention to comserve th Earth's biological demand lu rther attention. diversity, including the protection of a representative systeni The urgency of the problem deiiands action. The dileii of ecosystems adequate to conserve biological diversity." ma is over the readiness of the world comiiullity to accept A high-level group of experts advised the Executive Direc- a Inajor new measure with financial obligations. Without the tor of the United Nations Environnient Programme that a provision of new resources, and/or the substantial redistribu 68 APPROACHES TO CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY tion ofexisting resources, the issues considered in this report will not be addressed effectively. A global convention would be a powerful catalyst drawing together the efforts of the various sectoral and regional conventions in this field, by giving overall shape and strategic direction to the whole world effort. But a global convention must be more than a series of noble aspirations. It must do more than state on paper needs for action that cannot be fulfilled for want of resources, or that will not be fulfilled for lack of political will among governments. A convention must not be adopted as a substitute for action, or it will blunt and deflect the ef forts the world needs. Accordingly, any convention should only proceed if it: * has a sound basis in science * is truly comprehensive in scope, covering in situ and er situ conservation and the protection of the biosphere from all significant damaging impacts, and is in harmony with and supplements existing conventions, agreements, and programs in this broad field; " is practical in defining obligations and goals, leaving the contracting parties the responsibility of achieving them * has the commitment of' governments to funding at a realistic level; * provides realistically for the transfer oi resources to allow implementation of the convention by the poorer countries that arc the custodians of much of the biological heritage of the earth; and " is capable of catalyzing and coordinating the efforts ot governments and other agencies under other conventions in this field. The time is coming when the earth's endowment of species and natural ecosystems will be broadly appreciated as assets to be conserved and managed for the benefit of all human ity. This will necessarily add the challenge of species con servation to the international political agenda. It implies two forms of responsibility. First, all nations have the duty to safeguard species within their territories, on behalf of every one. Second, all humanity has the duty to offer whatever sup port is required - finance, skills, and so on - to enable individual nations to discharge their duties. Following page: The rare thin-spined porcupine (Chaetomys subspinosus)was only recently rediscovered in Brazil's Atlan tic forest region (photo by I. Santos). 69 CHAPTER V THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Many kinds of information are required to conserve biological diversity, including human uses, basic taxonomy, distribution, status and trends, and ecological relationships. Recent advances in data management technology make such information more accessible than ever. Effective action must be based on accurate inlformation, tie genetic diversity of the population of especially im And the more widely shared the information, the more like- portant species, as well as the size and nature of the gene ly it is that individuals and institutions will agree on the defini- pool represented there: tion of problems and solutions. I)evcloping and using intor- * carry out ecological fieldwork to show how the various mation is therefore an essential part of conservation at all pieces fit together. discover the population dynamics of levels, from the local to the global community, species of particular concern, assess the effects of'fragmen Earlier chapters have indicated how diverse nature is,and tation of natural habitats, and detemline what management suggested how diversity can be conserved to better serve the steps are required to enable ecosystems to flourish with processes of devcopment. But the current state of knowledge their full complements of* species; about species and ecosystems iswoefully inadequate: detailed * develop new mechanisms fOr eX site conservation, in knowledge is still lacking on the distribution and population cluding both captive propagation and eventual release in sizes ofeven such large and well-studied animals as African to *'natural" ecosystems: primates (Oates. 1985). Given the current rates of extinc- * monitor the changes in ecosystem diversity and function tion. the next few years wil! provide the only opportunity as the influences of humans become more pervasive, in to collect information about issues of major importance to cluding climate change, deforestation, and various forms human welt'are. For many kinds of tropical organisms, the of pollution: specimens that are collected in these few years may be the * assess the ecological differences between relatively large only samples available for future study, providing posterity but minimally disturbed ecosystems and ecosystems that with an indication of how rich the earth was before people have been heavily affected by humans, as a basis for en claimed priority for living space. hancing productivity and restoring degraded ecosystems Insufficient knowledge results from two main factors, to a more productive state: First, species and ecosystems both on land and in the sea * carry out research in the social sciences to determine how are so diverse that major efforts are required to collect local people manage their resources, how changes in systematic information. It has taken about 230 years to resource availability and land use affect human behavior, describe the world's current 1.4 million species: based on and how people decide how to use their biological the figure of 10 million species currently alive in the world, resources. which we are using for convenience (and realizing that the Such basic inventory and ffundamental research work figure could be far higher). it would take 1,643 years to should be carried out simultaneously with field action, with describe the world's species if we continue at this same rate. the two forms of activity reinforcing each other. More de Second. basic taxonomic research is no longer fashionable tailed discussions of research priorities are available in Corn and few major research institutions - especially in the tropics mittee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology (NAS, - are engaged in describing the diversity of species and 1980) and in Soul and Kohm (1989). ecosystems. It seems self-evident that increasing knowledge about the kind and variety of organisms that inhabit the earth Types of Information Needed - and the ways that these organisnis relate to each other and to humans - must be a fioundation of conservation ac- Scientific kowldg tion. Therefore, a major elfort is required to: As more taxonomic and survey work is done, scientific * document the wealth of the world's species of plants and knowledge grows but so does awareness of ignorance; the animals, involving museums, botanical gardens, univcr- more new discoveries are made, the more new gaps are found sities. and research stations - this work needs to assess in the data. Action - surveys, inventory, taxonomy, and 71 A, satellite image' shming smoke md Iri.sIl.-" suninling Iropical forest in soutlhern .Mtxie'. (pholpt b? NO/tANlIKSI)I,. analysis -- is required at both nationi ad international A miatjor eftort is required to establish tropical research levels, and especially in the most species-rich habitats. centers, train the personnel to carry out the required research. This is a daulting challene. but it must be met. Fir less and provide tie incentives necessary to give tile work tie than 5 percent of the species ill tile tropics (and the figure high prestige it deserves. Such research centers are describ could be an order 01 Ii tagni itude less) Ihave been de scribed ing the basis of long-term human we l'tare. and warrant nia ts 'el, and the ntumber ot'laxonomists able to identity tropical .or investments from society. Without tile know ledge that organisms is shrinking as the urgency of tile problem be- conies trom ecological field research, it will be impossible comes greater. Tue Committee on Research Priorities ill to develop tile ecologically sound systems of resource Tropical Biology (NAS. 1980) C011cILided thai at least !alive- management requirii-ed to support the people now living ill to0ld increase ill tile nutiber of svstentatists is necessary to the tropics, to say nothing o improving their condition ill deal with a significan)i proportion ol'the estimated diversity the tuture. while it is still available for sludV. Approaches toilddreSs- For all ol't hese reasons. very greatly increased elifirt sare ing this problemiIcould iclude: required to enable tile taxoniomi institutions to forit close * closer cooperation between mitI r taxo ii ic inst ittitms symbiotic relationships with the coin se rvat ion agencies. which (museuis and universities) ill temperate and tropical couit- ill t ntltneed to work I.ar mire cI'seIy with tile more applied tries: fieltds .f plai aitl antiiital genelic resources f'or agricilhure * better use of the Iiospltere Reserve network. whiclt iii- and forestry. cludes some 260 areas ianaged it least partly to enable Oit a global scale. inotleri echintohogv iNavailable but is research to be carried oi': ill hasic questions of'coiserva- iiistlficienlltlv Used. (iVCk1 tie illipOrtilltCC to tile world ot tion (Unesco. I985): and knowirg how ituch tropical tirest reimtins and given the " training a large number of prataxniomists to collect antd capability ot, carrying out a reasonably accurate inventory docuiment speciiienis. and toimake initial identificatiots. by satellite irtiagerx . it is ofI considerable concern that tile along the lines that are ctirrenth being adopted ill Costa xxorld is still relying oi highly questioaiathe data on tropical Rica (Jarien. 1988). iorest ciretage produced h%FA() 198 1) on tile basis of1 72 THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL. DIVERSITY information from the lat 1970s. social structure, including the traditional location and prox However, availability of infornmation does not mean just imity of ho,:seholder and kin groups for ritual, labor ex carrying out surveys and publishing results. The informa- change, and other important community activities. This in- tion must be used. This may involve creating a network of centers at local, national, and international levels that know Box 12: Remote Sensing. what inflorination iswhere and that can tap into available in formation and presclt it to planners and decision-makers in The technology that is used in remote sensing was useful forms. developed as early as 1972. but only recently became a New technology makes data management more produc- tool in conservation. In remote sensing, maps are created tive than ever belore (Box 12). The development of coin- f'ron numerical data collected by satellites that me.::ure puterized Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has great- the amount of reflected energy f'rom different land-cover ly simplified the preparation of integrated biodiversity con- types. These data are then translated into an image by servation strategies. Recent advances have made it possible assigning visible colors to the numerical values. Images to store and analyze multiple layers of geographic data on generatcd from this procedure reveal distinctions in relatively inexpensive micro-computer systems. Computers habitats, such as forests, savannas, rivers, roads, cities, can respond to search commands to identify gaps in the etc. Depending upon what a technician may want to show, system of protected areas from a variety of perspectives, or different land types may be highlighted according to the to demonstrate how various nanagenent or development op- chosen color scheme. tions are likely to affect environmentally sensitive areas Satellite data can supply information to a Geographical (Chalk et al. , 1984), or even to define the relative sensitiv- Information System (GIS). which in combination with ity of areas, other data sources can produce an analysis of land-use The new technology can make it easier to determine which and habitat modification. The information provided by a species and communities are currently protected and to iden- map produced by remote sensing is verified in the field tify alternative conservation strategies to achieve various by comparing the image with on-the-ground observations levels of protection of other areas of high biologica! diversi- - a procedure known as "ground truthing." The final ty It is therefore not surprising that develornncnt agencies image reveals important information on human activity are increasingly turning to GIS as important planning tools and the natural composition of the area under study. This (Bailey and Hogg. 1986). provides conservationists with a picture of what is hap pening in a given area, and improves their ability to make Local Knowledge sound management decisions. New data collected One extremely rich source of information about resource periodically - possible with the satellite's ability to make management isusually ignored by decision-makers and even frequent passes over an area - call also generate an im scientists: the knowledge of local people whose livelihoods age of change in large areas over time. depend on their management of biological resources (McNee- calneIn the tropics, fcnevn remote sensingidvriy is being applied~reape to the ly and Pitt. 1984: Geertz, 1983; Warren et al., 1989). challenges of conserving biodiversity. For example, Rural coimnmunities often have profound and detailed deforestation can be monitored over areas too large to be monitored by ground techniques. knowledge Satellite images :e also of the ecosystems and species with which they valuable tools in local campaigns to preserve natural areas, are in contact and have developed effcctive ways of ensur ing they are used sustainably (IUCN, 1980), so inforniation talsupplying disruption, individuals and a map with of a natural visual proofresources. of environmen However, should be collected - especially in tropical countries - about baueionsrati as onl re ocse onethe the use that indigenous peoples make of biological resources, tropis se io hav arsen s uchas the and the management approaches they have developed. tropics special obstacles have arisen, such as the difficu, indce laagcooerationmisesent h il th e dlopted.sty of distinguishing separate elements in a rich, diverst Since local cooperation is essential for the lg-term u- habitat like tropical rain orest. But the spectral tess of conservation efforts, it is usually advisable to under- chrteiisofsalieimgsrempvnad survey of the communities affected takf. a socio-cconoinic remote sensing technology is becoming increasingly sen by projects that involve controlling use of biological resources rte insinguih ing nv eaingtypes. in order to determine what resources are used, how they are sorve ro snsing ifere c efective tanon harvested, the degree of awareness about contiolling regula- tom er mpp ingh fore costeabouth ora tions, and possible alternative sources of income. the-ground mapping. The Cormer costs about $5 tor each piovide the necessary raw material square kilometer, where field methods cost about $80 for Such surveys can also an area of the same size (Conservation International, un for determining the sorts of incentives required to bring about publishe da 199) Reo Ienina ote the desired changes in behavior, as well as the best means tcnlies tat 198pi. iegrte iorman stes of providing incentives and ensuring that they are perceived technologies that comprise integrated information systems as fair, equitable, and fairly earned. Information collected arc continually improving, and will undoubtedly make im might cover the ethnic diversity of the communities and their portant contributions to conservation methods. 73 CONSERVING Til- WORID'S BIOI.()(IC:\L DIVETSIY formation can provide imlanagers of biological resources with level. They might consider three major questions' tile necessary insights into the needs and desires ol'the local • What type of information is needed to support changes people, and can avoid Misunderst andings and disruptions in policies (e.g., inlhirmation on the economic importance when implementing incentive systems. o hiological resurces, or on how traditional peoples have These el'lrts at assessing tilerelevant biological and human depended on biological resources)? resources will help governments to recognize the conse- * What intrmation is needed to help identif'y sites illipor qUences of their development activities on the biological tant for conservation (e.g.. ecologically sensitive areas). resources of the nation, and help ensure that external effects and to assign priorities for investment? of development projects on biological diversity are clearly * What infornmation is needed to manage these sites (e.g., identified. infornation on resource distribution and use within the area, or on the social and economic needs of the corn Information Needs At National munities living in and around the sites)'? And Local Levels All governments should build the capacity to assess , status, trends, and utility of their biological resources as an To develop informed policies on resource depletion rates, essential foundation for planning and implementing develop rates of sustainable yield, national accounting systems, and ment action. This capacity, which should build on existing land-use planning, governments require reliable information knowledge and form a permanent part of the management on the current status and trends of biological resources in enterprise, should include: their countries. A carclul analysis of existing intornmation e national compilations of the flora and fauna contained is therefore required bef'orc any significant decisions are within the nation, in addition to the more usual assess made that might affect those resources. ment of stocks of timber, fish, and minerals; Governments need to determine their own needs for in- o institutionalized biological surveys, perhaps carried out forniation that would improve conservation at the national by university departments of biology, to determine what Y,, " F - . - -- - . . " :. "" -a A woman drying fish in Sarawak, Malaysia (pholo by R.A. Mitterniier). 74 THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY species occur where and in what numbers, or perhaps in- resource management in Botswana, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, volving innovative approaches including "'barelOot tax- Rennie and Convis (1989) determined that tilemain need was onomists" (D.Janzen, Universit of Pennsylvania. pers. not to obtain information from a single source, but rather comn.. 1988) and local screening of'organisms for usciul to identi 'the sources, to obtain the information efficiently chemicals (T.Eisner. in press): and in useable form. and to integrate this information into " a national system fOr nionitoring the status and trends of other work that is being carried Out. The primary frustra biological resources, linked to international systems such tions of the users were difficulties in finding the informa as UNEP's Global Environmental Monitoring System and tion, obtaining it,and integrating it into a planning or the World Conservation Monitoring Centre: and management framework. " regular publication of the available iniformation on status Another potential problem isvariability in data quality, atnd tmrnds of biological resources, and tilevarious forces age, and presentation, and in the vays data sets (on corn affecting these trends. puter or otherwise) are maintained. This affects two main All natural resources are managed in some way, whether sets of users: first, where inl'ornation isused to plan manage through protection, production, or consumption. In order to ment action, it needs to be provided to planners and manage resources ina sustainable manner, it isessential that policymakers in a standard and useable format; second, the tileeffects of different management practices are monitored subsets of information provided to other information centers and undcrstood, and that any lessons learned are applied in (such as national agencies) need to be comparable with mr. future managecnint. The types of questions thal need answer- formation for other regions or sectors. ing include: Planners and policymakers should not be expected to deal * What type of management is being carried out in each area, with incoming information in a wide range of formats and and to achieve what objectives? with a wide range of variability when careful planning and * What staff resources and infrastructure does this involve? coordination by those managing inlormation could ensure " What is the effect of management on the natural resources a more focused and coordinated approach. Standard methods and their value? of presenting information should be devised, indicating its " What further information is required to improve manage- accuracy and currency, based on the levels of information ment of these sites and resources? available and on the technology used. Ai important part of assessing biological resources is Regarding compatability of information between databases estimating the economic contribution that they make to the (or information centers), clearly standardization is most national economy. This requires: desirable and most achieveable at the point of data exchange " developing methodologies for assigning values to non- (BGCS, 1987). Information centers cannot be expected to marketed biological resources, appropriate to the needs use methods, classification systems, or technology (software of the country: of hardware) prescribed by others, but efforts can be made " ensuring that national accounting systems make explicit the to ensure that what they hold can be converted into standard tradeofls and value judgments regarding impacts on bio- (and properly documented) data sets that can then be of wider logical resources that may not be measured in monetary utility. terms: Key issues in improvement of information flow (and hence * conducting researLh on methodologies for assessing the the better use of available information in management deci cross-sectoral impacts of resource utilization: sions) are therefore: " documenting the past, present. and potential value of wild e development of databases on what information is available species, their products and derivatives to human societies and where (probably including extensive bibliographic for medicinal, nutritional, and other socially valuable uses- servicing); * collecting inlrmation on the physical properties of re- e development of standard methods of presentation (which sources in specific environments and for specific uses; and covers both user involvement in information development * evaluating the true economic productivity of various and the education of' users); and ecosyste ins. • development of standard transfer tomats. Managing the flow of inibrination Local Information Management Significant differences are apparent between countries and Most day-to-day resource management decisions are made regions, and even between sectors within countries, in in- at the local level, so information must be managed there to stitutional arrangements. technological development, and provide managers and planners with what they require. Pro availability of' data. Information is often scattered, and vincial planners thus need their information to be integrated sometimes difficult to obtain, and some is not even direc:ly on a geographical basis, which will enable local land-use available in the country from which it was collected. In some plans to be prepared, appropriate permits to be issued, and countries, good databases exist for certain regions or sec- planning restrictions to be enforced. At this level, site-specific tors, but are conspicuously absent in others. inlormation is highly important, and it is crucial that this in- In a detailed study of the users of information regarding Formation bc integrated with material from a range of see 75 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S bIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY tors so that appropliate decisions can be made. Efficient in- that conservation and development decisions are based on Formation management iste'refotre essential at the local level good information, particularly about species, are the national (be this a provincial government or a national park), and the 'conservation data centers" (CDCs) started in Peru. Bolivia, data management systems must be designed with the Ill in- Colombia. Costa Rica, Panama, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto volvement of those who will use them. Constant consulta- Rico. Venczuela, Belize. and Paraguay. At these centers, t;on with the users Will ensure that the technical and institu- financed initially with funds from The Nature Conservancy tional design of the database v.ill enable it to fulfill the func- (U.S.A.) and Conservation International, a small staff' of tion for which it iscreated, provide information to those who biologists and ecologists continually assess the current status need it, and provide the inforni:.tion in a form that can be of species and ecosystems in the country, thus putting a used (Rennie and Convis, 1989). sharper edge on recommendations for conservation. New and However, biological resources are also managed in a more more detailed vegetation maps are being produced to analyze general way at tile regional, national, and international level: the protection of vegetation types in established protected consequently, intormation on resources within thc country areas at an ever finer level of resolution. as a whole isalso required and this involves interactions with The next step is to transfer this information regularly to other information centers and wide exchange of' information, government departments and development agencies so that But resource management at the local level requires far more it can be used in planning natural resources development detail than at the national level: the latter is usually only a (Jenkins, 1985). But the data remain just a tool, and the CDCs subset of the forner, are also building the human expertise lor turning these data into information that can be applied to solving management National Conservation problems. In the long run, CDCs may become the most authoritative and up-to-date centers of conservation infor Information Management mation ti the national level, making data available for plan While ,, most detailed information will be held by the ning conservation systems, monitoring the status of wildlife sectorai and local planning agencies, national conservation and critical ecosystems, and reviewing the environmental ira databases can maintain a detailed overview_ of what natural pacts of development projects. resources data sets are held where, can maintain a single To have sufficient impact on resource decisions, the na database on the more important data aggregated at national tional data center should integrate not only conservation data level to provide a general overview, can identify which sites but also date. covering the whole spectrum of natural are important at the national level, can-interact with other resources management. The conservation data must be in national or international databases, and can indicate where tegrated with (or capable of being integrated with) agri major gaps in national data need to be filled. A national cultural, forestry, fisheries, land-use, soil, climate, human database need not necessarily be one central office (even settlement, and other data sets if they are to be of practical though this might be the ideal in some cases), and might be value to the resource planner. The national database being distributed between agencies, building on existing initiatives, developed in China (Box 13) illustrates such a system. The The main consideration in establishing a national data outputs must also be produced in mapped form, with GIS center isto identify, support, and develop a national institu- analysis producing details such as ecologically sensitive tion (or institutions) already active in the data management areas, areas suitable for sustainable use of their resources, business. This bottoni-up approach must involve from the and particularly important areas for the conservation of outset the likely data users, especially the government agen- biological dlversity. Such GIS software can now be run on cies, for unless they participate in the planning of the center, personal computers, and does not require a level of training its outputs may be politically unacceptable. inappropriate for use in most developing countries. An out With the widespread availability of micro-computers and standing example of the application of GIS is the assessment the growing sophistication and ease of use of software, na- produced For Costa Rica (Backus et al., 1988). tional conservation databases are becoming more prevalent. The importance of data exchange betweet databases was The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has long been a leader in mentioned above, along with the need for consistency. While establishing such data centers, especially in Latin America, the ideal way to achieve this might be for ad databases to working in close collaboration vitlh various national institu- use one design and set of programs, this would not work tions. IUCN is working with the governments of Saudi in reality, and existing initiatives need to be developed or Arabia, Bangladesh, and the Sahelian and SADCC countries supported rather than outside solutions imposed. While the of' Africa to develop national databases. WWF has also sup- development of data transfer formats and accepted standards ported work in establishing Jatabases, notably in Thailand, is one answer to ensuring consistency, provision of data Brazil, and China. UNEP has helped establish an en- management tools can help ensure better communication. vironmental database fOr Uganda and is collaborating with These need not be complete database programs, but tools the Costa Rican Conservation Data Center. to assist in management (.f p of'a database, which can Perhaps the most effective efforts to date to help ensure be added to existing programs and facilities. 76 THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Box 13: A NationalDatabasefor China. The database proposed by WWF for China is particular- growth x potential For agricultural expansion), forestry ly relevant as an illustration of how national databases pressures (standing crop x value x accessibility), and might be structured, as it has the primary purpose of con- economic pressures (economic incentive (e.g., special serving biological diversity. The project will involve col- economic zones) x potential (mineral and energy lating a number of different types of inlormation to pro- resources + access) ). duce six primary resource classifications lor e:-h of the These types of information will be brought together by 27 provinces and autonomous regions of China. It will overlaying maps using a Geographic Information System include: to give two intermediate maps for each of the provinces " A mapped land classification of species and genetic and autonomous regions of China. The first will be a value, to be based on consideration of species richness, classification summar:zing "genepool sensitivity" (com levels of local endemism and degree of threat, species bining the first three maps listed above), while the second of particular economic (medicinal) importance, and will be a classification of physical environmental sensitivi Pleistocene refugia. ty (combining the last two maps above). These two maps " A mapped land classification of habitat threat, based will finally be combined to give an overall environmen on consideration of the rarity, rate of loss, and degree tal classification, indicating areas where development of protection of the country's various natural vegeta- should not be permitted to further disturb the environment tion types and its freshwater and coastal habitats. and areas where development should only be permitted * A map showing the location ol all existing and proposed if various environmental safeguards are taken. These areas protected areas scored for their natural importance, and will be coded For the type of safeguards needed (e.g., a map of sites of high scenic and landscape value, rated water catchment protection, pollution controls, wildlife For relative importance. issuci, etc). " A mapped watershed classification system, based on These data are handled using software developed fo' rainfall intensity, slope, soil type, and levels of hazard WWF for use on personal computers. Regional databases (potential for flooding, dependence of irrigation system, of this type will be set up in each of the seven reservoirs, fisheries, etc). biogeographic divisions of China. The data will be col * A mapped land classification of relative human pressure lated Logethe- with the data on the physical environment on the environmcnt, based on population pressure for in Beijing, where the Commission for Integrated Survey agricultural expansion (current density x regional has a mainframe computer with GIS capability. Information Management at the e critical sites for biological diversity (particularly tropical forest sites, but also wetlands and coral reefs, International Level (IUCN/UNEP 1988)); In addition to the need for information at the national levei, e the protected areas of the world (details of some 17,000 a number of users - particularly international agencies sites are now included in the database, along with more require a global center for information on biodiversity, with detailed information on all protected area systems and a global overview database on biodiversity. An international many individual sites); and database is also required for some national applications, such e international trade in threatened species and their derivative as dealing with migratory species or animal trade. products (some 9 million trade transaction records are held The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is on CITES-listed species). the primary clearinghouse for data on species and eco- These data are collected from a variety of sources systems. WCMC is a joint venture between the three part- published literature, unpublished reports and government ners in the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, UNEP, and documents, conservation organizations, and a wide network WWF) established to provide a central repository of infor- of contacts and correspondents throughout the developing mation on the world's biological diversity. In trying to keep world. Protected areas and species data are also provided the data management exercise within reasonable bounds, by members of IUCN's Commission on National Parks and WCMC has focused on asse' sing: Protected Areas and the Species Survival Commission. * the status and distribution of species of consevation con- WCMC Data on Species cern (some 18,000 animal species are held in the database of which some 4,500 are listed as globally threatened While the databases c'ii be tapped to provide a wide range (IUCN, 1988a), together with some 52,000 species of of' integratd outputs, the best known products from the plants, of which 19,500 are categorized as threatened species database are he Red Data Books, which provide the (Davis et al., 1986)); standard for assessing the status of threatened species 77 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (including extinct, endangered, vulnerable, and rare). Data by the great number of national and international Red Data on such species are held in a computerized database at Books that have been prepared using the IUCN threat WCMC, in the data fields listed in Box 14; information held categories as their model: Burton (1984) listed some 154 Red in text iles is listed in Box 15. Additional information that Data Books on animal species alone published until the end needs to be added so that conservation needs can be assessed of 1982. Much of this work has been sponsored by WWF, on a sound biological basis includes known range, breeding UNEP, and other international conservation organizations. season, age at first reproduction, litter or clutch size, mean The conservation status of plants has proved more difficult longevity, and primary and secondary food. to assess, partly because there are far more of them and partly because they are much less known: botanists estimate that Box 14: WCMC DataFieldson Species. 10-20,000 flowering plants are still unknown to science (A. Gentry, pers. c,nini.) and many countries do not have even .Higher taxonomic names (family) a reasonably complete descriptior of their respective vascular 2. Taxon na ne (genus. species) floras (Davis et al., 1986). The lack of a standard nomen 3. ISIS code clature and the rate of taxonomic change create problems 4. Authority or the taxon name for maintaining a global database. Even so, WCMC's 5. Common name Threatened Plants Unit now has documented 18.000 global 6. Basic habitat (under development) ly threatened plant species. and national experts have 7. IUCN conservation category prepared numerous Plant Red Data Books. 8. Wild population tize kbout two-thirds of the world's plants are found in the 9. Wild population trend tropics, but assessing the conservation status of any single 10. Captivity status species is often extremely difficult because of the lack of data. I I. Captive population size Instead, WCMC has decided that its resources would be more 12. Exploitation by man effectively used to promote plant conservation by identify 13. Threats to the taxon ing a relatively limited number of key sites of high plant 14. Text file identification diversity that, if protected, would ensure the survival of a 15. CITES data large percentage of the world's plant species. In addition, 16. Status of distribution info since animal diversity tends to reflect plant diversity, pro 17. Country where taxon occurs tection of these sites will also conserve a high percentage 18. Occurrence in protected areas of animal diversity. While the Centers of Plant Diversity pro 19. Introduction states gram is just beginning, approaching conservation of plants 20. Area population size, trend through the mechanisms of sites instead of species has a 21. Legal coverage in area number of advantages. Botanists are well able to make an 22. Geographical qualifier assessment of plant diversity in a country or region without knowing about each species; certain soil or geological Box 15: WCMC Text Files on Species. substrata - such as limestone or ultra-basic rocks - tend to have distinct floras; mountains with rich soils (such as 1.Summary some volcanoes) often have highly diverse floras spread over 2. Common and scientific name their altitudinal gradients, and older mountains often con 3. Authority for name tain relict flor;is in their higher elevations. 4. Order and Family Climatic changes are likely to affect natural vegetation 5. World IUCN category much more slowly than they affect agricultural crops, so 6. Distribution areas established to protect high plant diversity could serve 7. Population a,; "Holocene refugia," which will provide gene centers con 8. Habitat and Ecology taining plants that could bc us%,d to repopulate abandoned 9. Threats to Survival lands. Furthermore, identifying important conservation areas 10. Conservation measures taken on the basis of plants will enable an independent cross-check 1I.Conservation measures proposed to be made on areas identified on the basis of birds or man 12. Captive breeding mals, and will facilitate greater cooperation between 13. References zoologists and botanists. 14. Summary of Information On the basis of such information, IUCN publishes every WCMC Data on Protected Habitats two years the Red List of Threatened Animals (e.g., IUCN, The Protected Areas Data Unit of WCMC works closely 1988a), as well as geographically or taxonomically based Red with the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Data Books (see bibliography for examples). The importance Areas in managing an information center on protected of this quantitative approach to species conservation is shown habitats. To assist its work, PADU maintains basic infor 78 THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY mation on all major protected areas of tileworld (see Box (IUCN/Unesco. 1987), and of all sites listed under an inter 16 for a list of the data fields held on the database, and Box national convention, such as the Ramsar Convention (IUCN, 17 for information held in text files). 1986). Virtually any other configuration is also possible. The information for these directories is (o.llected from the Box 16: WCMC Data Fields management agencies in each country, (.t., through the on ProtectedAreas. mechanism of meetings held by CNPPA in the respective regions. and from a range of other contacts familiar with the 2.Country itlies within protected area systems. The information is kept up to date 3. Size oflarea through correspondence, reviews of published and unpub 4.Year of'establishment lished literatue, and regular nmeetings in the countrie, or regions involved. The process of maintaining this inflorma 5. IUCN managem.- category tion helps encourage national protected area management 6. Category within courtry authorities to maintain their own databases, and facilitates 7. Biogeographic code the assessment of international conservation priorities. 8. Latitude and longitude WCMC is also working to identify critical sites for the 10. Text tile identification conservation of biological diversity outside the protected I10.Tyet filepsdentfin areas network. This program comninced with the Protected 1. Types of maps on file Areas Reviews (IUCN/UNEP, 1986a, b,c), which on a con 12. If' management plan on file tinental basis analyzed the representation of the main vegeta tion types within the protected areas system. This work has Box 17: WCMC Text Files now been extended by the introduction of aGIS that enables on ProtectedAreas. geo-referenced biological diversity data to be integrated with other biogeographical and ecological data sets to produce a I. Name of protected area variety of mapped outputs of practical value for the assess 2. Country ment and management of' biological resources. The technique 3. Managemert category is now being used by WCMC to digitize the protected areas 4. Biogeographical province network and then to overlay this on the distribution of main 5. Legal protection tropical forest types to show the adequacy of their protec 6. Date, history of establishment tion on a global and regional level. 7. Geographical location A study recently completed in seven central African coun 8.Altitude tries - Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, 9. Area Equatorial Guinea, S'ao Tom6 and Princ pe, and Zaire - has 10. Land tenure 1. Cultural heritage produced a database containing i'"nmtion on 104 sites 1 known to be of critical importance for forest conservation; 12. Local human population 41 already have some sort of protected status (IUCN, 1989a). 13. Physical features It is likely that as more forest is converted t; other uses or 14. Vegetation is brought under intensive management, and as knowledge 16. Management problems of biological resources improves, managers will be increas 17. Conservation managenent ingly preoccupied with the problems of conserving smaller 18. Visitors and visitor facilities forest sites that are subject to varying degrees of 2xtrct,'e 19. Scientific research use. WCMC's "critical sites database" is designed to monitor such sites. Results of initial inventories will be made 20. Principal Rcferences available in a series of Tropical Forest Resource Atlases, 21. Staff and Budget the first of which will be published in 1990, covering Asia. 22. Local administ ration 22._Localadninistration_ The digitized GIS resulting from this work will I_ constant On the basis of this information, IUCN publishes periodic ly updated, and national and regional critical sites maps will editions of the United Nations List oJ'Protected Ares (which be published periodically. lists the areas, their management category, their size, and Finally, IUCN has just published a three-volume compila their biogeographic province, plus lists of World Heritage tion of coral reefs of the world, which identifies the most Sites, Biosphere Reserves, and Wetlands of International hn- important coral reefs for protection and includes detailed in portance). IUCN and WCMC, together with a number of formation on all important corals (IUCN/UNEP, 1988). other agencies, have also produced a number of more detailed directories of protected areas These include directories of WCMC Data on Wildlife Trade protected areas of given regions, such as the Afrotropical The excessive harvesting of wildlife species for commer Realm (IUCN, 1987a), of all Biosphere Reserves cial gain is one of the main threats to species diversity. The 79 CONSI-RVING THE W()RI.IYS IOL)GICAI. DIVERSITY international treaty established to regulate this trade is the by legislators who may wish to see the precise steps that have Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species been taken elsewhere before deciding on measures to be taken (CITES), to which some 96 countries arc now Parties. in their own country or region. WCMC maintains the database that includes all records of For all these reasons. ani index 1t species mcntimed in international trade inspecies listed inthe CITES Appendices legislation is being co1mpiled by IUCN's Environmental Law involving a Party state. The Centre conducts analyscs of Centre (ELC). located in Bonn. Federal Republic o1" Ger significant trade in selected listed species (IUCN. 1988b). many. Over 1.5(X) international and natio nal legal instruments and monitors the trade in unlisted species to recommend their forIi1 part of the index. anid 10,000 taxa of nianinials. birds. inclusion. It also carries out major surveys of the status of reptiles. anmphibians. fish. and invertebrates are included ill species of conservation interest and the threat imposed by the database. Access to the data caii he gained by the taxa illegal trade. This monitoring of'the wildlifc trade and its concerned. the type of legal protection provided. theJurisdic impact is essential for the elf'ective operation of CITES. rion or any combination of these three. WCMC also manages the ivory trade database that The IUCN/ELC index to the spccics data bank provides monitors the transactions of African elephant ivory, regulated an overview of the legal status of spccies and higher taxa under the CITES elephant quota system. Because of the threat in legislation, provided as accurately and concisely as possi cre :ted by the illegal trade inivory, the African elephant ble through symbols, notes. and abstr:cts. Such an overview is the focus of a iiajor conservation initiative backed by has its limitations. and the index is not a substitute for the governments and NGOs. including IUCN. To support this full texts: copies of the texts of all legislation mentioned in program. WCMC is developing an elephant database that the index are available f'rom ELC (IUCN/ELC, 1984). will link the ivory trade statistics to the current elephant populations on a country-by-country basis. Other trade- Conclusions related organ izations with which WCMC works include the Government agencies local Coniniunities. and conserva TRAFFIC Network. the international coordination of which tion organizations all need iformation to eiable them to is maiiaged by the Centre, and the International Tropical manage their biological resources more effectively. Inf'or Timber Organization (ITTO) with which the Centre is :ation tools that can help meet this need include basic undertaking a majior analysis trade. of' tropical timber specie~s in mto ol htcnhl etti ie nld ai descriptions of fIauna and flora, practical handbooks Fbr field identification, rapid inventory techniques, and basic coin The economic benefits derived from wildlife be apowrfutoproiioe arumen coseratin.utilization CMCcan puter programs fbr use with iicro-cwmputers. be a powerful argument to prolote conservation. WCMC The information needs inthe tropics are particularly imi is now developing a database oii sustainable wildlife utiliza- poriant because these areas hold the majority of the worlds tion program.s that can be analyzed to look for coimion hiological diversit and they ireosing species at rates that features of success or failure. The Centre is also active in farlexceediters caacty to recd t riest far exceed the world's capacity to record them. Highest the investigation of se l utilizationrioral progradis, Such as priority for basic inventory work should be given to the sites crocodile ranching. btterfly farming, or game meat produiC- o'greatest diversity and endemisii coupled with the greatest tion, and in assessing their significance for conservation, threat, fOr the inforiiation contained by the species held in Information on Legislation these areas could disappear belbre humanity even knows what it is losing (see Chapter VI). Much i,zw - both international and national - exists to- Development assistance agencies should provide support day throughout tnc world on the subject of biological diver- for national effo'rts to establish local. sectoral. and national sity and particularly on species of plants and animials. inforiiation management systems, through demonstrating Development of national law has bc'n stimulated by tie adop- methodologies, providing training opportunities for tax tion of many multilateral, bilateral, and regional conventions onomists and biologists, and subsidizing publication of status (Annex 3), which in turn have evolved as States have become rep,,rts. Universities, research institutions, and NGOs need increasingly aware of the need to cooperate in maintaining to be strengthened so that they can help governments assess biological diversity, their biological resources. Closer working relationships Scientists, adniinistrators. and lawyers throughout the should be established between musCums and other taxonomic world need to be able to find at a glance information on the oriented institutions and those concerned with conservation law relating to species in other regions or States. thereby of biological diversity. enabling national laws to be enforced more effectively. Con- Information centers should be developed at appropriate vention secretariats need to obtain information on iiplcmen- levels to ensure that the ilnforiation is available whre it is tation of' conventions through the development of* national needed, whether in a single area (such as a national park). law, and researchers who map and monitor the status of ill a country or region. or at the international level. Land species require in'ormilation oi the applicable law ill order use decisions, which can radically affect local biological to be able to make recommendations for future conserva- resources, are often made at the regional or provincial level; tion measures. Finally, information on spu:cies law is required this niust be reflected in the structuring of the national in 80 THE INFORMATION REQUIRED TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY formation system to ensure that regional resource planners have access to regional data. In particular, national databases managing infornmation on the resources of the country should be implemented as part of a full1National Conservation Strategy. All agencies managing information on natural resources at the supranational level should work together to ensure a minimum of duplication of effbrt, and to ensure that national and local sources are not asked by iore than one agency for the same information. The agencies should also work together to en;ire that informa tion from the various sectors can be brought effectively together, in particular through the UNEP GEMS and GRID programs. Agencies involved at the international level in natural resource database design and function should collaborate to assist in the establishment and development of local and na tional databases, building on the needs and expectations of the local users, and bui!ding on the experience gained and initiatives undertaken in the country already. Networks of such information centers and databases should be developed to improve standardization and to fIacilitate exchange of ex perience aiwl methodologies. The decision of WCMC and The Nature Cnnservancy to pool their expertise for the development of database systems appropriate for develop ing countries is an encouraging start. The international agencies with an interest in the conser vation of biological resources, including devclomcnt aid aiencies, governments, the UN system, and various NGOs, ..hould collaborate to prepare global overviews on the status and management of biological resources. These overviews can be an incentive to action by these agencies. stimulating greatly increased flows of funds and other kinds of support. The objective of their collab" ation must be to ensure that land-use decisions affecting biological resources are based upon reliable, useable information: ignorance must no longer be an excuse for environmental degradation. Following page: An opening in the canopy of a rain forest in Costa Rica (photo by C. Isenhart/J. Birmingham). 81 CHAPTER VI ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Problems and opportunities far exceed the resources available for conserving biological diversity. What methods are available for deciding what to do first? The question will be answered in different ways for achieving different objectives. When governments approved tileWorld Charter for Nature strengths and weaknesses, with the major point of difference in the United Nations in 1982, they agreed that all species being the ,,ojective for which the system was devised. and habitats should be safeguarded Itthe extent that it is Chapter V discussed the information that i,.,,,ired as a basis technically, economically, and politically feasible. But for determining objectives and priorities, ant Chapter VII resources for conservation are always limited, so e'lorts spent will discuss how to apply the priorities. This ch pter discusses in deciding what to do first are usually well repaid in sa'- several approaches to establishing priorities, conicluding with ings of time, finances, and personnel. suggestions on how to determine priorities so that resource Determining priorities isa complex task. The genetic land- allocations can be based on credible criteria. scape isconstantly changing through evolutionary processes. and the world contains more variability than can be expected to be protected by explicit conservation programs. Further. Establishing Priorities within a Nation the capacity ofgovernments or private organizations to deal with environmental problems is limited and many urgent The biological resources contained within each nation need demands compete for their attention. So governments, in- to be managed in ways that provide sustaiimable henelis. With ternational organizations, and conservation agencies seek- rising populations, this may require that sone natu,+d habitats ing to conserve biological diversity must be selective, and are converted into agricultural systems, forest plantations, ask which species and habitats most merit a public involve- and other uses that are heavily affected by people. But the ment in protective measures. In the case of the species and natural value of some areas is so significant that the) need habitats not given high priority for such treatment, govern- to be converted with great care, or even left in their natural ments should enact national laws and public policies that en- state. courage individual, community, or corporate responsibility Areas of outstanding natural value for hydrological, as appropriate. geological, scenic, wildlife, or vegetation reasons should be Further, some habitats may be well conserved with vir- converted with great care or not at all, and can be termed tually no investment by governments, merely by enabling Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs). (A similar concept - local communities to continue to manage their resources in Environmentally Sensitive Areas - has been enshrined in a sustainable way. "Benign neglect" may be the best strategy legislation in the United Kingdom and enables local farmers in such cases, though this can involve an opportunity cost, access to grant aid to conduct traditional fIarming methods such as when a government would earn forcign exchange that are more favorable to conservation than the modern in from selling a timber concession in an area occupied by a tensive approach is.) They may contain unique features and tribal group that harvests non-timber products from the processes, such as large aquifers and lakes, cave systems, forest. headwaters, steep or unstabie slopes, rare plants or animals No generally accepted scheme exists for establishing and their habitats, or important breeding areas for wildlife. priorities for the conservation of biological diversity, nor is Some ESAs are natural, while others have been significant iteither possible or advisable for such a scheme to be de- ly altered by certain human activities. Nations with tribal vised. Diflerent organiz,ations and inastitutions can be expected peoples may wish to include tribal homelands as a category to have different ways of' establishing priorities because of' within the ESA framework in order to ensure that the rela their differing goals. tionship between culture and nature already discussed is ap The various Methods of establishing priorities that have propriately managed. In terms of ilanagemient, some ESAs been considered suggest different types of conservation ac- will prosper with minimal inputs while others will require lion and will result in the conservation of different subsets intensive management to restore or maintain their natural ol'the world's biological resources. Each system has its own values. 83 CONSI-RVING Till1 W(RI.)'S BIOLIGICAI. DIVERSITY Habitats can be considered ecologically sensitive areas it 1982). they: The boundaries of an ecosystem are otten identified by o provide protection of steep slopes, especially in watershed Changes in vegetation. soil, or landscape form. The scale otf areas, against erosion: the ecosystem depends oi tilepurpose of*analysis: a small * supprt important naitural vegetation oil soilts of inherent- niinain pond is all ecosystem, and sO is the Miountain On IN,low pr Kluctivity that would yield little ot value to huntian which it is located. Almost all ecosystems are connected with commUnities it transforned; others ot various scales. Protected areas with artificial boun * regulate and puril' water flow (as valley fbrests and daries may be whole or partial ecosystems, depending on wetlands oItenti do)" tilesize of the area, the scale of analysis, and the tori of * pr. vide conditions cssential for tileperpetuation of'specis the boundary: a protected ,.rca surrounded by forest is a much of* medicinal and genetic conservation value: different ecosystem than (,uie surrounded by agricuItural land. * Maintain conditions vital for the perpetuation of species Some ecosystems are relatively robust and resist perma that enhance the attractiveness of the landscape or the nent damage, but others are very sensitive to disturbance a';d viability of protected areas: or may require long periods to recover fronil disruptions. * provide critical habitat that threatened species use tIr Grasslands naturally subject to periodic fires, for example. breeding. feeding. or staging. are robust. While imature tropical rain forests may be easily The last two points traditionally have been used to select disturbed and require decades or even centuries to recover areas protected for conservation purposes. Current networks (e.g., Gomez-Pompa e al. , 1972). Particularly sensitive o protected areas will seldom address allcriteria for ESAs ecosystems include those that lie on geologically unstable however, and such situations as those covered by the first substrata, such as steep slopes subject to landslides, and those three points will require additional approaches to manage- dependent on influences from outside the system, such as ment. Because ESAs ire often proposCd for conversion to estuaries and deltas. other purposes, or are subject to inel'fective managemlent. criteria ire required iii each nation to guide decisions oil How to Identij*, Ecologically Sensitive Areas whether an ESA can be converted to alternative uses. and, Ecologically Sensitive Areas already exist in every nation. if so. under what conditions. Such criteria will help ensure Some are wel I known, others are knox n On'y to local comn that ESAs contribute to tiledevelopment process in a careful- munities, and a few may not be recognized by anyone. In 1, considered maner, and are not needlessly dcstmyed order to determine how ESAs are to be managed I'Mtheir through ignorance or inadvertence, adequate protection and appropriate use, the logical first step The productivity of many ESAs has already been reduced is a survey of' all remaining natural habitats to determine through; inappropriate uses, and many others face very real which have tilehighest value in their present state and those threats. People have shown the capacity to convert almost with tileleast value if transformed (i.e., the least opportun any piece of natural habitat into agricultural land that can ity cost for conservation): other biological and social produce a crop for at least a few growing seasons. Indeed. parameters should also be included in the survey, often based Spencer (1966), in his classic work on shifting cultivation on existing data. Criteria for identifying ESAs need to be in Southeast Asia, concludes that virtually allof mainland established on tilebasis of this itiforniation. and the mos: tropical Asia has been cleared at one time or another by shilt- important areas should be designated for special treatment ing cultivators over the past 10,000 years. But areas that are (Box 18). inappropriate for such use quickly degrade into wastelands. The identification of ESAs outside of existing protected such as the great exparses of Intperata grasslands found in areas ideally requires considerable research and information, much of tropical Asia. Worse, inappropriate conversions of but the pace of developnent is such that it will inevitably watersheds, for example by illegal logging, can cintribute prove necessary to take some relatively arbitrary decisions to very high huian costs downstreamru through floods, on the I;.aited information available. In practical terms, and erosion, siltatiot. and other external factors, as a working rule of thumb where complete inforniation is A useful scale for guiding decision-making is the not yet available, it may be nest to accept the rationale behind ecosysteni. a coilmmtliulity of organistms interacting with the the current processes used by resource management lecal living and non-living elements of the environment and authorities to select ESAs for particular protection. These forming a system in Which i fe-sustaining processes lre mai- vary considerably f'ron country to country, and fironi tained. The functioning of an ecosystetii involves tileic- management authority to nianagerient authority: even within Cunii latiOn. circulation. and transforniation of niatter and a country. a national parks department may use selection energy through such biological processes as phohitosynthesis criteria that are quite different from those used by a water arid decomposition. The ecological processes often work shed protection departirit. In general, this would mean that thugh tile ieans of water. which pri'ides a inditul off first priority ESAs should include all areas that are given transter and storage of energy and materials used by living legal protection (though recognizing that not allareas given organisms within the ecosystem (Siegfried and Davies. legal protection really qualify as ESAs), second-priority 8,4 -"STAtI.ISHtlNG 'RIORITIIS FOR C)NSEtVING BIIOGA(I('AIL )IVtRSITY 1) Clitel'ia lhat determninle /he importanc'e('I he site to Box 18: FourSteps Toward a National human System of Protected EconoMi bee./. The site provides ,,bviOtis long-term Ecologically Sensitive Areas. economic benefits, such as watershed protection or tourism, and does iot illVolvC great tpp(ttllity Costs. Each country will need to design its own approach ito This will 0ften be the most important criterion fIOr the identil'ying the Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) in its production-oriented sectors. country, as a basis for deciding how to manage the ESAs. Diveisit. The site has a great variety of species and The following general steps may provide a useful ecosystems. and is sufficiently large to contain viable f'oundation. populations of most species: it contains a variety of Step 1. Evaluate patterns of habitats and vegetation, geonlorphological features, soils, water regimes. and soils, mineral resources, topography. rivers and microhabitats. other hydrological fctures, clinate. current Criticlhadlat,,:ntermuional. The site isessential to tile land use. ethnic groups, and population deI.sity, survival of one or more threatened species that occur in Step 2. Establish criteria for identifying ESAs aad for no other country. contains the only example of' certain providing objective guidelines on appropriate types of' ecosystems. or contains landscapes of OUtstand management regimes. ing universal value. Step 3. Based on the criteria established, identify Criticalhabitat, national.The site isessential to tile sur especially vulnerable locations, areas of high vival ofl'one or iore species threatened nationally. or con biological diversity, and areas of' ligh economic tains tile nation's only example of' certain types of value in tile natural state. ecosystems. The ecological functioning of the area is vital Step 4. Prepare anational strategy for conserving ESAs, to tile healthy maintenance of a natural system beyond including establishing national objectives, iden- its boundaries (such as habitat for migratory species, an tiling economic relationships. designing any important catchment area for lowland irrigation systems, necessary legislation. and assigning institutional protection of the coast against typhoons. etc.). responsibility for the ESAs. I cltural diiversity. The site supports populations of in ESAs should include all areas proposed for protection or digenous people who have developed lechanisms lor liv rehabilitation. and tihird-rritrity ESAs should be all other ing in sustainable balance with tile natural ecosystems. areas where natural habitat remains. and whose continued presence in the ESA would help en sure that the diversity of the area is maintained. Urgency. Action is required quickly at the site in order Criteriafor Designating aid to avert an iliniediate threat (thougih it should be real Managing Ecologically Sensitive Areas ized that this isoften a "daaige control" action: it is usually best to protect f'ar in advance of' thj,'cat). In planning a system to protect ESAs for supporting na tional development goals, criteria for selection and manage ilent are essential. A system of criteria will enable a relative- 2) Criteriato dletermine adhtional elements thai enhance ly organized comparison of dif'ferent sites to be made, help the value of the site: tell decision-makers why certain areas 01' policy initiatives Demonstr'ttion. The site demonstrates tile benefits, are important, help flcus research o1 the most important values, or methods of protection. and can show how to questions, facilitate the drawing of boundaries for the ESA resolve conflicts between natural resource values and by specifying tile features that need special managenment, and hunian activities. promote public inlforiation programs. Repiesentativeness. The site is representative of a habitat The sorts of protective regimes that are n(ost appropriate type, ecological process, biological coimmunity. physio !or each ilajor ESA (including. but not limited to, designa- graphic feature, or other natural characteristic. tion as a protected area) will be determined by tile local Tur'ismn. The site lends itself to lorms of tourism coni social, political, and economtic factors that need to be con- patible with the ainis of conservation: this criterion is sidered along with tie ecological (ones. The follwing set of often related to those (f' econilic benefit and social model criteria is presented in roughly descending order of acceptance. importance, though modifications will be required for adapt- Lndscalpe. The site has features Of outstanding natural ing to each particular situation. Each criterion is presented beauty; these are usually also unique, easily destroyed. as an ideal against which agiven site call be considered. No and attractive to tourists. and any alteration would one site can be expected to tieet the ideal, and di'fferent significantly reduce the area's amenity vahle. criteria will be relevant to different sectors. I soile cases. Recreation. The site provides local communities witlh op it may be appropriate for planning purposes to assign portunities to use, enjoy. and learn about their natural numerical scores to the various criteria. environment. 85 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVIERSITY Research and mtonitoring. The site can serve as a non- The Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology manipulated area against which to measure changes oc- (NAS, 1980), drawing on very wide consultation with ex curring elsewhere, it can form th, basis for assessing any perts in various fields throughout the world, identified I I ecological change. Research has been carried out over areas in the tropics that. because of their great biological a long period in the site, and niajor field studies have been diversity, high leve.ls of endemism. and the rate with which carried out to provide a strong f'oundation on which new their forests are being converted to other purposes. seem to research can build. The site represents ecological demand special attention. These are: characteristics of regional value so research can yield 0 Coastal forests of Ecuador, arguments that can have impacts far beyond the protected • The *'cocoa region" of Brazil. area. * Eastern and southern Brazilian Anazon. Awareness. Education and training within the site can con- * Cameroon, tribute knowledge and appreciation of regional values. 0 Mountains of Tanzania, The site can serve to exemplify techniques or scientific * Madagascar. methods, making it particularly important for education * Sri Lanka. purposes. * Borneo. ia . and 3 ) Criteria to h elp ete r in e t an g e me t J eai i i ' f New Ca le do n a Ne Cleonaan a 'iii." Hawaii. Socialacceptance. The site is already protected by local people, or official protection by the government (par ticularly against outside exploitation) would be welcomed. OpPortunism. Existing conditions or actions at the site lend themselves to further action (such as the extension of an existing protected area or establishment of a buffer zone around an existing park). Availahility. The site can be acquired easily, through inter-departmental transfer, easements, or other legal fbrmns of control. Convenience. The site is accessible to researchers or students For scientific and educational uses. International Approaches to Determining Priorities Just as sone ecosystems within a nation have more species than others, so do some nations have more species than others (usually because they contain more ecological diversity). It is not suggested that biological diversity should be the only criterion to guide conservation investments; criteria such as degree of human need and opportunity for success, also need to be considered. However, it still seems worthwhile to iden tify which parts of the world contain the greatest diversity. This problem can be approached on at least three different levels: the region, the nation, and the site. The Regional Approach: CriticalAreas in Tropical Forests atid Temperate Areas It is generally accepted that the greatest threat of species A loss is in the tropical forests. which are thought to contain at least half the world's species on just 7 percent of' the world's land surface (Wilson, 1988a). But within this richest of the world's biomcs. a relatively small number of par ticularly rich areas harbor an inordinately large share of the earth's biodiversity, featuring exceptional concentrations of Insects comprise the largest group A organisms on earth, with species with exceptional levels of endemism. estimates as high as 30 million spcies (photos by A. Young). 86 ESTAIISHIN(, I'RIORITIF,S FOR CONSEiRVING BIOL(;ICAL DIVIRSITY 'HOTSPOT' AREAS IN TROPICAL FORESTS 7'' IV L-O, r Eastern Hawaii Hawi-, "" / - .. " Himalayas -4. S Philippines Colombian Choc6- Western Ecuador-' \, ForestAtlantic / '':,,. region Peninsular Qeen sland / % of Eastern Malaysia x l'.Qeenslnd Brazil ,iLJ , New Caledonia Uplands -) Western Amazoniaof./ E t "/ - .. :, L MadagascarEastern Northern Borneo Source: N. Myers, 1988c Fig. 5. Myers (1988c) developed the approach to critical areas in a somewhat different way, identifying 10 tropical forest Table 10: "Hotspot" Areas in TropicalForests. "hotspots," (plus 2 in the developed world - Hawaii and The last figuie in each iine is the percentage of the flora of each Queensland) (Fig. 5) totalling about 3.5 percent of the region that isend-nuc to that region, the total figure of 13.8 per primar, ropical forest remaining (and only 0.2 percent of cent is the percentage of the world's flora endemic to these ten the land surface of the pianet) but containing at least 27 per- regions. cent of the higher plant species found in the tropics; no less than 13.8 percent of the world's plants are found only in these Area Original Present Plant Number of hotspots (Table 10). extent primary species endemics in Myers was meticulous in pointing out the timitations of of forest in origiaal data that bedevil the conservation biologist attempting to com- forest (1000 ha) original forests pile data to enable such assessments to be made. While some (1000 ha) forest (percentage) figures can be taken as accurate to within five percent or bet- Madagascar 6,200 1,000 6,000 4,900 (82) ter, others are little more than best guesses of specialists who Atlantic Forest, 100.000 2,00o 10,000 5,000 (50) have worked in the areas involved for many years. But Myers Brazil concludes that the overall approach, uneven as it is, is Western Ecuador 2,700 250 10,000 2,500 (25) justified as an analytical exercise that seeks to delineate the Colomhiait Choc6 10,000 7,200 10,000 2,500 (25) conservation challenge facing the tropical forests. W.Amazonian 10.000 3,500 20,000 5,000 (25) The focus )n tropical countries, however, can lead to in- Uplands sufficient attention being given to extremely important Eastern Himalayas 34,000 5.300 9.000 3,500 (39) temperate a.'eas. For example, of the 23,200 species of plants Peninsular Malaysia 12,000 2,600 8500 2,400 (28) estimated to occur in southern Africa (South Africa, Lesotho, Northern Borneo 19,000 6,400 9,000 3,500 (39) Swaziland, Namibia, and Botswana), 18.560 (i.e., 80 per- Philippines 25,000 800 8,500 3,700 (44) cent) are endemic to the region (Davis et a/., 1986). This New Caledonia 1,500 150 1.580 1,400 (89) gives the area the highest speLies richness (calculated as 220,400 29,200 * 34,401) (13.8) species/area ratio) in the world, 1.7 times greater than that * Itisnot meaningful to total these figures because of overlap between of' Brazil. Of these, 2,373 have been reported as threatened, some areas, notably in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and the Philip 1,621 of which are in the Cape Floristic Kingdom, which pines. gives this region the highest concentration of threatened plants of any temperate region (Heywood, 1989). Source: N. Myers, 1988c. 87 CONSIERVING TIlE WORI.YS Il )I.OGICAL DIVEISI'ITY The Regional Approach. (Olble I1). Within this great diversity. Vernicij (1978) has Diversity in the Seas shown that some areas are considerably richer than others (TIable 12). While the tropicalI forests are thought to stillcontain The oceans are a rcat new Irontier whose productivity millions o"undescribed species. tile world's oceans are also is just beginning to he harni',sed by humans (though already poorly known iniad reoutlarly yield majo irnew discoveries: some areas show disturbing sign.s of overexph)itatiti). As a toItall' new phylu., lwcri'ru, was described only in 1986 society seeks to exploit this productiviy, far greater cflorts (Baker et al. 1986): a shark over 5 ictel's long (known as are required to ensure that tihe exploitation is based t ii a more "'the meganlouth shark") hias been disco'elrcd ili the past complete knowledge of thow marine ecosystelris ftuction, how decade (Ray. 1988): a species of m:ssel living near hydro- marine bitidiversity contributes to productivity, an what carbon seeps in the (;tlllt f N/exico was found to be feediing nianageinlit activities are rCLItred to enslr that the on methane (Childress i al. I,19861: deep-sea comnities characteristic diversity of the seas is maintained. Establishiig have bee ntt to be far richer that) suspected. w ihscalloor prioirities within this cotitext is a dantiig task. sediments at deptlhs of 1.500 to 2.5() meters off tie coast of New Jersey found to contain 898 spocics inire than Table 12: Species Richness in Iropical Waters. a hundred faii!ios arid aI ozen phyla (Grassle. 1989) : aniid Numrber of Species entirely new Iabitat s - hydrotherinal oceal vents - have ...... been discivrd in the past dcad ttetIoinist of"at least 16 rlGroup lIdo-.,st Eastern Western Eastern bacific lPacilec Atlantic Atlantic previously unknown fiamilies of invertebrates (Grassle. ------1985). At the higher taxontoiiiic level 0if phylurii, niarine Molluscs ...... (00 . 2.100 ..... 1.200 .....500 ecosystenis ire acttuall\ iiiore diverse than either terrestrial .restaceans or freshwater bionics, with more phyla and endcmic phyla Stonilalotto.s 15014...... 40 .... 60 ... 1I liraclivura ..... 700 1 90...... 385 .... 200 Table 11: Distribution of Animal Phyla by Habitat. Fis,,c, 1.501) . . (1 .. - 0(1.... 28(1 Source: Verieij. 19J78. SYMIBIO'IC MARINE O/recthe,,'ida I'lao'Za I'orifI.ra The National Approach. I)ivr' tia ('e lvphtora Cnidari.ia ,, .o.t ,, Nmatomrpha Gntho.stomilida Plaryhehilintlics MegadiePSitV Countries A,.nI/iacphahl Kinorhvnitch Ncicrtca As de-,,.opcd by Mitterileier (1988, Mitternicier and Dn.iu'fi'rti Neialotda Werner, 1989). the megadiversity country concept recognizes Porifera friapla Rotifera that: Cnidaria Pogollophora Gastrotricha Platyheliiinthes thchiara Tardigrada * although basic scientific intormation on biodiversity and Ncmertca Chaviot'ailra Mollusca endangered ecosystcms should be our first step in assess Nematoda t'horonida IKaniptozoa ing international conservation priorities. conservation pro Rotil'cra I Bruchiolmh Sipuncula grais are developed with arid by the governments of Mollusca tIiodef-1rata Annlida sovereign nations: that Kamptozoa /h i Arthropoda Annlida biodiversity is by no ieans evenly distributed among tile Bryozoawol ' 16 co nre:a d t t Arthropda Chrdata wirld's 168 countries: and that Chordata • a very small number tf coiuntries, lying partly or entirely 15(4 endemic) 28 (13endemlic) within fle tropics. acecotis for a very high percentage of - 14(0 endemic) It (I endemic) the world's biodiversity (including niarine, freshwater and Poritera On.\'/oponhora terrestrial diversity), and that thsCe countries require very Cniidaria special international conservation attention. Plat lili nties Phatyhl ill ii liesh The mnLad ic rs ity concept integrates bioltgical inlb ia Neliertca Nemertca tien of many different kinds, but the two main criteria tor Neialtodl Nciiatoda inclusion inthis category are total ipecies numbers and levels Rotliera Rotilcra oferidcmism both at the species level and at highci taxonotnic Gastrotricha 'ardigrada categiris (e.g. ge l iiiiI lirdigrada MOtlluscai Molhusca Sipu icuhL Although data are still being gatiered oiithis topic. Kamptozoa Annelida prclimin:iry indications are that about a tIzeII countries Arielida Artlropoda bcl'ng :,ithe mcgadiversity list.Incluing Brazil. Colom Arthropodia Chordata hia. Ecuador. Peru, Mexico, Z.air. Madaga s. r,ALI ,ralia. Bryozoa China. India. Indonesia and Malaysi'a. and thi :,iese couri Chordata tries by themiselves account lbr 60 to 70 percent (and perhaps FPESINN11TER TE R R PSTR IA 1 Teven more) of all the woirld's biodiversity. Of these, Brazil. 88 ESTABIISIIING PRIORITIIES FOR C(ONSERVIN(; l OlGl.UGilAI.DIVERSITY Co lo mb ia In e ia . do n . an d M e x ic o a re e spe c ia lly ric h in - 1 5 : A si a n C o u nt ries with t h e Hi g h est species numbers (and often have high endemism as well) for Table 15: Asian Countries wit/ the Highest most groups ol'organisms on which hdformation is available. Numbers of Species for Selected Organisms. Madagascar and Australia, though usually not as high in total MAMMAIS BIRI)S AMPHIBIANS species numbers see (but Box 19 for reptile diversity in I. Indonesia ...(5151 Indonesia.. (1519) Indonesia . . (270) Australia), belong on the megadiversity list because of their 2. China ...... (394) India ...... (1200) China .....(265) very high degrees of endemlisn, both at the species level and 3. India ...... (350) Malaysia. ± 1200) Australia ... (197) alIso at higheriaxonomic categories like tle genus and tan- 4. Buria .....(3()0 China .....(I195) Papua NG.(183) dly (Table 13). For example, Brazil, though highest in the 5. Malaysia ...(293) Burma ...... (967) India ...... (182) world in total plant numbers, has no endemic plan: lanilies. 6. U.S.S.R. . . . (276) Nepal ...... (835) Malaysia... (171) wiereas Mada&eascar has live and Australia 12. A,lthough the 7. Thaihad ....(263) Thailand ....(800) Thailand ...(101) mcgadiversity countries (e.g., Brazil, China) are among the 8. Australia . . . (255) U.S.S.R . (..(728) Philippines .. (77) worlds largest and wvould be expected ;,itave high diversi- 9.1.Piipns.(6)Piipns Vietnam .... (201) Pakistan ....(612)5 )Venm....(2 Burma ...... t75) tv simply because of their" size. their diversity far exceeds 10. Philippines .065) SWALLIOWVTAILPhilippines .(541)A ANGLOVietna) ....(72) thai of other countries of similar size (e.g.. Canada, U.S.A, REIiLES BUTTEIRFILIES' SPERMS 2 (est.) U.S.S.R.). Furthermiore, several of the megadiversity cot1i- I . Australia... (686) Indonesia ...(121) China .. (27,000) tries are quite small (e.g. Ecuador, Madagascar, Malaysia), 2. Indonesia (> 600) China ...(99-104) Australia (23,500) 3. India ...... (453) India ...... (77) Indonesia(20,000) Table 13: Numbher of Endemtic Eamilies in 4. Malaysia. (294) Burnia ...... (68) U.S.S.R. (20.00) 5. Thailand (Indochina) (66-69) Malaysia (15.,000) Australia and Madagascar. Papua NG..(282) Australia Madagascar 6. China ...... (278) Malaysia . . (54-56) India ...(14.500) Birds 4 3 7. t'urma .....(241) Philippines ... (-19) Thailhnd (11.500) Mammals 7 5 8. Vicnam Nepal .37 or 38) Vietnam (0 1,500) Angiospernis 12 8 Pnilippines .(212) 9. Bangladesh .(129) Papua NG ...(37) Philippines (8000) 10. U.S.S.R.... (125) Brunci .... (35-37) Burma ....(7000) Table 14: Countries with the Highest Numbers Source: Conservation International. numerous sources. of Species for Selected Organisms. 'Collins and Morris. 1985. 2Davis et. al. 1986. MAMMAI,S BIRI)S AMPHIBIANS I. Indonesia . . .(515) Colombia .(1721) Brazil .....(51, 2. Mexico ....(449) Peru ...... (1701) Colombia .. (407) with the divcrsity being due more to topography, climate 3. Brazil ..... (428) Brazil .....(1622) Ecuador ...(358) ...... 4. Zaire (409) Indonesia .. (1519) Mexico ....(282) and/or long isolation than to surface area. In any case, large, 5. China ...... 394) Ecuador ...(1447) Indonesia .. (270) sniall or medium-sized, these countries have great strategic ...... 6. Peru (361, Venezuela. .(1275) China .....(265) importance in conservation of biological diversity worldwide. 7. Colombia ... (359) Polivia . . (± 1250) Peru ...... (251) They themselves have a great responsibility to the world to 8. lndi-' ...... (350) India ...... (1200) Zaire ...... (216) conserve their biological wealth, and the international corn .... 9. Uganda (311) Malaysia. (-±1200) U.S.A .....(205) ununity has a special responsibility to them to provide any 10. Tanzania ...(310) China .....(! 195) Venezuela assistance that might be required to achieve their conserva- Australia . .(197) tion goals. SWALLOWTAIL ANGLO- It should be emphasized that focus on these niegadiversi- REI'l'ILES BUTTERFLIES' SPERMS (est.) I. Mexico .....(717) Indonesia ...(121 ) Brazil .. (55,000) ty cuintries is in no way intended to inply a triage approach 2. Australia ...(686) China ...(99-104) Colombia. (45,(XX)) in which the focus is exclusively on a limited number ofcoun 3. Indonesia. (±600) India ...... (77) China .. (27,(X)0) tries to the exclusion of all others (senstt Myers, 1979). Ob ...... 4. Brazil (467) Brazil ...... (74) Mexico . (25,000) viously, the biological resources of each and every country ...... 5. India (453) Burma ...... (68) Australia.. (23.0)) are of critical importance, at least to their own survival and 6. Colombia ... (383) Ecuador .....(64) S. Africa(21,(X)0) well-being (even if not particularly important inthe global 7. Ecuador .... (345) Colombia ....(59) Indonesia(20.000) picture), and therefore worthy of national and international 8...... Peru (297) Peru ...... (58-59) Venezuela(20,000) attention for that reason alone. Rather, the megadiversity 9. Malaysia ...(294) Malaysia . .(54-56) Peru ....(20,000) approach is aimed at focusing attention on these highly 10. Thailand Mexico ...... (52) U.S.S.R.(20,000) diverse, strategically critical megadiversity countries roughly NG. Papua .(282) in proportion to the biological wealth that they harbor and Source: Conservation International, numerous sources, regardless of how di iIcult it might be to achieve conserva 'Collins and Morris, 1995. tion within them. Furthermore, it recognizes 2 that if we do Davis et. al.,1986. not pay sufficient attention to these miegadiversity 89 CONSERVING rHE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVERSITY Table 16: African Countries with the Highest thenselves and from the international community, and it has given these countries a new awareness of*and pride in the Numbers of Species for Selected Organisms. importance of their biological heritage. As a result of this MAMMAIS IRIS AMPIlBIANS approach the World Bank. lor example, has increased its at I. Zaire ...... (409) Zaire ...... (1086) Zaire ...... (216) tention to biodiversity in countries like Brazil and Madagascar 2. Uganda .... (311) Kenya ..... (1046) Cameroon .. (190) (without overlh king less diverse countries like Mauritius 3. Tanzania ... (310 Uganda ..... (973) Madagascar (144) and Botswana), and megadiversity thinking has also in llu 4. Kenya ...... (308) 'anzania .... (969) Tanzania ... (127) enced the investments of international conservation organiza 5. Cameroon . . (297) Cameroon ... Nigeria.t(849) (96) tions like C1 and WWF. Cl, in particular. is incorporating 6. S. Africa . .(279) Efliopia .... (827) S. Africa... (93) tlc megadiversity concept into its Rain Forest Imperative 7. Angola ..... (275) Nigeria ..... (824) Cong ... (88) Campaign for the critical decade of the 1990s, and is already 8. Nigeria ..... (274) Zambia ..... (728) Angola making major investments in Brazil, Mexico and Gabon ...... (86) M 9. Sudan ...... (266) S. Africa... (725) C6te d'lvoire(80) Madagascar. 10. Ethiopia .... (256) Ghana ...... (721) Kenya .... Of course, to be truly efctive the megad/ersity approach IIVALLOVTAII, ANGtO- cannot stand alone, but should be recognized as a way of REiVI'TES iiUT'i'TERFLIES' SPERMS2 (est.) packaging biodiversity priorities in terms ol political boun 1. S. Africa... (281, Zaire ...... (48) S. Africa(21.000) daries and realities. In all cases, it needs to be followed up 2. Zaire ...... (280) Cameroon .... (39) Zaire ... (10,000) by site-specific efforts to determine the highest priority 3. Madagascar (269) Congo .... (37-38) Madagascarl(.(0h ecosystems, endangered species, etc. within the country in 4. Tanzania ... (244) Tanzania ..... (34) Tanzania (10,000) (ILestion and to consider questions that transcend national 5. Angola ..... (2171 Uganda Cameroon. (9000) boundaries, like conservation of migratory species. Further (W. ,s'rica)(31-32) niore, we emphasize once again that it should not supplant 6. Cameroo, .. (183) Kenya ...... (30) Gabon .... (7900) efforts to coatserve the biological wealth of other less diverse 7. Namiia Angola. (27) Kenya .... (6750) countries that also play a role in the global . ategies to con Somaliaserve biological divrsity. 8. Mozambique (159) Gabon .... (25-31) Ethiopia.. (6200) 9. Nigeria ..... (147) C.A.R. . . (24-29) Mozambique (5000) 10. Uganda . .. (143) Zambia ...... (23) Uganda... (4500) Table 17: Neotropical Countries with the Highest Source: Conservation International, numerous sources. Numbers of Species for Selected Organisms. 'Collins and Morris, 1985. -Davis et. ai., 1986. MAMMALS BIRI)S AMPHIBIANS I. Mexico. . .. (449) Colombia . .0721) Brazil ..... (516) 2. Brazil ...... (428) Peru ...... (1701) Colombia .. (407) 3. Peru...... (361) Brazil ..... (1622) Ecuador... (358) countries, we %-illlose a major percentage of the world's 4. Colombia ... (359) Ecuador ... (1447) Mexico .... (282) biodiversity rcgardless of how successful we are in the other 5. Venezuela . .(305) Venezuela. (1275) Peru ...... (251) less diverse countries. 6. Ecuador .... (280) Bolivia . . (± 1250) Venezuela..(197) As examples of the critical importance of these megadiver- 7. Bolivia ..... (267) Mexico ... (1010) Panama .... (159) sity countries for dil'lerent grotps of organisms, tour of them 8. Argentina... (255) Argentina ... (942) Costa Rica.(150) (Brazil, Zaire, Madagascar, and Ind'-nesia) by themselves 9. Panama .... (217) Panama ..... (907) Argentina.. (130) account for two-thirdl:; o'"all prii.ate species, four (Mexico, 10. Costa Rica. .(203) Costa Rica. .(796) Guyana .... (100) Brazil. Indoinesia and Australia) are home to more than a SWALLOWTAIL ANGLO- third of all reptiles; seven (Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Zaire, REic (7FILESBU TERFLIES SPERMSz (est.) China. Indonesia and Australia) have more than half of all 2. Brazil ...... (467) Ecuador ..... (64) Colombia (45.000) flowering plants: and three (Brazil. Zaire, Ind ,esia) have 3. Colombia... (383) Colombia .... (59) Mexico . (25,000) within their borders roughly half of all the world's tropical 4. Ecuador .... (345) Peru ...... (58-59) Venezuela(20,000) rainforest. Table 14 presents a summary of the top 10 coun- 5. Peru ...... (297) (C. Arnerica)(57-58) Peru .... (20.000) tries for mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and swallowtail 6. Venezuela . (246) Mexico ...... (52) Ecuador. (15,000) butterfly diversity, (taxa selected becaulse they are among 7. Costa Rica. .(218) Bolivia .. (43-44) Bolivia . (15,000) the best known and most conspicuous forms ol life). Tables 8. Panama .... (212) Argentina . (36-37) Argentina. (8500) 15 to !7 present the top 10 in each of the major tropical 9. Argentina Venezuela. (35-39) Costa Rica(8000) regions. and Boxes 19 to 25 profile in more detail seven of Guatemala . (204) the most important megadiversity countries: Brazil, Colom- 10. Bolivia ..... (180) Guyana Panama. .. (7750) bia, Mexico, Zaire, Madagascar, Indonesia and Australia. Suriname. .(30-3 I) The inegadiversity approach is all important catalyst thiat Source: Conservation International, numerous sources. has already helped generate interest and mobilize funus fom 'Collins and Mon( 1985. new sources, both from within the megadiversity cointries 'Davis et. al., 1986. 90 ESTABLISHING PRMtu'ITIES FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL t)IVI=ERSITY Box 19: BiologicalDiversity in Australia. Tile country of Australia isnot only an entire continent but along with New Guinea and nearby islands is sometimes considered to be one of the eight major biogeographical realms on earth. The distinctiveness of' its flora and fauna. with very high levels of endemism, result, fi011 ttiC cOuntry's long isolation. It covers an area of 7,682,300 kmn(Times. 1988), and has a human popula tion of 16,820,000 (PRB, 1989). Although Australia istiledriest continent, with a good portion of its territory consisting of arid zones, it also has considerable h;,hitat diversity, ranging from the Great Bar rier Reel to tropical rainfbrests of the northeast. Australia has the planet's second highest number of reptile species (686), is fifth in flowering plants (23,000) and tenth in. amphibians (197). More significant, however, is the high percentage of'organisms that occur only in Australia, and 2 , that this endemism extends up to the higher taxonomic categories of genus and family. Seven families of mam mals, including that of the platypus and that of the koala, four of birds, and twelve of flowering plants are endemic - far more endemic families than any other country. At the generic level, 45% of birds and 37% of mammals are endemic. At the species level, tle mean percentage of endemism for terrestrial vertebrates and flowering plants is 81 %, the same figure for Madagascar. The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) isthe only species of the Phascolarctidae, a family endenic to Australia (photc, by R.A. Mit'Lrmeier). vival. Off the coast to the east and southeast of this forest lies the Great Barrier Reel', the world's largest coral reef system, and one of the most diverse in marine organisms. Although tourism is on the increase in this ecosystem, most of the region is still pristine, so that well-managed The quokka (Setonix brachyunis), one of the world's smallest tourism should havc minimal impact. wallabies, isan endemic species found only in a small area Ninety-five species of Australia's vertebrates are listed of southwestern Australia (photo by S.D. Nash). by IUCN as under some degree of threat. The highest number of species at risk for any group of vertebrate is The northern part of Queensland, the state in the coun- for mamtmals, 32 of which are listed. This figure excludes try's northeast, is one of the two areas in the developed the 16 that are believed to have gone extinct within world identified by Norman Myers as a "threatened ,istorical times, mainly from the effects of human settle hotspot." In the past 50 years, approximately half of the ment and introduced species. tropical rain forest has been removed from this species- Source: Conservation International, unpublished data, rich habitat, and logging pressures still imperil its sur- 1989. 91 CONSERVING THE WORLID'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Box 20: Biological Diversity in Brazil. tion resulting fron, deforestation at the headwaters of Brazil, with an area of 8,511,965 km12 (Times, 1988) rivers fleeding into the region, overfishing, poaching, and and a human population of 147,393,000 (PRB, 1989), is ill-conceived development prisects. perhaps the single richest country in the world in overall Source: Conservation International, unpublished data. species diversity. It tops the world list in diversity for 1989. many different groups of organisins, among them primates (55 species: 24 percent of the world total), amphibians (516 species), terrestrial vertebrates (3,010 species), en dangered and vulnerable vertebrates (310 species), flower ing plants (55,000, 22 percent of the world total), freshwater lish (more than 3,(XYJ species, three times more than any other country), and insects (estimated at 10-15 million species, most of them still undescribcd by scien tists). When not the single richest country, Brazil is usual ly not far behind, ranking fourth in reptile diversity (467 species), third in birds (I,622 species) and palns (387 species), and fourth in mammals (428 species). In addition, Brazil has by fIar the most closed tropical Iorest in the world, wire its 357 million ha accounting for almost 30 percent of the world total and exceeding that of the second richest country (Indonesia) by three times. Indeed, Brazil has more tropical rain forest than the rest of South and Central America combined, more than all of Asia, and more than all of Africa. Taking all kinds of' forest into consideration, Brazil is second only to the U.S.S.R. in total forest cover. The largest portion ol Amazonian forest (62 percent) is found within Brazil, and covers 42 percent of the coun try, comprising the most extensive tropical forest region falling within the borders of any one nation. About 80 percent of it is still intact, but forest destruction over the past decade has been especially heavy in certain regions (e.g., Rondrnia, southern Parfi), and the trends are not promising. For example, during 1987 alone, it is estimated (from satellite imagery analysis by Brazilian specialists) that some 8 million ha of*primary forest were destroyed. The Atlantic forest region of eastern Brazil runs from the states of Rio Grande do Norte and Ceari in north eastern Brazil in a narrow belt south as far as Rio Grande do Sul, in the southernmost Brazilian state. It once covered 100 'o 120 million ha, or about 12 percent of the coun try. However, it was the first part of Brazil to be colon ized, is now the iajor agricultural and industrial center of the country, and has been largely deforested - to the point that only I to 5 percent of the original forest cover remains. The Pantanal region of Mat' Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul is a vast, low-lying swampland in the center of the continent, and has sone of the most spectacular and visible concentrations of wildlife in all of South America. The nmuriqui (Braclytele.sarachnoides), a monospecific genus Though still largely intact, it is being increasingly o" primate found only in Brazil's Atlantic forest (photo by threatened by various kinds of pollution, mining, silta- A. Young). 92 I-STABI.ISIIING PRIORITIES FOR ()NSERVING BIIOIOGICAIL )IVEiRSITY Box 21: Biological Diversity total). Colombia contains the third highest number of'ter in Colombia. restrial vertebrates for any country on earth (2,890 species), and more than one-third of all netropical primates (27 species). Colombia's documented diversity will undoubtedly increase substantially with Further biological inventory, especially in groups such as in vertebrates and plants. In addition to its biotic diversity, Colombia is home to numerous indigenous tribes who still utilize native vegeta tion f6r miedicinal and other purposes. Many of' the economically important South American plants current ly being used in the industrial countries of the world originated in the Forests of*Colombia. and ethnobotL. :cal research indicates that yet untapped knowledge of in digenous peoples of Colombia could yield invaluable data regarding medicinal and industrially important plants (Plotkin, 1988). Cole:iibia's high species diversity and endemism in many groups of*organisms (e.g., plants, amphibians) can be attributed largely to the countt: 's geographic position bridging North and South America, its high precipitation (reaching 13 meters/'"'"_ in tile Choc6 region, the highest rainfall on earth) and its mountainous aspect (with three Andean chains reaching almost 6,000 meters above sea level). The effects of altitude and climate have combined to create a myriad of microhabitats along their slopes, each home to its own distinct and unique flora and fauna. In addition to the hih-altitude piiramos, superpfiratnos, evergreen, and cloud forests of the Andes;, Colombia bar bors a wide variety of lowland habitats including the arid deserts of the Guajira peninsula, the rich littoral zones The cotton-top tanarin (Saguinus oedipus) is an endemic and mangrove forests on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, primate of Colomlbia (photo by R. Mast). pristine coral reels, island environments, Amazonian forest, and vas' savannas (the llanos) to the east. Exceedingly high diversity coupled with the high degree Source: Conservation International, unpublished daia, of threat posed by unchecked human (pop. 31,192,000) 1989. (PRB, 1989) development and commercial resource ex ploitation places Colombia among the highest conserva tion priorities on earth. Colombia is one of the world's richest countries in terms of' species diversity per unit ' ca and is second only to Brazil in overall .;pecies numbers. Though Colombia's land area of 1,138,915 kin 2 (Times, 1988) accounts for only 0.77 percent of the earth's sur flace, it is home to approximately 10 percent of the earth's species of terrestrial plants and animals. Colonbia con tains 45,000 to 50,000 higher piant speci,, thus nearly reaching Brazil's total in an area less than on'e-seventh the size. In comparison, only 30,(X)0 species of plants are found in all of' sub-Saharan Africa. Colombia tops the world list for numbers of' orchid species (about 3,500). aniutnting to a full 15 perce:nt of the world's total. More The plate-hilled mountain-toucan (Andigena lamnirostris), species of birds live in Colombia than in any other coun- a spe6 - fotld within Colombia and northwestern Ecuador try (1,721 species, or nearly 20 percent of the world (photo iy R. Mast). 93 CONSERVING THE WORLIDS BIOLOGICAL I)iVF.RSITY Box 22: Biological Diversity in Indonesia. +Indonesiais by fir the most biolcgical~y diverse cour try in Asii in almost every fauna! and floral category, and isat or near the top of the world list in several categories. .*4 This is largely due to tileunique biogeography of'the coun try and its large amount ol tropical rain forest. Indonesia bridges two of !he earth's biogeographic realms (Indo nmalaya and Oceania) and nunerous biogeographic pro\, inces, and has within its borders a major transition zone - between these two realns, Wallacea, that includes a large ." - ,number of endemics. With 114 millior. hectar,:s of closed forest, Indonesia possesses more tropic,! forest ltan any The world's largest lizard, the komodo dragon (Varanus other :,ingle African or Asian country and is second only komodoensis), only occurs on a small iland of Indonesia to Brazil worldwide in tropical forest area. Within Asia, (photo by R.A. Mitteriacier). Indonesia has more than double the forest "the next most forested country. These species-rich Imret are home to the world's greatest diversity of palm species and an estimated 20,000 species of flowering plants. Many plant species of global and national economic importance originated in Indonesia, including citrus fruit, black pepper, and sugar cane. Indonesia also harbors a rich fauna, including the greatest mammal diversity on earth (515 species, of which 36 percent are endemic), more ps:ctacine birds (parrots 4 and macaws) (78 species, 40 percent endemic), the highest number of threatened bird taxa in the world ( 126 of In donesia's 1,519 avian species are threatened), more , "PNswallowtail butterfly species than any other country (121 species. 44 percent endemic), and more species of primates than any other Asian nation (33 :;pecies, 18 endemic). A country of 1,919,445 km2 (Times, 1988) with over 13,000 islands, Indonesia covers more marine than ter restrial territory, and its largely unstudied marine fahna is certainly among tileearth's most diverse. Indonesia possesses the most extensive reef areas in the !ido-Pacific Ocean and more total marine coastline than any other tropical country (about 5.500,000 ha). Approximately 7,000 species of marine fishes are described from In donesia, ad in just one small area (th'e Sangkarang Archipelago), a recent survey described .262 specie!, of thehard corals, more than i',known from arywhere else in Indo-Pacific region. Indonesia has the highest human population of all the profiled megadiversity countries, with 184,583,000 in habitants (PRB, !989). Source. Conservation !:;,ernational, The' endar.gered Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhi,,us unpublish data, 1989. sumalrensis) (photo by B. Bunting). 94 ESTAILISHIN(; PRI()RITIIFS FOR ('()NSERVIN(; III)(('A. )IVERSITY Box 23: Biological Diversiy in Madagascar. Although this country is only 594.180 kn2 in area (Times, 1988). it is a inii-continent with a wide variety of species found nowhere else on earth. Located only a[ ot 400 km off the east coast of Africa, it has been isolated f'or a very homotime, perlips as long as 200 million \,ears. As a rL.,lt, it has become a unique evoIl tionary c,,perinent,ita living laboratory where evolu tion has followed a course different from anywhere else on tie planet. As a resultt of its long isolation, it has some of the highest levels of species endenism anywhere on earth, and because of its climate and position it also has very high species diversity in certain groups of organisms. Twenty-eight of Madagascar's 30 species of primates are - restricted to the island, the highest level of primate endemnism found anywhere, and four of the five families of primates occurring on the island are found nowhere else. Eight of the nine species of carnivores, 29 of the 30 species of tenrccs, 237 of the 269 reptiles, 142 of the 144 amphibians, and 128 of 133 palins are restricted to the island. Though Madagascar's birds are less endemic than other groups at the species level ( 106 of 250), they r include a total of three endemic farnilies - an extremely high level of familial endemism matched only by Australia. Madagascar's approximately 7.900 species of' flowering plants account for about 20 percent of all tile - - plants in the African region, and 80 percent of them are "" . *'.: , endemic. including 5 endemic Chmilies. Madagascar has Maudagascar has mre species of' huohal (Adansonia spp.) more species of' orchids than all of mai,and Africa, in- than any other country (photo by R.A. Mittermeier). spite of the flact that it occupies only 1.9 percent of the region. Madagascar's reiaining forest ecosystems can be divid- area, the effects of deforestation and other forms of habitat Madaascr'sreminigfres ecsyscris cn b diid- conversion are usually devastating to biodiversity. The ed into three broad categories: the southern spiny desert, arivalsof' ar sual devast agoi d t he the western dry deciduous forest, and the eastern rain arrival of man some 1500-2000 years ago and the pur forest, each with its own complemlent of species and each suant environiiental nmdifications have already resulted 1*oestts wneahomlemnt wth f'secis ad ech in the extinction of' species including at pygmy hip with very high levels of endemisrii as well. For instance, i the ne c ' es inia pyniy hip 48 perccr,t of the plant genera and 95 percent of the species popotanius, an ardvark, ,t least six genera of femurs, huge found in the southern spiny desert are endenic not only elephant birds, and at least two giant tortoises, Human toMdincaihe boutnto j srt al eegi to M n ot couii- population growth is high at about 3.1 percent ad aga,.c a , b u t to j u st t his s mall re gio n o f th e c o u n-a n i h b t n s al e d nu er 1 ,6 per year, try, and inhabitants already number 11 ,602,000)2 M (PRB,( P 3 ,1989. 98 ) Madagascar's unique species and ecosystems are highly Pressures on the island's natural habitats persist, and, if endangered. The central plateau of the country, a region uncontrolled, are expected to cause f'urther eradication of once hone to many ,ow-extinct species, isalmost entirely many of the planet's most spectacular organisms. deforested, and trends in the other ecosystems indicate A conservatioi strategy has been dev-iop:d for this that action is iccdcd :is soon as possible. At least 80 per- country, entitled, 'Au Action Plan for Con.iervation if cent andi , s nuch s 90 percent of Mada e,car's Biological Diversity in Madagascar ' int !ibWorld Bank andn USAil) among othe, ar colh ':,, atig in efforts are hcing chip- IadUAD rogthsreciv .)tn nefrs tborests at adyV gone, and t!he renmain..- to conserve this country's unimatched natural heritage. ped away for firewood and :harcoal, and being cit down lor slash-and-burn agriculture. In a region of such diverse Source: Conservation International. unpublished d.,ta, species and ecosystems that often occupy only a small 1989. 95 CONSIRVIN(G TIE W(IRLI)'S Itt())I.((ICAI.I)VlTRSIIY Box 24: Biological Diversity inMexico. This bithngical richness isdetic tihe ..'Ceat habitt \aria- Nexico covers 1.)72.545 kin CTiies. 1988) and has tiolI and diverse ccO I ,uicaI reguiolis. cot ple.X top Iraph.. a human population ol 86.74(.(0()(1 MI'. 1989). Ith, letertcgncil of ssu and cliiiiite. , ological histor',, and the highest replile (717 species. ol \%hich 3 pL'rcelt ire get graphie location, like Indone,,ia. Mc\ico bridpCes IWO CndmCIic) di\Crsit in the w\orld. k eI\'xceded h\ I inbiiumo- Iitt',.' rapllic re;alins of the %orld ilhe Nearctic dlonCsii iluln1hers of'maninials 1441) species. %ith 33 tihdhie Neolropictal that ficilitatcs, the chane he perc'nt clIiCiic . and ranks fourth loballk in itnubem's twCCen Cle tS o1' northCrn holcal and tropical 0i1ins. of anphibians (282 species., w\ith 03 percent endenic). this r ncin" species and orZ.nisis It has nacirly 3( percent More bird ncjis I)1(I) thalln creates umill.ue" cCos\stCls o in'rnilitionl iportance. the U.S.A. and Canada tocthcr. and is \ far the iiost Meicolhas important marine habitats oinboth the Allll iiplarint \\interinC area ft liany i.S. ind ('iniin li ticand Pacific coasts. The Sea of('oics. dividing Ie Baia migrator\ hild species. [: a l MCexiLO hosts 51 pelninslla frol lisl t of" Mc\ico. contains Ile1 o111\ perccni o fl i inigrator\' bird species from North America bleedin ,Iir) Mid 1 theCe nlldlplefur ise lltt. t p haiw. evCrV 'ir, ind th1esC birds spend f'ro1 six t nine' niuths toti'iXhii. and lso te endeiiiic haror porlpoiise, of"their lives in the cOMntr . Nliigrlor species ol b'ul- lcochit) (hllocvi t I nu.ti. allaninal only recentl\ ICrlis. lshC.S, whilcs, batls, alld turtles arc adlditionlid ex- ie.scribed wilh inunknown nullhCr individuals. aiples of tilhese interntllI onall\ Shared resources. Th I o M xi 1o iodivC rsitl nitini otilrllrLnli. The Mexican flora is also very rich in specCies dikersitv conversion of land airiculture and cattle-ranching.to Less and endeimism. with more tian 2,() geiera ohiflower- than 40',; ofthe cotlirv is still conl idcred natural habitat. ingplants alone. and 22.0(1 known and 30.010)expect Also. ;here is an active trade inwildlil'. legal and illeal. species. MNc thani 15 pericen of'piint genera and appro\- with a IIlIC delanild in tlie Unlited Slales f r cacti and iniaelV 50 to ()percent of plant species are endemic to birds. Fortunately'. despite lmia'li pressures on Nexicos tilecOulitr\. These endemics include 50 percent of the habitats. there is i rising interest ill conservalion and i wtrld's Pha.lohu. species (heaiI flan ily), 82 percent of gIoi nul1mer of' professionals. miany with backgrounds tile .-Aglae .species. 88 percent of the Salvia species, ailid ilnatura history* thilt cin lead the protIectionlof'1the coln- 75 percent t in'the Scutlelaria species, sonmc of tlhen with Irv's natural lieritace. medicinal characteristics (e.g.. proiba bly anticancer prop- Source: Cinservatlin Intermat iinnall/WWF-US. Crlics), to iallle i few. unpulishCd daal;I 1989. S.. MI t ,~...~/t•.., ; 41 Seve'nrof t 1w isun Vs eig.ht species oh sea timrfl nemmst on fihe coast soFNMr ~imo, incud1 ig thiis Pacific green turi c I(Chlimi aga""'izi) (poto by R. Mast). 96 ,ST'ABIISlINI PRIORITIES FOR CONSERVING IIoI.o(I'AI. I)IVERSIT'Y Box 25: Biological Diversity in Zaire. Zaire is oneL of the most important cOunIri -s in Africa I'ir the comnse rvati on of' biological diversity, with illore species of 'vertebrates thlan ;li\ cn trv IunOLIIt c i inent.clet Indeed. it is the uonly igadiyiversityVowuritry on tile African mainland. and has some of tile nilost inlportant miajior tropical forest wilderncss areas left ti earth. It is also wealtll' ill naiural resources. beine rich in nlinerals and rankille third in hlie world for its amoUnt of clo.d tropical forest. Zaire covers .iln area of 2.345,410 k1lm2 (Tfillcs. 1988). haIs hUlmin pOpulitioni of' 34.853.000 (PRdI, t 19~8L)9 and containis the world's second largest river s'.stem (tile Zairc River). tile secoLInd deepest lake (Lake Tanran ika), and thlie largest tropical liirst park (Salonga Nationial Park). ven ltiUglih the Af icoltropical realn is geetirally less diverse in overall species than the Neotropical and Il diumalaan reali s. Zaire still appears high on tile global list, being the fourth highest in manimals (409 species) and probably second in freshwater fi sh diversity (with an CesirilaiCd 70 endemisni). Within Africa. Zaire has mlore species of Ialinials. priiiiates (29-32), birds (1086), ami ph ibians (216), fishes, and swallowtail butterl ies (48) than an, itler Cionry. Plarrt diversity ( I ,000 species) is see ulrnd on the continent after South Africa, and the numiiber is expected to increase as more exploration takes place. Sir far. l w hLIiani pi pl;itiOn ;inad I low LiefrestationI rate t.A5-.5 Ivcar) las kept the pressures on Zaire's fI'rcsts and resident wildlife to a ilinillni. Howe\cver. puoaching is a serious piohleni. as exetiiplified b liet cur- ______renit pligh lt ie Africani elepiant. Zaire has son ftlie 'h pgvi chimpanzee (Pan paniscus) (photo by R.A. largest populations o1 hotlh te forest and savltna .ierineier), ClCphllt liete haVe been under siege ir many years, ard prospects Err tlieihr survival are bleak. The huge patches of pristint: African rain forest ill Zaire deserve special conservation atteiitioi. Twenty-ne ofl'the A te earlh's rsubircte co ctiitieto dwindle human 36 'naninials ofs Zaire ol IUCN's List of Threatened coniiiiercial and subsistence activities will enter thise Anillrals occur iti forest, as do I18 if its 28 threatened arcas rich in products like timber, minerals. and gaille, birds. Eastern Zaire contains several forest refugia. areas that previously were unexploited because of their retiiote of the planet with reinant populations of iiore ancient ness. the rainforests of/aire are one of the few remaining speci-:s. Iman il whi1c are foiund nowhtere else. Aunrong areas ln tnletP anet wihere hlniai inipact mn lile land has the wildlife of these refugia ai're globally iiportarnt specie. not yet been severe. though steps are needed to ensure like rhe okapi (()ka pia jhns ri) and lie imounionr n gorilla the strvival of its uinique and rich biological diversity. (Gofilli gorilla bh',ingei). Another forest species, tne ,Souv''."Cionservation Internatioial, unpublished data. pginy chimp (Pian /aniw.,). mnt's closest living 1989. rclaive, is endemrlic to central Zaire. Goodsoin. 1988. 97 Box 26: Major 2'ropical Wilderness Areas. The southeni Guianas: Icludine the southCrn portion Parts of the western Amazonian loalnds,o'fBrazil, 01 the countries of GiVianva and Surinane. and also the (olomnbia, Ecuador. Peru and Bolivia: I'pper Aina,moia French department of French Guianl. Prhaps, the tMost is a Va'.t rc2ion thatl "till ilnCIndS CnI1iII1iallreaS Of pri important of he tlhrcc is Surinamie. which has a lotal mar\ rain foreS.\S olohi"i, spill do% I froml the Andes humlan population of 397.()) (IIPR. 1989) in an aea of' and e up hour sothern and nothestI1n Ira,'il 163.82) kin (Times. 1999). FuIll 95 percent of le IhrOugh Acre and Rod6nia. it is tnlikel\ that this area population lives aloig the Coast,. \ilh the vast interior, will remain pristine lor much longer. Nonetheless. in its Iaking up 80 prcrent of the countr\, inhabited only h present State. ImLIch of tIhC region still can tic considered scattered grounips fl Amerindians andlBushnugir es. Ai e i-a ma*i r wild -ress Cellent nature protection ySvte in is in place in Suriname The cenirn Zaire bmsin. Galbon, and the (ongo and requires only modest inl'eslmcnlt to Continue and cx- Republic: MNIcI of this lI)Otiu11 OfCLal,1ial.Alric a is Still panlld. A live-\ear Action Plan lto Consrvalion ofI rClati\Cl\l11t istlurbCd. ind has a hos ltiianl pt'aMlatihu Bitlogical )iversitv ill SuriIamIe has ilso Ibcen pret.CparCd densit\ . f:0r instanIce. (ibii co\xrs anl a1Cre of (Malone et al., 199(. 267.005.)WO kin" 'liimes. I988) and h, a iiihuma ptiliula tioll oi*()l\ 1.I million (111, 199.l t , po~pulatitn decnsi Southern Vene:uela: Venezuela souLh of the Orinoco ti of il t t oi itme. a utionde is also a very important w ilderness area. A va.st zone that ConmgoC cOmparableRepulic toi thaialsoof cLonta;.inSuriame. ma;.jorfoltrests (Cntral airewith al lii',the is only sparsely inhabited by several Amerindian groups, han populliI II :( N. 1989,11. the terrain is largely ulndisturbed rain firest, with some The island of Vew Guinea, including fapua ei savanna reg ics as well. ;Jrid its'm,F n t i insna tire iuakes5 Guinea and irianJaya::The entire iliaid of Nev Guinea road constrtiion verv difficut. Ind oniCattempt to is Still 1111- Nacted 1 odern forms of hM cV colonize the area has already Iiled,and the Ve.nC/uelan gt'+ve.'rllluln.clll drJt2+', [lot S"'11I t lll iidi( t lIOS, plitation. The IndonCsian portion of tlhe island. Irian Java. covrnienot ~errdos o aveanyju meiae ~iil5 hiasa.humnl population o nl~ I1.4 million arild cotve'rs 1tiCxploit the southrCnt Wilderness. The largest protected arCa in Soulth America. Canaima National Park (3 millin an area of 345.67t kill (Times. 1988) while the larger 1h1) also l"Als wvithin this region. ,eastern po1rtion. hClo ing to the coliUntr\ of Papua New hhuinea. has 3.9 million people IRB. 1t)X() in 462.84) Nortlhernmost Birazil Amazonia: The parts ol'Brazilian kin (l'ime. 1988. Although Itranismiratioi schemes Aiamznia adjacent to the Clinalls and Southern Veezluela intended to Imove arce Iiumlbllers of ethnic Javans to Irian are also inl largely pristinle conldition. includiuilhctie C:t Java threaten the luture of this part of the island, and ol Amapi. and northernmost AmaznMas andI Roraima. It although some development IStaking pl'ace in Papua New is uncet.aint how lone this are'a Will remain undisturbed. Guinea. this island still has the largcelst tracts if, mature however. since plans for the northern perimeter road rain forest in the Asian/Pacific recion. (Calha NorteL abandoned in the 1970s. are again tnder Source: Conservation Internatic.,:.. ulhlishCd data. scrious discussion. 1989. The National AI)lroach" the evolutionary proces, cs inthese will he to a considerable Major Tropical Wilderness Areas extent controlled by the hand of ouroI.m spcies. Howver, in the les\\ major tropica.l wilderness areas (Box Major Iropical wilderness areas are becoming increasing- 26H reieaining. th esituatiin will e stOC,ilL hat di trenand rare with each passing day. Simply stated, these are the ly these areas w',ill becotme incr-casinglk imlptrtaill lowr a \ariel\ few reniaining parts of the world where very irge tracts oIf ths res wll ecoeiP f primar\ him,.'st still exist and. because of low human poptula tion iand little 01r ,;., devhlPeneCnt pre-CSSUlre.. Ire likely to con1- beine last areas s,+here mator cx olutionar. procsses Cln tinue to exist wel! imri! !hc next centur\ ( ig. 6). As disctusSCd continue to take plae \\ t ol\ limitCd iIIpaIctS hy humans in Chapter ill. mtuchm of le melnaininc natural habitat that (tlough the threats of polluliol and climale changce arc in will persist into the 21 st centuiv\will he ill the fhiin of forest creasin l, persasi\ e': "islands- protected h% law but surnluOided h\ a mosaic of * serve as controkls aeaiist xihi'll the suctcs or failur ,1 degraIdCd lantIs. agriculturC, pasturC lands, and urban the manaclte c.os\ steiiS tihe fot iSlans can 'hlnl.Clet. Such Small reprcsentative trac: oMfitle major1ImasurCd: be fmrest regions that ince existcl will need careful manage- 0 he major storehouses of biological diversity., where large ment in order to e'nCSUe 11 thle species tlheV Were creatlCd numbers of individuals of man different plant and animal 1t Irttctto nt disappear. Ii efllect. this will lean that even species \will continue to exist: 98 ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY MAJOR TROPICAL FOREST WILDERNESS AREAS _r it7 C U - .- , '-,. Southern Venezuela >1) " l o uth e rn 5N# So- ,s New G uinea Upper Amazonian , Lowlands. Zaire Basin Source: Conservation International, 1990 Fig. 6. " play key role in maintaining local and, because of their the forests along and adjacent to the Albertine Rift; the East size, giobal climate patterns (Bunyard, 1987); African coastal and montane relict forests extending south " be the last :treas where tropical aboriginal human groups as far as the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe; and the forest can continue to live their traditional lifestyles: and tney will patches of the Angolan escarpment. " have ever-increasing aesthetic, spiritual, and scientific Carrying this approach a step further, they identified those value on an increasingly overcrowded, urbanized planet. specific forests of Africa, Madagascar, and ,rroiinfli.g is Although these areas are clearly not in urgent need of at- land.; that would be most important for conserving threat tention and do not require the level of funding that must go ened birds (Collar and Stuart, 1988) (Figure 7). A forest was immediately into more threatened areas, they should not be considered "important" if it fulfilled one of the following ovcrlo(,kcd. Those governments fbrtunaie enough to possess criteria: them should be convinced of the value the world gives to • it held (or very probably holds) more than one threatened such areas, and supported and encouraged to maintain them bird species; as an investment ill the future. 0 it held only one threatened species, but one that occurs nowhere else or only in one or a few much less signifi Sites of Outstanding Diversity: cant (or less studied) localities; or Habitats q Td Birds in Africa 0 it held one thre.,.tend and one or more near-threalened Habtatf ateedB i Aspecies. In their study of threatencd birds in Africa and surround- A scoring system was adopted on the basis of the Red Data ing islards. Collar and Stuart (1985) highlighted the areas Book category of the bird species involved, ranging from where more than one threatened bird occurred, recognizing 5 points for an Endangered Species to I point for a Near the economies that are to be had when action aimed at sav- threatened Species. If a species is endemic to a foret, or ing a single species becomes a component of action to save effectively so for practical conservation purposes, its score an entire ecosystem. They identified five mail, regions in con- was doubled. No weighting was given to species with higher tinental Africa as critically important for threatened birds: taxonomic distinctiveness (i.e., endemic genera or families), the Upper Guinea lowland rain forest block of West Africa; the chiefeffect of which would be merely to expand the score the montane and adjacnt lowland forests of Cameroon and of the island forests. adjacent areas in Nig-ria, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea; Based on these criteria, they identified a total of 75 forests 99 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL. DIVERSrrY Key to map of forests in Africa and Madagascar important 37. Pogp Hills (Tanzania) 38. Uluguru Mountains (Tanzania) for the conservation of'" threatened birds opposite page): 39. Uzungwa escarpment (Tanzanial I. Gola Forest (Sierra Leone) 410. Southern Highlands ('Tan/ania) 2. Lola-Mano pioposed national park I.iheria) 41. Mount Namuli (Mo/aiBLiqueL) 3. Mount Nirnha L.iberia) 42. Mount Chiradzulu (Malawi 4. Sapo National Park (Liberia) 43. Mount Soche IMala\wi) 5. Grand (edch Comnt. '(ireho National Forest (Liberia) 44. Mout Mulanj INala.sii 6. Tai National Park W('6e dshoire 45. Mount 'l'hholo (Malawi) 7. Iia National Park C('hana) 46. Mount Chipe1inc Mozambique 8. ()udu Plateau (Nigeria, 47. Gorongosa MOLntilai (Mozambltic) 9. Korup National Park and Nlaiii!e region 48. Vumba Highlands (Zimbalme and Mozambique) 10. Rumpi Hills 49. Chirinda Forest (Zimbabwe) II. Nount ('nieroon 50. Coastal forests in Sol'ala.Mozambique 12. Mount Kupe 51. Amboinn and adjacent firests. Gabela region (Angola) 13. Mount Manenguba 52. Bailundu Highlands (Mount Moco) (Angola) 14. Mount Nlonako 53. Forests of northern Angola and \cstern Zaire 15. Moutit Oku 54. Day Forest (t 1iihout0 16. Dja Game R_servc 55. Forests around Neghelli (:hiopia) 17. Forests in Gabon 56. Forests 01 SOuth-vestern Nigeria 18. Lendu Plateau (Zaire) 57. Daloh Forest reserve (Somalia) 19. Ituri Forest (Zahe) 58. Ngoye Forest (South Africa) 20. Semliki (Bwamlla) Forest (Uganda) 59. Bush forest nirth of*Tular (Madagascar) 21. Kibale Forest (Uganda) 60. Zoumbilse Forest (Madagascar) 22. Kakamega and Nandi Forests (Kenya) 61. Ankarafanisika RWserve Naturelle Inltgrale (Madagascar) "3. Forest wkest of Lake Edward (Zaire) 62. Andohahela R.N.I. (Parcel 1)(Madagascar) 24. Impenetrable (11windi) IForest (Uganda) 63. Tsarafidy and AnkazoiniVsady Forests IMadagascar) 25. Nyungwe (Rugege) Forest (Rwanda) 64. Ranomafana IMadagascar) 26. Forest west of Lake Kivu (Zaire) 65. Prinet-Analatnazaotra Special Reserve (Madagascar) 27. ltolibwe Mountains (Zaire) 66. 'Sihanaka Forest'' (Madagascar) 28. Mount KaNobo (Zaire) 67. "saratanana Massif (Madagascar) 29. Marungu Highlands (Zaire) 68. Forests around Maroantsetra (Madagascar) 30. Lower Tana riverine forests (Kenya) 69. Marojeijy Rserve Naturelle lntigrale and Andapa region (Madagascar) 31. Sokoke Forest iKen~a) 70. Forests in south-est S;io Toi (sio Toni1ie Principe) 32. Taita Hills )Kenya) 71. Mount Malabo on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) 33. Coastal forests in south-cast Kenya 72. Mount Karthala on Grand ('onoro IComoro Islands) 34. Usambara Mountains ('Tanzania) 73. Central highland rainforest. MahW (Seychelles) 35. Nguru Mountains (Tanzania) 74. Plaine des Chicots. Rdunion (to France) 36. Ukaguru Mountains cFanzania) 75. Macchab/Bel Ombre Nature Reserve (Mauritius) as being important for conserving threatened birds. Collar Sites of Outstanding Diversity: Plants and Stuart (1988) recognize that other forests might well The conscrvation of plant species requires a somewhat dill qualif'y if' more were known, but conclude that. in the absence ferent approach 'ron that used to manage animal species. of' full threatened-specics analysis for any other class of' vertebrate, birds can serve very efectively as practical first indicators of sites of general biological importance (notably 9 longevity, either in the case of long-lived perennials. such in termis of*endemism). The 75 f'orests they identify are not as trees that can live orders of magnitude longer than mar constdered to represent the mininum number that need con- mrals, or in the case of annuals or other short-lived species servation in Africa. but they are proposed to be part of which may possess seed banks in the soil that can Survive whatever ,hat number might be. for decades or even centuries. The International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) is * a sedentary nature, as opposed to more motile animals. continuing its efforts to identify the most important sites in Plants are rooted in place, while many animals require a the world fr birds; combined with the work of SSC to oden- range of habitats for breeding, cLding, or for diffcrent tify the top pr:')rity sitcs for a number of*other tax;,, a very pi of their life cycle. in sote cases a plant specites exts real possibility exists for identrying the sites of grat;. a single population with only one habitat. rareproduction, that does not always require two sexes. significance for key species at an international evel. Vegetative reproduction can enable many plant species to recover even if the population has been reduced to a single individual. 100 F.STIAI.ISIIIN(6 PRIORITIES FOR C(ONSF;RVIN(; BIOL();ICAI. I)IVERSITY ...... ".~~...... : ..... ...: . • ...... :..: ..: ...... ...... 2 56371563 16 9 16 Is 17 70 2 21 2 ... 26r; 24 3 ...... i 8 35, 373 73d ;.:8 36 3 37 7 53. 29' 40 ;j i 3 . 29% .. .l0 . " S39 "l 40 ; 1 -4 38 I 0 400 I I I 1200I ...9 Km Km [ ~...... '' '... . l47 " '46 6161 686 9 491.so 63 7 d ,60 74 61 Fig. 7: Forests in Africa and Madagascar identifid by the International Council for Bird Preservation as important for the conser vation of threatened birds (Source: Collar and Stuart, 1988). 101 C()NSFRVIN(i TtlL WOI.YS BItt.t()(ICAI. I)IVE-RSITY " tolerance to inibret ding,.so that the disastrous conse- tier, 1978). including 78 species of'figs, 15 species of pitcher quences of inbreeiing observed in animals are normally plants, and about 1 000 species of orchids. ILICN ( 1987d) avoided. A higl! ievel fIliomozygosity does not militate is prepario, book on such centers of plant di\ ersity that against the vig,.ir ofr health of populations of inbreeding will identily some 150 of the world's most important ,;ant plant species habitats (Figure 8). In choosing the sites, it wa,,recognized * a very low ratio of habitat requiremient to bdv size. Malny that it is not al ways possible t c mparc individual sites using plants cail strvive lI'O several centuries in a flOrest niche aIset of rigidly applied 0lj ccive criteria because tileamount scarcely larger than the diaieter of its leaf rosette, of inf'Oriation about difl'erent sites is so variable. Futher- These key dilerences between plants and animals in their more. one site may be high indiversity butlIW illedlemisi. habitat requireients clearly affect policies in teris of reserve while another may have I wer species div'ersity but mIlay con selecti in aid siz/ While it is generally preferable to establish tain maniiy endemics (as oil islands). large reserves, siall reserves ft ctising on pants are a viable Witi those provisos. two hr')ad criteria have been alternative in niany ca.ies where large reserv, establishment established: first, the site is evidently species-rich. even is not possible. thogIgh the total iniber of'species present may not be knowii Specific action to conserve large numbers of plant species with great accuracy: second. the site is known to contain a in the tropics requires ideitification of specific sites where large nuinber of species endemic to it. Sites to be included the action can take place, and some sites have extraordinary inthe list must iieet at least one of these two criteria. Four levels ol'diversity. For example. Mount Kinabalu in Sabah. additional characteristics will also be considered in the selec- Malaysia, has been described as containing "'the richest and tion, and may provide criteria for more detailed site selec nlost remarkable assemblage of plats in the world" (Cor tion at the local level or within a vegetation type: the site is 1. Sierra de Manantlin (Mexico) ...... 2. Valle de Tehuacfn (Mexico) 3. Uxpanapa-Chimalapa region (Mexico) ...... 4. Lacandon tropical rain forest (Monies Azutes Biosphere Reserve. Mexico) 5. Department of Pet6n (Guatemala) 6. Plitano River watershed (Rio Plitano Biosphere Reserve, Honduras) 7. Dry tropical forest (Guanacaste National Park and part ot the Lomas de Barbudal Biological Reserve, Costa Rica) ,5 ...... 8. Zona Protectora La Selva (Costa Rica) 9. Osa Peninsula (Corcovadc National Park, Costa Rica) 10. Talamanca mountain range (Le Amistad International Park. Costa Rica and Panama) I 1.Darien province (Darien National Park. Panama) Fig. 8. Camtdidate sitle idplant divrsity in Middle America as identified h IU('N. 102 I:S.:\H11tittN(, PR]( i1 I I S I )R ('()NSIER\IN( 16 )I(;L\I I)IR S I' Amuazonuia is the %sorld' largest expanse ifftropical Corest, niuch of whlich is still pristhnc (photo hY R.A. Mittermceier). th reatened or under imminenL t threait ol farcLe-scale devasta- the National Nature Reserves network intile United IKingdon tion. incIludesa ives range of' habitat types. contains at (Rateliffe. 1977). A f'irst priority must be to or&eaniize suich significant proportion of species adapted to spciail eda~phic inflOrmiation ats dfoes ex\ist and. while implementing conser conditions. or contains an important gene pool of' plants of' x'aton action onl thle highest prior'ities thus identified. pro) actual or p)otentiatl VaIlue to people. ceed in parallel with thle gradulM refinement of the informla- The center,, of' plant diversity approach will certainly help tion base. The IUCN protected area systemrs reviews improve the effectiveness of*protected areas by ideit iIvineL (IUCN/U NEI). 1986a. 1).C)conlstitute a first approximrat ion atrepresentative selection of' those w~here species diversitV that alreatdy identifies ina~or areas where investments in con aind"or enldelinisni is platiCtiklrly hiebl. ft Will lso begin at servation management a1i'e req li red. p~rocess that will resulft in an interactive database that canl A recent study]\ Undertaken by I UCN in the seven cohn1 respond to development needs of" v'ariouis countries, tries of' the centiral African region (Congo. Zairie . Gabon. Caimie roo)n. Cent r'al A f'rican Repu blic. Silo T0Un1 andi Prini Sites of Ouitstand(ifl Diversity: cipe. and EquatIorial Gulinea) takes this one stage f'Liuutfer. All sites recognized as heing of concern [Or thle conserva Troph'at Freststion of an\' group of' animals or plaimts. or sites having otheir Ob1jct:ive analysis of' the patterns of' distribution of' total critical ecolociical or biological f'actors. weire inventoried. species diversity is lway1 s dliffticult, aInd ill thle CdSe of'fIIehlv and datal Sheets were prepared Suinni1arizinge the available in diverse mloist If.orest ecosystemis it is an objective that can- f'ormation on thle p~resent status of' the site, threats to its ill not be attined quick eniough~ 1o Constitute atcomprehensive te2rit'. and 1masures required to ensure its, conservation. tool for planning conservation action. At thle samle tinie. all These data were suiuiiiari,cd iinto a regional actionl plan1 that1 data available onl biolocgically important sites need to bie is Under consideration by the i-overnments concerne:d (see aIpplied SVStemahtiCaltv.' It Will be decades beflore cos0a Chapter VII). iOn in thle tiopics can be based Upon suIchIia mcuou111s uip- Thle daneri of* excessive concentration of' conservation pra isal (If species con se rvationm needs as that whIiichI sU PP~rt s resourn ces in these S1-clledL criticall Sites is.that1 it c IlId divert 103 CONSERVING HI'HEWORLIYS BIOLOGICAL I)IVERSITY attention and resources away from the larger ecosystems. tion, and the above targets seem reasonable in light of the To the extent that the sites are often too small in isolation present situation throughout the moist tropics of Asia and to constitute viable -conservation units." their protection Africa; far larger areas may be possible in Latin America. as islands in a totally transformed landscape would not result The critical issue is to ensure that the resources are mobil in conservAon objectives being met. Thus. while these sites ized to guarantee the long-term survival of such a network can receive highest priority attention, and while the tech- of reserves (see Chapter VIII). niques applied to their conservation can provide a model ap- Adequate management programs for such reserves, in very plicable to the forest biome at large, it is essential that general terms, require an initial capital investment estimated measures to protect them be an integral component of at $5 to $10 per ha and a recurrent budget of SI to $3 per managemert strategies applied to the entire forest estate of ha/year (though these figures will vary widely on the basis the nations where they occur. In many moist tropical areas of distance from urban centers, objectives for tourism the optimum scenario would be a network of small, totally development, uses of adjacent lands, possible resettlement, protected species-rich areas surrounded by much more ex- and so forth). The hypothetical network of tropical forest tensive areas of managed natural forest, protected areas could therefbre be established for between A systematic approach to the determination of priority sites $500 million and $1 billion - some of which has already for forest conservation throughout the tropics, based on the been invested - and would then require about $100 to $300 most up-to-date vegetation maps and drawing upon a broad million a year to maintain. range of conservation expertise within the countries as well Under this ideal scheme, an '*average" tropical country as the data collected for the centers of plant diversity etfort, might require $5 million annually for management, with ap is now being prepared by IUCN, in cooperation with British propriate figures for establishing any new reserves required. Petroleum, FAO, and several others. It seeks to prepare a Such figures are not so far out of line with what is already database, with digitized maps, for all remaining areas of being spent on conservation-related programs in at least some tropical forcsts. The inlormation will be published in the form of' the countries concerned, though resources are seldom of' a series of Tropical Forest Resource Atlases, beginning employed in the most effective way and many conservation with Asia in October, 1990. In the Amazon region, a agencies are prevented from carrying out their assigned tasks workshop in January of 1990 brought together scientific ex- because of' conflicting policies in other sectors (such as pertise to determine key areas for conservation in this tropical agriculture and foreign trade). torest biome. Brazil's environmental ministry (IBAMA) and CI, with coordination from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, are producing a publication and maps generated by the meeting's participants. Priorities for Conservation Action One could reasonably imagii,e a network of 500 caretkily Biological resources provide the basis for sustainable forms selected and managed protected zones in the 57 countries of development in all countries, so strategies need to be that contain tropical moist forests, with an average size of developed for all the countries of the world acting together 200,000 ha, of which 100,000 ha might be in a totally pro- in the interests of all humanity. Clearly, the best policy is tected core zone. These 500 reserves would total 100 million to conserve areas of maximum biologial diversity an(' at ha, of which 500,000 would be totally protected. This would the same time ensure that within these areas endangered represent nearly 9 percent of the 1,200 million ha of moist species of plants and animals, or those that are suffering from tropical forest estimated to remain in 1980, a reasonable severe genetic erosion, are subject to special management target to aim for. (It should be noted, however, that even procedures that will ensure their survival. this figure is far short of what conservation biologists would At the same time, every nation - and every local, national, consider necessary to conserve viable populations; many ex- or international institution - has only limited resources at perts feel that the principal protected areas should be in the its disposal for dealing with conservation priorities. The I million ha range. Such large areas are likely to be feasible dilemma is how to use these resources in the most effective only through a mix of management regimes which control way. No single scheme for establishing conservation i'1ppropriate land uses.) Of the 280 million ha of tropical priorities can be acceptable to all individuals, organizations, forest that originally existed in the Guinean and Congolian or nations because different perspectives, values, and goals Forest hlocks of Africa, for example, a total ofjust over 10 influence the importance given to various considerations. But million ha has been given complete legal protection. This a decision framework can allow conscious evaluation of the represents some 8.4 percent of the forest cover remaining tradeoffs and value judgments that are made in reaching a in 1980. Proposals are now under consideration for a fur- set of' priorities. The following elements will often be useful: ther 2.5 million ha of' reserves, bringing the total to 10.5 0 Distinctiveness. To maintain the variety of the world's life percent of' the remaining west-central African forests, forms and processes, higher priority would be given to Many tropical developing countries already have over 5 more distinctive elements of that diversity. A community percent of their land area under some form of legal protec- containing many widespread species makes a smaller 104 ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVIiRSII " contribution to the conservation of biodiversity than a corn- The utility of such a framework lies less in the final munify with many endemic species. A subspecies v1 a .score" than in the process of arriving at the score. When polymorphic and widespread species deserves le,;s con- greater weight i:; given to one element of the set. a planner servation concern than a monotypic :;,':ies, or i species reveals the valne judgments that are incorporated in the that isthe only representative of its genus, fhil: or order, priorities. For example, if a planner is primarily concerned Similarly, habitats that are rare! or contain numerous with the "global value" ofbiodiversity, this category would endemic species deserve higher p iority than habitats that be given higher emphasis than "local value." The resulting are widespread or contain species common elsewhere. And priorities would not be more or less correct than a scheme higher priority should go to biogeographic units that have that provided more weight to the local values of biological no or fcw protected areas than to such units with numerous resources: it would simply be based on different value protected areas. judgments. The following principles may be useful in help Thireat. In variou, regions of the world biodiversity is sub- ing to guide decisions about priorities for specific project ject to thrcats of very different magnitudes: areas where activities, suitably adapted to the particular needs ofthe coun threats are greater should receive higher priority than areas try and agency involved. with lesser threats. Other things being equal, an en- *Ensure that decisions are based on the best available dangered species should be given priority over avulnerable assessment of inf'oration. one; a vulnerable over a rare one; and a rare species over The first requirement for making informed decisons about one that even if it is declining is considered insufficiently priorities is good information. While action should seldom threatened to qualify f'or one of the three ILCN categories, be delayed by a lack of information, it is essential that such The major weakness of this approach, as discussed in infornmation as is available be utilized fully. Often, such Chapter II,is that imninence of threat is often a matter information is widely dispersed and unpublished, but of the state of knowledge about the species, and that in surveys of existing government institutions can lead to turn speciesgeneally found inbecomes the area less increases. adequate as the number of relativelyeaieycm~t comp!ete informationnomtin(~. (e.g.. forestoetsressb surveys sub mitted by concessionaires, trade statistics, etc.). At the * Utilityv. Different subsets of the world's current biodiver- international level, the World Conservation Monitoring sity may be equivalent in the "amount" of biodiversity Centre and UINEP's Global Environment Monitoring Serv that is maintained, but very different in their current or ice provide a useful entry point. Information on a number future utility. In asscssiglg priorities, particularly in tropical of subjects - including species, habitats, local human countries, highest priority nceds to go to the species whose communities, patterns of resource use, population trends, loss will have the greatest negative impact on humanity. and local development projects - is necessary to provide This, admittedly, is an anthropocentric perspective, but a balanced picture. During the process of collecting in those .,pecies most likely to earn the necessary political formation, gaps can be identified for future research. support for their conservation will include wild plant 9 Establish objectives for conservation. species related to domestic food crops, wild relatives or Once the available information has been collected, objec forms of domestic animals, medicinal plants, species tives for conservation can be determined. This step, which harvested by people, animal species that are useful seems relatively simple, isoften ignored or left unstated, research models, and fodder plants for domestic animals. this can lead to misunderstandings about what is intend Similarly, it is easier to justify the conservation of an ed. Determining objectives is best dcne as part of a proc ecosystem 'hat protects many threatened species or plays ess of consultation involving those who will be affected a critical roI: as the watershed for a major irrigation pro- by how a resource is to be managed, so both managers ject than one that provides only indirect ecosystem ser- and consumers should be involved in the process (see vices to humanity. Chapter VII for further discussion). Each of these three categories contains sub-categories ad- 0 Design support activities that build the self-reliance of dressing specific issues. For example, distinctiveness can be the recipient, rather than build dependence. subdivided into categories of genetic, species, and ecological Earlier discussions have stressed the point that long-term distinctiveness. Considerations of threat c-n examine the level success in conserving biological resources will depend on of endemism (range) of the species, susceptibility to impacts, the cooperation of the people who are most directly con and development pressure. Under utility, a resource can be cerned with those resources. In order to build sustainable assessed to evaluate its current utility, possible future util- relationships between rural people and their resources, ity, local value, and global value, local communities must be provided with the tools with A resource can be evaluated for each element of this set, which they can build their own conservation action. with the various components weighted as to their perceived Building the capacity to manage resources is far better than importance. The scores could then be combined to yield the providing a "turn-key" gift; for example, a training relative value of the area's biodiversity for the purposes of workshop on how to prepare management plans for species conservation planning. or protected areas is usually far better than sending in an 105 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY expert to prepare such a plan. Activities need to be de signed to ensure the long-term economic viability of pro tected areas, including designing systems of sustainable utilization of biological resources (in areas that can sup port such harvests). * Ensure that the need for support has been clearly iden tified by the recipient. The worst sort of international support is that which is foisted upon an unsuspecting tropical recipient; the best sort is that which is identified by the relevant authorities themselves as being essential to their ability to carry out their assigned duties more effectively. When the need is clearly stated, political support for !he activity is far more likely to be forthcoming, as is follow-up action. Incen tives may also be required to encourage countries to seek outside support for conservation action, and to afford bio diversity an appropriately high priority in development assistance programs. Following page, overleaf: An xelot (Felis pardalis), one of 36 species of wild cats to be featured in a forthcoming IUCN/SSC Action Plan for Species Conservation (photo by A. Young). 106 INS / CHAPTER VII THE ROLE OF STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLANS IN PROMOTING CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Strategies and action plans can be very useful in present ing an agreed agenda for attention by various institutions and individuals. They are most successful when they are gen erated by those who are closest to the problems, and who are involved in implementing solutions. Chapter VI suggested a number of approaches to deter- Strategies and Action Plans for mining priorities, emphasizing the importance of determin- Conserving Species or Species Groups ing objectives I'r conservation of biological resources at the appropriate level. One of the best ways to ensure that the The Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy various institutions involved in conservation are in general As discussed ir Chapter IN, botanic gardens have great agreement on priorities is to prepare a strategy that defines potenr to bonse rat the basic problems and paints a broad picture of appropriate orderpotential to tapfor thiscontributing potential. tothe the Botanic conservation Gardens of Cnn:ervaplants. in objectives. Strategies are turned into action through a more ion Secretariat has prepared a Botanic Gardens Conser\_ tactical process of planning specific activities to address the tion Strategy. This docutment, published in 1989: broad strategies: this often involves the preparation of an ac tion plan. * recommends that each individual garden clarify its comn mitment to conservation in a Mission Statement and adopt Large numbers of strategies and action plans have been more professional standards of management to achieve its prepared, at local, national, regional, and global levels. Some Mission. have been quite useful (such as the Worl Conservaiion Strategy), while others (such as the Desertification Action * provides thz basis for a more coherent Accessions Policy Plan) have fallen fhr short of expectations. In fields that relate that takes account of conservation neds and f what plants to biodivcrsity, action plans have tended to be global (.such are held in other botanic gardens. as the Bali Action Plan (Annex 4), Marine Mammal Action * outlines ways to improve the documentation of plant Plan, and the Tropical Forestry Action Plan), regional (such records and the verification of plant holdings, including as the various protected area action plans prepared by computerization to improve management of the collection IUCN/CNPPA, or the regional plans prepared by WWF), and to facilitate exchange of data between institutions. or taxonomic (such as the species action plans prepared by 0 explores the relationships between wild and managed con IUCN/SSC). servation for botanic gardens' efforts; for wild (in situ) The biggest problem with strategies and action plans islack conservation, outlines the role of the garden in habitat of implementation, and this relates in turn to the process evaluation, rare species monitoring, "habitat ga:dening," through which they are prepared. Experience has and management c"r',,tected areas; for managed (ex:sitt) demonstrated conclusively that action plans - whether for conservation, proposes strict rules and procedures for the an area, a species, a nation, or a region --necd to be de- establishment of reserve collections, gene banks, and other veloped in the closest possible collaboration with those who germplasm collectiors, and outlines methods of sampling are most directly afrected by the action proposed. populations to maintain adequate genetic variation. This chapter examines a number of the current strategies e emphasizes the facilities that botanic gardens can offer for and action plans for species and habitats, both to illustrate educating their estimated 150 million visitors each year. the current level of such planning and to provide background icconmends that each garden provide a service to its local for the preparation of other such plans. community as a resources and information service. 109 Previous Page lank CONSERVING TH \WORI)'S BIOLOGICAl. DIVERSITY * Provides a framework for training of personnel, with evi- Plans are being supplemented by regional and national Ac phasis on conservation. tion Plans on biodiveisity: those on Venezuela and Madagascar are at an advanced stage, and work on an Species Action Plans Afrotropical biodiversity stra tegy is a major emphasis of' For some of the most important plants and animals, SSC's work during 1989 (see below). IUCN's Species Su rvival Commission has established more Being species-specific, these Action Plans inevitably have than 100 "Specialist Groups" that are working to assess the it fIairly narrow locus (Box 28). They address orlv part of status and priorities of' hese taxa (Box 27). Drawing on i the problem, typically the part that can be addressed by those worldwide network of specialists who are working on the who prepared the plan. Thus most plans give heavy emphasis to additional surveys and research, and to the establishment taxa involved, SSC'iSpecialist Groups cover species aroupinsar such as Antelopes, Primates. Cats. Crocodiles. Cranes (witli and strengthening of, potected areas. While these actions are ICBP and the International Crane Foundation), and Palms. certainly necessary to conserve the species in question, they Each group is assigned th, task of preparing an Action Plan are not sufficient to do so. Few ofthe species Action Plans which includes conducting a thorough overview of the status haedrsedteiiecbunotelsfnamtlhave addressed the indirect but nonetheless fundlamental ofhallche scescondting throbref. vestabeishia sts o causes of species depletion, those that lie ofinette species within their briefp,establishing a system ofs in such areas as priorities, and defining the most relevant projects for address- international trade. agricuhural policy. land tenure systems, ing the priorities. These Action Plans fully involve experts and economic equity: instead, they are directed at clarif'ing in the countries where the species live, ann a;e supported by a wide range of organizations, including WWF. UNEP, Box 27: IUCN/SSC Action Plansfor Wildlife Conservation International, the International Fur Trade Federation. the Chicago Zoological Society, the U.S. Species Conservation. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Center for Marine Conserva- The current status (as of February 1990) of' SSC Action tion, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Plans for species is as follows: Aquaria, and Conservation International. Published The Species Action Plans serve several purposes: African Primates Asian Primates " by establishing the priorities within a taxon, an Action Plan Duikers East African Antelopes ensures that the right actions are addressed first by those Mustelids and Viverrids River Dolpins with the ability to deal with the issues raised. European Bats Dolphin;. Porpoises & Whales * the Action Plans organize masses of information, some Kouprey Soutl'ern African Antelopes of it unpublished or obscure, in ways that can be readily African Forest Birds Torto.ses & Fresh Water Turtles available to other organizations or groups. Rodents River Dolphins " Action Plans are being produced in attractive formats, Asian Rhinos final which can help raise funds for addressing the priority African ElephantsIn and Rhinosstages of preparation actions. Final draft being p:epared * Actior. Plans enable IUCN to respond quickly to oppor- Asian Elephants Molluscs tunities for linking conservation of species to other major West & Central African Antelopes development projects, such as tourism, rural development, African Insectivores and Elephant Shrews agroforestry, and resource management. First draft being prepared " a set of Action Plans from several groups will enable Canids Cats "species conservation hotspots" to be identified, wh -e Seals Otters high-priority actions are required for a number of different Procyonids African Rodents taxa; identifying such hotspots can lead to very cost- Lagomorphs Pigs & Peccaries effective conservation efforts. Sireni, Equids " each Action Plan is used by the Captive Breeding Spe- Caprinae Cranes European Reptiles & North American Plants cialist Group to produce its own Captive Breeding Action Amphibians Malagasy Lemurs Plan for the taxa concerned. Neotropical Primates * an Actien Plan can provide the glue that holds together In concept stage specialists working in a wide range of countries and Australian Marsupials & Fruit Bats habitats, bringing the Specialist Group members together Miotrenes to assess where needs are being met and where serious Tapirs Hippos obstacles still exist (Stuart, 1987). North African & Asian Deer It is too early to tell how the various Action Plans will Antelopes Crocodiles come together to reinforce each other, and whether they will Parrots Orchids indeed combine to identify relatively few "hot spots" re- Marine Turtles Bears quiring urgent attention. The taxonomically oriented Action Palms 110 THE ROLE OF STRATEGIES ANt) ACTION PLANS ing species priorities as a contribution to more broad-based The main issues that require action, identified within the plans. The implementation of species Action Plans therefore framework of the Plan, fallwithin live related priority areas, needs to be closely integrated with broader economic and of which one is the Conservation of Tropical Forest social aspects if the plans are to meet their conservation Ecosystems. The program on conservation covers the follow objectives. ing objectives: 0 to develop and adopt methods that enable the fbrest to be Box 28: A Typical Species Action Plan: used for the production of wood, food, fodder, and other Afican Primates. non-wood products in a sustainable manner. 0 to select and adopt a series of protected areas covering The fbllowing is the contents of the Action Plan for the whole range of variation of tropical ecosystems. African Primate Conservation 1986-1990: * to expand the concept of conservation policy and manage Introduction ment to include maintenance of intra-specific variation of Classification species of actual and potential socio-economic importance, Priority Ratings of Species and Subspecies for Conser- and adopt measures that conserve as much as possible of vation Action other species whose qualities are not yet known. Distinct Communities and Ecosystems 9 to consider national parks and other protected areas within Recommended Conservation Action the context of the general pattern of land use of areas that Conclusion surround them, and to design and operate them in ways References that are acceptable to local people and bring benefits to Annex 1:Species Lists for Countries with 10 or More them in the short as well as the long term. Pri.,late Species 9 to develop closer links between policies for the conserva Annex 2: Distribution and Status of the Most Threatened tion of ecosystems and genetic resources of priority Primate Species species, and to promote measures that encourage the Source: Oates 1985. recovery of natural vegetation to provide protection for soil and water catchment areas. e to assemble basic biological information for the conser Action Plans for Conserving Habitats vation of germplasm. * to raise awareness, at all levels, of the importance of The Tropical ForestryAction Plan ecosystem and genetic resource conservation. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan was prepared through o to train staff to implement the objectives listed above. the combined efforts of governments, forestry agencies, UN The TFAP has been criticized for being insufficiently agencies, and non-governmental organizations. The TFAP critical in its perception of the role of development assistance was conceived as a framework and an instriment for in forest lands in the tropics. It failed to point out the serious stimulating commitment and action within forestry and other shortcomings of past attempts by international agencies to sectors to address forest resource management challenges in "develop" tropical forest resources, instead focusing ex developing countrie,,. It was intended to act a:, a catalyst to cessive attention on the objective of generating more finance maximize the potential contributions of sustainable use of for conventional approaches to forestry. Proponents of the forest resources to rural livelihoods, food and energy secur- TFAP now recognize these problems and are putting more ity, income and employment, and other national development emphasis on qualitative improvements in forest management priorities, and less in quantitative increases in aid. However, conserv The Tropical Forestry Action Plan was launched in 1985 atism on the part of forestry professionals and inertia in both by FAO's Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics, national and international institutions is making it difficult an inter-governmental body dealing explicitly with questions to realize the ecosystem conservation and social benefits to of tropical forestry. It has contributed to raising political which the TFAP aspires. awarene,;s of the seriousness of tropical deforestation and Several opportunities exist for strengthening the TFAP has stimulated a broad-based effort to develop nationai forest planning process. First, although the TFAP called for grass strategies. Over 50 countries -tcross Africa, Asia, and Latin roots participation in planning, actual participation in TFAP America are involved in developing and implementing na- exercises has tended to be largely restricted to governments tional forest strategies. The purpose of the national strategy and external aid agencies. Second, the TFAP exercises have exercises is to foster a dialogue among governments, aid tended to focus too narrowly on the forestry sector. Many agencies, and NGOs on priority areas for policy reform and of the solutions to the problems of deforestation lie in agri investment to control deforestation and improve forest cu':ure, planning, finance, apd other sectors and these must resource management. The World Bank and other multi- become involved in the p-ocess. Finally, greater emphasis lateral and bilateral aid agencies are increasing their support must be placed on policy reforms, particularly policies out in this area. side the forestry sector. Often, government policies provide I11 CONSERVING THE WORIA)'S BIO.O(GICAL DIVERSITY strong incentives that encourage deforestation (see, e.g.. in helping guide IUCN's activities in the iniernational aspects Repetto and Gillis, 1988). Policy reform to control deforesta- of protected areas; CNPPA (1988) has presented a summary tion and to promote sustainable forest resource use is essen- of progress in the first live years of implementing the Bali tial if expanded investment and technical assistance programs Action Plan. are to be effective (Hazlewood, 1989; WRI, 1989b). Members of CNPPA have also prepared a set of action plans for each of the four tropical regions (Africa, tropical Action PlansJbr Protected Areas Asia. tropical America, the Pacific), each deriving 'rom a Drawing on the WCMC database, and on some 400 ex- meeting of protected area managers and scientists from within perts in the respective biogeographical realms, IUCN has the region. Each of the action plans contains a list of objec lives and high priority actions for the entire realn, country conducted detailed reviews of'the protected area system of ties and i o o the Oceanian (IUCN/UNEP, 1986a), Afrotropical (IUCN/ riorities. and recmmended international actions. UNEP , 1986b , UNEPa nd ln196bi.andlndoalaannm (UCNUNEP 196c) The protected area action plans have been reasonably ef d o a l aya n (I UC N/ UNEP , 19 86c ) e t v i n a d s i g t e n a o r p bl m wt h n he ec l , realms. These reviews, prepared in collaboration with lective in addressing the major problems within the sector, UNEP, were designed to: anid a number of the priority activities have been im * evaluate the representational coverage and conservation plemented. For example, on tilebasis of the South Pacific importance of the existing pretected areas system of the Action Plan, the government of New Zealand seconded a realm; tull-time park planner to the South Pacific Commission to identiy gaps and shortelomings inthe system; help implement tle pha. InAfrica, tie action plan helped * ndidntiyhorcomngsingps he ystm;gelpieen thnidrepplaIAfra thaion plants helpd " evaluate the conservation importance of existing and pro- generate considerable support r training efforts. And in posed reserves and other areas of biological richness and tropical Asia, the action pian helped encourage a number of' recommend where additional protected areas are needed; governments to join the World Heritage Convention. " identify priorities for strengthening protection; Cross-Sectoral Strategies "consider the suitability of the status. boundaries, design, and effectiveness of the existing reserve systern; and and Action Plans • identify conservatien management needs in critical habitats SSC has recognized the limitations of its taxa-based ac outside protected areas. tion plans, so it has embarked on preparing national or The reviews evaluated protected area data in terms of: how regional biodiversity action plans that seek to bring together much of each biogeographical sub-division is protected; information on all taxa. Venezuela and Madagascl'r (in final coverage of the regional and altitudinal range of c'h sub- draft) are the first two national biodiversity action plans be division and inclusion of other features (e.g.. physical or ing prepared; the latter is contributing to work of the World ethnic interests) that need protection; coverage in relation Bank on conserving biodiversity in Africa. In addition, IUCN to species richness, centers ofl high biological distinctiveness is working with the International Council for Bird Preser or endemism and in relation to threats to habitat; coverage vation to prepare a biodiversity strategy for the Afrotropical in relation to commercial interest or value of content (e.g., Realm. The strategy is directed towards decision-makers in genepoois); the category status of' the individual protected African governments. It seeks to distill the many recommen areas; evaluation of the designs of prot cted area system, dations made by SSC, CNPPA, ICBP, and other institutions on the basis of island biogeographical theory; the effec- into a short and readable document. tiveness of manageinent in individual reserves; and con- But even these more comprehensive plans still tend to treat sideration of adjacent land-use and critical habitat re- conservation of biological diversity as if' it were a sector. quirements. In essence, these reviews were exercises in ap- And indeed, sectoral agencies - such as national parks and plied conservation biology, wildlife management departments - do have an important, Since these reviews cover entire realms, they need to be even dominant, role to play. But earlier chapters in this book supplemented by national reviews; indeed, one of their ob- have pointed out that significant parts of the real problems jectives is to help promote such detailed national-level still are not being sufficiently addressed by taxa-oriented or reviews. Reviews of national systems of protected areas have protected arca plans and strategies. been prepared, or are in preparation, in countries as diver,:e The World Commission :)n Environment and Development as Thailand, Saudi Arabia, Sr; Lanka, Gabon, Madagascar, (WCED) has pointed out that environment and development Oman, and Indonesia. are not separate challenges, but are inexorably linked. Priorities are determined on the basis of the information WCED (1987) stated that: "Development cannot subsist upon derived from the processes described above. The general a deteriorating environmental resource base; the environment perspective on protected areas was provided by the Bali Ac- cannot be protected when growth leaves out of account the tion Plan, ,eveloped at the World Congress on National Parks costs of environmental destruc:tion. These problems cannot held in Bali, Indonesia, in 1982, to provide the guidance to be treated separately by fragmented institutions and policies. enable pro'ected areas to meet the needs of the 1980s (see They are linked in a complex system of cause and effect." Annex 4). This Action Plan has proved extremely effective Many of the problems in conserving biological resources 112 THE ROLE OF S'TRAEGIFS AND ACTION PLANS are related to the fact that responsibilities are divided into resource managers, scientists, international institutions, sectoral units, leading to fragmentation, poor coordination, multilateral banks, and bilateral aid agencies. The develop conflicting directives, and waste of human and financial ment of the Globa! Strategy will be centered around a series resources. This can only be overcome by integration, by ex- of regional workshops in Asia. Africa. Europe, Latin amining the impact of decisions in one sector on the ability America, and North America: several of these will also con of another sector to depend on the same resources. fntegra- tribute to Regional Biodivcrsity Conservation Strategies. The tion is not easy, and in some resp~ects it is not very prac- Global Strategy will include considerations of a variety of tical. Still, an optimal balance pcint can be found where the factors influencing biological re,:ource conservation, such as benefit of considering secondary impacts (or externalities) international financing, international cooperation, research, is overtaken by the cost of doing so. In most cases, this education, training, public awareness, and ecological restora balance point lies well beyond the current practice of taking tion. However, the development of the strategy will place decisions based on a very narrow range of sectoral major emphasis on six pivotal issues: considerations, a) Root Causes As one step in this direction, I! JCN's members and col- Patterns of biological resource use are influenced by the laborators in the Central Africa region Lave collaborated in incentives and disincentives that exist within the framework the preparation of an Actior Plan for the conservation of the of national and international policies pertaining to agriculture, continuous block of forest, the Guinco-Congolean, which ex- forestry, land tenure, foreign assistance, trade agreements, tends into the six countries of the region. This action was tariffs, defense, and so forth (McNeely, 1988). Nations are based on the tecognition that actions in each country influ- suffering serious eccnonic losses, individual well-being is enced forest resources in those of its neighbors and that declining, and future gcnerations are losing invaluable assets knowledge and experience of conservation management as a result of incentive structures that often favor unsus could usefully be shared among the countries. The Action tainable patterns of resource use (e.g.. Repetto, 1988: Mahar, Plan proposes a ;ttwork of sites of critical importance that 1988) and that discourage local adaptation to environmental will be brought tinder conservation managenwnt as part of conditions. How can biological diversity be assigned ap a $30 million regional program to be funded by the EEC. propriate prices, so that cost-benefit analyses can be carried In each site, a critical forest area for biological diversity con- out as a basis for designing incentive systems? What options servation will be safeguarded by developing sustainable for national and international policy reform are available to agricultural and forestry practices on surrounding land. Each design and implerient incentives and disincentives that will project will focus -;n a different approach to managing these ensure sustainable patterns of resource use'? What economic lands and experience will be shared through annual incentives are available to encourage conservation of workshops that will rotate among the sites. The Action Plan biological resources by people living around protected areas? identifies numerous other critical sites where finding agen- What is required to ensure that senior government officials cies mih.ht invest in :cplicating successful approaches, thus become familiar with economic incentives that might be used extending the network. Complementary policy measures to conserve biological diversity'? How might national and in needed to create conditions favorable to the success of the ternational institutions be structured to achieve these ends? program are identified in the Action Plan (IUCN, 1989a). b) Slstainable Development In a period in earth's history that is characterized by very A Global Strategy for the rapid changes in human land use, technology, climate, and Conservation of Biological Diversity a series of other factors, predictions about the future are prob lematic at best. Under such conditions, what are sustainable It is apparent from the discussion above that action plans patterns of biological resource use? At the level of the local and strategies, when designed appropriately and implemented community, what are the obstacles to the development and with vigor, can make important contributions to conserva- persistence of sustainable local production systems and the tion. As noted earlier, a collaborative effort of the World opportunities for the development of policies permitting atnd Resources Institute, IUCN, and UNEP, working with other fostering the development of such systems? institutions, is leading to the preparation of A Global Strategy It appears that the most useful unit of analysis is the local for the Conservation of Biodiversity, as a companion to the rural community, because thcse are the units most directly aew verson of the WorlM ConservationStrategy now being dependent on !he resources available within a fairly cir prepared. cumscribed area for most of their requirements (with many The aim of the Strategy is to provide a comprehensive technological and energy inputs from afar). How can such framework to stimulate urgent, positive, innovative, and communities manage biological resources to become more coordinated action to stem the loss and degradation of the self-reliant, without making undue sacrifices in comparative world's biological resources and enhance the contribution standard of living'? Clearly, the structure of the incentives of these resources to human well-being. The Strategy will that influence patterns of resource use must be tailored to be developed by and for national governments, NGOs, the nature of local ecological and social systems. The policy 113 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSrY framework cannot attempt to dictate specific patterns of sus- and diversity of species communities; tainable resource use: the variety of ecological and social e synthesize existing knowledge in forms that can be used systems demands unique solutions for each setting. Instead, by planners, managers, and local people; and policies must permit and foster the development and per- e develop a research agenda that will meet the needs iden sistence of sustainable local production systems, encourage tified in the Strategy. the search for means of increasing their contribution to human Many local communities already contain an excellent basis needs, and encourage innovation and the development of of knowledge of how to manage the resources within their alternative methods of use of' biological resources, local ecosystens (Warren et al.. 1989; BOSTID, 1986). Developing patterns of local resource use that are sus- However, they are unlikely to be aware of innovations from tainable and that enhance the resource base will require ':at: outside their local systems that could enhance yields of useful * appropriate systems of management responsibility are products and increase biological diversity. Science therefIore established within local communities; has very important contributions to make to local adaptations, * the benefits and costs of biological resource use that are through identifying the ecological functions of the various normally external to the nArket be measured and incor- --omponents of ecosystems and the way new and improved porated into economic models and into the public agro-ecosystems can be designed for specific localities. consciausness: Science can help mobilize traditional knowledge through: • the substantial knowledge possessed by human cultures e preparing guidelines on methods for obtaining, assessing, regarding the use of their local resources be maintained and presenting traditional conservation knowled,,e; and enhanced as the basis for further development; and • preparing an inventory of traditional knowledge systems, • science and economics be applied to the identification of highlighting those aspects that can contribute to conser new values (products, foods, commodities) that might ac- vation and development, and giving special attention to crue to local people as a result of biological resource con- traditional knowledge systems in danger of being lost; servation (including factors such as marketing and trade * documenting the role of women in resource utilization in that will ensure the sustainability of resource use). traditional societies and ensuring that knowledge held by In support of principles of community self-reliance, na- women is given appropriate recognition; and tional and international policies are required that will enable e translating traditional means of conservation - sacred governments, industry, and private enterprise to contribute groves, community responsibility, taboos, etc. - into to conserving biological diversity; the first step may be ac- forms useful to development planners and managers of ceptance that local resource-using units are to be shielded biological resources. from external interference (or, rather, the conditions under which such units are to be shielded). In addition, many of d) Enhancing the Management of Biological Resources the problems facing biological diversity are global in nature The responsibility for managing the world's biological - climate change, deforestation, environmental pollution, resources falls on numerous institutions and individuals. species extinctions - and require global solutions. Various activities pertaining to resource conservation have different goals and objectives, yet together the spectrum of c) Science and Its Application land uses and conservation activities - ranging from national Knowledge of the status of biological resources and parks to agricultural and grazing land, from multiple-use pro methods for their management represent the foundation on tected areas to private fbrest land, and from zoos to botanical which policy decisions are made and the means by which gardens to seed banks - must form a stable and integrated their outcome is monitored (Reid and Mi!ler, 1989). New system meeting human needs through sustainable patterns approaches are required by which science can: of resource use. What patterns and types of land use and ex " greatly accelerate the identification and description of the situ conservation activities will meet these needs'? What in millions of species still unknown (and therefore unavailable stitutional and policy framework will provide the necessary for scientific investigation); integration between sectors'? • contribute to the identification of methods of increasing In many parts of the world, systems of land and water use the capacity of systems to provide services to humanity; need to be developed urgently, to meet long-term develop * guide the protection, inventory, study. use, and monitor- mient goals before key resources and habitats are lost or ing of biodiversity and biological resources; degraded. While man) natural habitats are being converted " provide the knowled;- that is necessary for establishing into uses - such as agriculture, aquaculture, and forestry priorities for action; - that yield greater productivity to humans, the natural value " develop biological indicators, or measurements, that can of some areas is so significant that they need to be converted provide decision-makers with accurate and timely infor- with great care, or left in their natural state. Some of these mation on the effects of policy decisions; areas may prosper through "benign neglect" while others " assess the effects of various forms of habitat management will require intensive management to restore or maintain their and utilization of biological resources on the composition natural value. Some areas will require legal designation as 114 THE ROLF O STRAT'GIES AN) ACTION PLANS protected areas, while proper incentive structures may en- more public support for conserving biological diversity? sure the conservation of others in the status of' private or corn- • What are the regional mechanisms that will be most ef mon property. fective in promoting implementation of the Strategy? The Strategy will seek nmeans to identify the location and management requirements of areas important for genetic Conclusions materials, the perpetuation of' species, and the regulation and Action plans and strategies can be influential mechanisms purification of' water flows, as well as areas whose conver- for stimulating and coordinating conservation activities. sion would contribute little to humanity because of their in- Among the factors that may contribute to the Utility of hercntly low productivity or their susceptibility to erosion. biodiversity strategies and action plans, the following seem e) In/or',noiwn for Ac'tion particularly important: A vast amount of irnlbrmation regarding biological resource the degree to which the action plans were prepared by those use and status is available from many sources. While ill who will be responsible for implementing them (the recognize the potential value of that information to decision- "bottom-up' " approach usually being more eff'ective than makers if it were integrated and continually updated, attempts the "top-down" approach): to do so have achieved little succe,,s. The technologica! the degree of political and financial support for the plan, capacity now exists to link databases together in a network both governments and other institutions that may that can be b:oth integrated and continuously updated by those be able to contribute: who are using the data actively. The demand for such infor- e the extent to which the action plan addresses real needs, mation will grow as the importance of biological conserva- either ofthe areas or species concerned or the implement tion issues is demonstrated (a and b, above) and as the way ing institutions: the int'ormnution can be applied to solving real-lif'e resource * the eff'ectiveness of mechanisms to follow ip on the recom management problems is shown. Based on the discussion in mended actions, and to generate the necessary funding; and Chapter V, the Strategy' will address questions such * as: • the degree to which the strategy or action plan contains What information is needed to support policy rforn? both necessary " What inf'ormation and suf'ficient activities to solve the prob is needed to help identify sites impor- tant ior conservation'? lems being addressed. Action plans are required to address the specific needs of' * What inf'ormation is needed to manage these sites'? geographic areas, such as nations or regional seas, and to • What information is needed to monitor the biological address particular topics, such as the global network of' pro resource management policies'? tected areas and groups of' species and varieties. National * How should information be packaged so that it has the conservation strategies, environmental profiles, river basin desired effect on decision-makers? On local communities? and regional development plans and other existing approaches On the general public'? can be amended where necessary to incorporate biodiversi ty considerations. Th. regional protected areas strategies of 1) Formulating an Efictive Response to Problems Facing IUCN, the Bali Action Plan, the Biosphere Reserve Action Conservation of Biological Diversitm Plan of Unesco, and the various Regional Seas action plans Detailed analyses of the cause of a problem and definition of UNEP all need support in funding and implementation. of steps toward its solution do not guarantee that the solu- Similarly, plans for selected wetlands, the Tropical Forestry tion will be adopted, as many failed action plans can attest. Action Plan, and other ongoing initiatives should receive fur- Such action plans and strategies have failed not because of ther reinforcement. inappropriate recommendations but because of the failure to All of these strategies and action plans can contribute to consider issues of process, constituency, and commitment, conserving biological diversity, but none of them are likely On the other hand, some very positive changes have been to have very great impact by themselves because ofthe very brought about in public and government behavior, often very complicated nature of linkages between the sectors that af quickly. Anti-litter and anti-smoking campaigns have worked feet biological diversity. Even if all of their actions were to reasonably well in some places, and government responses be implemented, most action plans can address only a part to the problems of human-induced changes in the atmosphere of the problem and often can provide only symptomatic relief. have been dramatic. Based on a critical review of existing The Global Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity action plans and strategies, and of'sxcial movements that have is designed to take several significant steps farther, in at been reasonably successful, the Strategy will consider: tempting to identify the root causes of the problems of con o How can a stronger constituency be developed for the con- serving biological diversity and suggest ways of mobilizing servation of' biological diversity'? resources for their solution. A very considerable investment " Where are the real pressure points for conserving of time, energy, and resources will be required to stop the biological diversity: Industry'? Commerce? Industrial gov- erosion of our planet's biological wealth. Careful planning ermnents'? The defense establishment? at both strategic and tactical levels can help ensure that the " What are the "images" that need to be packaged to gain investments made will yield the greatest possible return. 115 Ate CHAPTER VIII HOW TO PAY FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY While many will agree to the desirability of conservingZ biodiversity, governments still have difficulty in finding suf ficient financial resources for addressing the problems of con servation in a manner comme,'surate with the needs of soci ety. Innovative funding mechanisms are required. This book has attempted to demonstrate that biological Current conservation programs are usually implemented diversity is a global resource as well as a national and local th 01gh resource management agencies whose budgets are one, with conservation bringing benefits to all of humanity. generally insuffici,'nt to implement their mandates cftective Yet current threats to biodi\ersity are greatest in develop- ly, and are subjcct to considerable fluctuation Irom year to ing countries that have great biolhlical diversity coupled with year. Such funding diffiL.tlties severely hamper the effec severely restricted financial meams for suPporting conserva- tiveness of conservation agencies. To produce acceptable tion efforts. At the same time, many governments are pro- results and become fully operational, conservation agencies viding heavy subsidies to activities that have severe negative must have sufficient and reliable sources of support. impacts on biological diversity: subsidized cattle ranching Unfb0rlunately, in today's economic climate, the govern in Amazonia (Binswangcr, 1987) and Botswana IPerrings merit agencies responsible for conservation are chronically et al., 1988) are notorious examples. Action istherefore re- under-funded. leading to abuses of natural resources. Signifi quired at both national and international levels to identify cant new funding is clearly required, from both within the ways to provide additional funding for conserving biologiial nation involved and from the international community. In. diversity. ternational suppor! is particularly important. Some have con Two programs are currently directly addressing the issue tended that far greater benefits from conserving native gene of intenational financing of biodiversity conservation. The pools, especially in the wilds of the tropics, will be gained International Conservation Financing Program of WRI (sup- by wealthy temperate countries than by the often poverty ported by CIDA, MacArthur Foundation. NORAD, stricken nation conservinL them (Prescott-Allen, 1986): Organization of American States, Pew Charitable Trusts, agriculture, medicine, and forestry in industrialized coun UNDP, UNEP, and USAID) recently released a report ex- tries are able to afford the investments required to turn germ anining financial approaches to international conservation plasm into profit. Further, those in industrial countries often needs, with biodivcrsity an important component of those care more about conserving elephants, tigers, and monkeys needs (WRI, 1989b). In addition, IUCN and UNEP are in the tropical countries than do the larmers who lace daily spearheading an effort to develop an international conven- conflicts with wildlife that is preying on their crops and tion on the conservation of biodiversity, including a funding domestic animals. mechanism based on the use of biological materials, that can While protected areas provide significant local benefits in contribute to the financing of conservation activities (describ- terms of watershed protection, tourism, harvest of renewable ed in Chapter IV). The potential contribution of other inter- resources, and so on, it is a fact that the countries conserv national initiatives, such as "debt for nature swaps." must ing living natural resources often receive much less benefit be examined as well. from them than those consuming their products at some Conservation has brought considerable and sustainable distance. Further, within the tropical countries the people benefits to local communities. Put conserving biological living on the edges of protected areas, and prohibited by law resources requires investments, in staff, in infrastructure, from harvesting the resources in the area, often earn virtually in benefits postponed, in education, and so Forth. These in- no benefits even where the protected areas are bringing in vestments are often very sound, showing high benelit-cost plentifl tourist revCue. Hence. a major incentive for con ratios; the more complete tle economic analysis, the higher servation isoften lacking where it is mni, vital. Clearly, the such ratios are likely to be (USAID, 1987). economic evaluation of conservation needs to incorporate an i-'ternational perspective on costs and benefits, and systems Opposite page: A saltwater crocodile (C'roc'ud.1lux porosus). of providing appropriate incentives to local communities need Crocodiles are increasingly grown on ranches to avoid their to be devised (see McNeely. 1988, for one effort in this overexploitation in the wild (photo by S.D. Nash). direction). 117 CONSERVINGT iil WORLD'S BlIOLOGICA. I)IVERSITY Finally, some forms of financial suppoi I for conservation conservation is best achieved through international involve bilateral a'rcements or cooperation with international mechanisms such as tile Consultative Group on International agencies, suL as food for work programs. In many develop- Agricultural Research (CGIAR). ing countries. large externally supported development proj- Several policy options exist between the extremes of'con ects can often include elements that :upport conservation of serving biological resources as a by-product of immediate biological resources. economic considerations and international funding of con In seeking to promote more finds for conserving biological servation actions. These options center on the issue of prop diversity, the following points need to be considered: erty rights for certain biological resources. " in some cases, community development activities are Tile property rights issue clouds policy analysis in the areas already being planned or implemented in communities in of both genetic and species conservation. International seed or near a:eas important for conserving biological re- banks, for example, have been subjected to criticism because sources, in which case elements to promote change, new crop varieties produced from germplasm that is provided behavior toward conservation can be incorpo,'ated in the without charge by developing countries are then sold back development projec, . ith little additional cost (see Reid to the contributing countries for a profit. Developing coun et al., 1988, for examples of this). tries have argued that tile varieties produced from seed bank • it is apparent that any funding mechanism will need to material should be made freely available. enanate from the competent government authority, t:ther The problem could be solved either by increasing inter in term:; of enabling legislation or administrative fiat: con- national financing ofconservation efforts or by granting prop siderable coordination among various ministries - from erty rights to countries that implement effective programs Finance to Natural Resources - may be required. to conserve their biological resources. This latter option has " conservaticn needs to pervade all rural-based activities: not been explored in sufficient detail, but the obstacles to it isnot something that happens only in national parks and such an approach are clear. In this era of biotechnology, it other protected areas. Ther.fiore, economic incentives would be virtually impossible for a country to know or prove aimed at encouragi ng rural people to conserve biological that genes from one of its species were in use in a given resources outside of protected areas can be very cost- organism. However, it can also be argued that the issue effective in terms of'conservation achievement. While such would be no more complex than international copyright law incentives may not bring funding to the conservation (de Klemm, 1985). The quotation of a small passage from agency, they may Lnable the agency to be more effective a book, like the use of a few genes, is not likely to be iden in managing protected areas (McNeely, 1988). tified as a copyright infringement whereas the reproduction " finally, funding isseldom the only major constraint to con- of an entire book in infringement of copyright would pro servation ach;evement. While conservation agencies never vide grounds for rccompensation. Considerable work has have sufficieit funding, and additional funding is certain- been done on promoting the protection of plant varieties and ly called for, even generous budgets will not lead to con- parts as intellectual property. Williams (1984) concludes, servation if government policies in other sectors are in- "Because more and more private research funds are being compatible with conservation. Therefore, any new fund- poured into the development of plant varieties, stable and ing mechanisms need to be part of a package that includes definitive protection for these varieties and parts thereof is necessary policy changes in land tenure, energy, frontier very important. It remains to bc seen whether adequate pio settlement, forcigai trade, transportation, and so on. tection is available within the framework of the existing pa tent statutes or whether new legislation is requi;ed." The essential point is to ensure that those who benefit from The Issue of Property Rights the use of wild plants pay some of the costs of ensuring that io B3iological Resources those species remain viable in the wild, where they can con tinue to evolve. Many biological resources can be consercd through ac tions taken to meet tile immediate needs of the rural poor. But it is inevitable that a gap will exist between the conser- Mechanisms Useful Primarily at vation that can be achieved through its compatibility with rural development and the action that is desirable for the good National and Local Levels of humanity. Although each country has its own legislation and its own For example, the benefits of the establishment of seed ways of raising funds for conservation of biological diver banks for crops of international importance are enormous. sity, tile cur-en, period of budgetary restraint calls for in However, it would not be in the interest of any nation ex- novative solutions to old problems. Each country will have cept ,m ',ioragricultural ones to be the sole financier of a seed its own history, traditions, and legislation, so funding bank for such a crop because the benefits for that country mechanisms are likely to be highly variable and will require would be relatively small and the ;xpense high. Thus, the adaptation to local conditions; those suggested here have hun financing of a substantial portion of agricultural germplasm dreds of permutations, and no doubt other mechanisms coild 118 HOW TO PAY FOR CONSFRVING IIOLOGICA. )IVERSITY be identified. Given these provisos, the following potential who cannot pay and because they feel that they are providing sources of funding can be identified (in addition to regular a public service: parks are viewed as "nmerit goods" to which budgetary allocations from the central governmentl. access is not denied on the basis of income. However, as costs of protected area management rise and budgets fall, mrost protected areas will rieed to consider charging Ifees. Other user fees can also be charged, especially for those :44,,'< ,requirine maintenance or other management inputs. These can include campsites, bathing fticilities, white-water rafting, lake cruises, spot-lighting wildlife at night, guided tours, car parks, and so on. Cook (1988) quotes a number of arguments in support of applying user fees: * the public tends to appreciate more fully those facilitie.,, and areas for which they are required to pay; . fees and charges represent a means of having tile user pay a proportionally greater 1hare than the public at large; the willingness of the p flic to pay for certain activities or flacilities is a useful guide for planning park programs: * the collection of' fees provides an opportunity for direct contact with the park visitor, increasing the possibilities .,,¢,: - ...... for providing information and maintaining surveillance; *park programs may become increasingly limited and maintenance programs deferred unless additional lunding is made available through user fees. In determining the fee structure to charge for the various goods and services available within a protected area, the following points should be considered: * What is the objective for charging fees? To supplement the regular government appropriation, or to enable the Ecotourismn in the Galipagos Islands, Ecuador (photo by R. facility to be totally self-suflici ;.t? Mast). 0 How should the scale of fees compare with commercial institutions offering similar goods or services? C How should the fee structure deal with ":,)ecial groups, such as children, school groups, senior citizens, low-income to National Parks groups (especially local people), and foreign tourists'? Most iourists appreciate the attractions of nature enough The fee can be computed on the basis of actual cost of the to pay tfr visiting outstanding natural areas. Galdpagos Na- good or service (when this can be determined); direct tional Park, for example, charges a fee of $40 per foreign operating expenses, inciuoing staff time; interest and amor visitor, which is still a tiny proportion of the total price the tization of investment; support for the efficient management of the area, including necessary improvements; maintenance visitor is paying for the experience (Ecuadorians pay at a local scale). Fees charged to park visitors in Costa Rica were costs; or simply what the market will bear. expected to genecatc $168,000 in 1988; foreign visitors are Funds thus earned should be returned to the protected area charged no nicre than local visitors. so some scope exists for management, including support for various economic in for increased fees. In Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park, centives ftirected toward improving cooperation with sur famrous for its mountain gorillas, a ticket for one gorilla visit rounding communities. Unfortunately, the fees collected in (including three days in the park) currently costs about $180 most countries are deposited into the central treasury, and per person; a second gorilla visit the next day is an addi- the funds approprivted for protected area operations or in tional $150. "Gorilla tourism" has now become the third vestments seldom correlate with the income generated by the largest foreign exchange earner for Rwanda, a major incen- protected area system. tive for conservation. Poaching :,"gorillas and encroachment for Services on the national park have been greatly reduced as a result char0e Ecological (Vedder, 1989). The ecological services provided by protected areas, Strangely enough, many national parks do not charge en- natural forests, and wetlands are usually considered "public try fees, often because they do not want to discourage visitors goods.'" but it is also possible to design systems to charge 119 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVERSITY for these goods. The provision of high-quality water is prob- and Management Act establishes a Hazardous Waste ably the best exanple. For pr'tected areas located in hilly Management Trust Fund to finance the correction of pollu or upland areas. watershed protection is an extremely tion problems should they occur. The Fund is linanced by valuable service. For example, Venezuela's Canaima Na- a 4 percent excise tax on disposal until the accrual reaches tional Park saf'eguarIds a catchnent feeding hydroelectric $30 million, and 2 percent thereafter. developments that are so important that the gowernment In Costa Rica, legiSlation stipulates that all legal documents recently tripled the size of' the park to 3 million ha to enhance at the municipal level, newly issued passports, exit visas, its utility for watershed protection: replacing this hydroelec- first-time auto registrations, authenticated signatures tricity with petroleum would cost an estimated $3billion per registered at the Foreign Ministry. and operating licenses year (Garcia. 1"84). for all bar,;, nightclubs, dance halls, any other place that sells It would tbcref'ore seem appropriate for such areas to liquor, and all places of entertainnent such as pool halls, benefit 'rom water-use charges from irrigation projects or cinemas, casinos, and public pools rcquire fiscal stamps, with hydroelectric installations whose water comes from the area. at least part of the revenue being returned to a Conservation Such a mechanism can be both justifiable and usef'ul , ima- Fund that supports protected area management. Additional pro'. ing eftficiency and equity ol water use as well as gen- fiscal stamps that contribute to conservation are required from crating funds for protecting the watershed. This may require annual vehicle registrations and f'rom wildlife import aid ex studies to quantify the benefits the protected area is providing: port permits (Barborak. 1988a). for example, Hufsclimidt and Srivardhana (1986) showed that In addition, Costa Rica collects excise taxes on arms and annual ,:xpenditures of $1.5 Million Would be justiflied in ammunition and income from fiscal stamps. These are poten terms of benefits to the Nam Pong re.,ervoiir in northeast tially important, but have declined drastically in recent years. Thailand. In Indonesia, the World Bank invested over $1 The stamp prices were set by law in 1977 and have not been million to establish the l)unoga-Bone National Park to pro- increased since then, because a new law would have to be tect a major irrigation project (McNeely, 1987), water passed by the legislature to vary the amounts. The Costa charges could be imposed to ensure that the running costs Rican colon is now worth only 11.4 percent of' its dollar value of the natinoal park are met froni the goods and services it in 1981, and this devaluation has been accompanied by is providing to the local community. significant rampant inflation. The dollar value of fiscal stamp Additional examples abound. For instance coral reefs and receipts in 1982 was over $86,000, nearly three times that mangroves support fisheries, so it would seem reasonable expected for 1988. Much of the 1987 revenue had to be used to return part of the profits f'rom fishing to protecting the to p,y for a new issue of the stamps. Despite this difficulty, breeding grounds of the target fish. In some cases, it may the f'unding mechanism of using fiscal stamps and ecise taxes be feasible to tax fisheries, perhaps in the fotrm of an export to support conservation would seem to hold promis: f'or many tax (thereby avoiding taxing local consumers), in other cases, tropical nations. establishing such linkages could help convince fisheries Industrialized nations also use revenue stamps to raise departments of their need to invest in managing natural money flor conservation. In the USA, for example, all duck habitats important for fisheries, hunters are required to purchase Federal Duck Stamps each year; these colorful stamps are extremely popular even with Collect Special Taxes non-hunters, and have raised an average of $50 million per In sonic countries, such as Costa Rica, special taxes on year over the past several years. The receipts are devoted biological resources have proved useful. Taxes on timber to the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund, and are used to extraction, wood trading, trade in wildlife and wildlife prod- acquire habitat for the national system of refuges. The Duck ucts, concession rights, or other activities connected with Stamp program has proved so successful that sonie individual the sector can generate income that can then be invested states have developed similar mechanisms. within the sector. This can be made more flexible by allow- Additional tax mechanisms, based on tourism involving ing taxpayers to invest the amount in the kind of' works that natural areas, may include bed taxes f'or tourist hotels, depar the tax is intended to promote. Special taxes can be used to ture taxes at airports, and many others, set up development ftnds or national financing funds, e.g., Build Funding Linkages with for credit. An interesting example from the C6te d'lvoire Lar D l e P involves creating an Environment Fund using taxes imposed rge Deopment Projects on ships, especially oil tankers, (locking in the country: 50 Where major investments are made in rural development percent of' the tax goes to the Fund, which is then used to projects, linkages with conservation can often prove purch'ise equipment necessary f'or monitoring ecosystems, beneficial. In 1936, the World Bank promulgated a major preventing pollution, or improving environmental manage- new policy rcgarding wildlands, with elements specifically ment. Since its inception in 1986, the Fund has brought in designed to build components into large projects - primarily about $300,000. In industrial countries, the dollar ariounts for agriculture, livestock, transportation, water resources involved can be far larger. For example, Florida's Recovery development, and industrial projects - f'or ensuring conser 120 HOW TO PAY FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY vation of biological resources (see Annex 5). These com ponents can include economic incentives for local o Box 29: How ProfitsReduced Poaching munities affected by the project (Goodland, 1988). in Zambia's Luangwa Valley. Major hydroelectric projects, for example, can often build in a significant component to establish a protected area in In Luangwa Valley of Zambia a Wildlife Conserva an upland watershed. In Sri Lanka. USAID provided $5 tion Revolving Fund was established in 1983 to enable million for a project to establish five new protected areas the National Parks and Wildlife Service to employ addi as part of a major effort to develop the agricultural resources tional staff beyond the Government-approved civil ser of the Mahaweli river basin. Such support was not for vants. Income to the Fund comes f'rom the harvest of hip altruistic motives; on the contrary, the protected areas were ps and from auctions among safari hunting companies seen as essential to the success of the downstream develop- for the rights to hunt in the Lower Lupande Game ment projects (McNeely, 1987). Management Area, with terms of the auction inluding One important linkage that might be established between quotas on animals that could be taken and minimum levels conservation and major development projects might be an of employment from the local communities. Forty per "environmental maintenance tax.'" Projects to build dams, cent of the proceeds from the auction was handed over irrigation networks, and roads might include explicit alloca- to the local Chiefs for community projects of their choos tion of funds for thoroughly assessing the diversity of the ing and 60 percent was devoted to wildlife management area (thereby also supporting the development of local capac- costs. ity to carry out such surveys), identifying and managing pro- Results have been remarkable. Personnel increased tected areas, and establishing a self-sufficient "'endowment from II to 26 from 1985 to 1987, and the number of field fund" for the continued management of the area. days by staff increased from 176 to 717. Annual mortal- A variant of such linkages is the obligatory investment of ity of elephant and black rhino, expressed as the number a percentage of the total costs in large-scale works that de- of poached carcasses found per year per hundred hectares, pend for their existence on environmental protection (water decreased by 90 percent in the same period. In 1987, the resources developments being the outstandin, example). total earnings for the Revolving Fund were $48,620, of Sometimes an additional 10 percent allocated to reforesta- which $4,840 was devoted to wildlife management, in tion and conservation works can lower the annual operating cluding $4,410 for the village scout program. Overall costs by increasing the useful life of the works and reducing iecurr it costs of wildlife n;anagement for the year was requirements for maintennce. $9.870, considerably less than was earned by the Revolv- Project support from development assistance agencies is ing Fund. Villagers started supporting the National Parks often feasible when the living conditions of rural people are and Wildlife Service management effort, and local tribal to be improved (recalling that many of these are the "poorest leaders established security comm'ttees to prevent of the poor" and therefore of particular concern to many poachers from entering their areas (McNeely, 1988). bilateral government agencies, and to various church, popula- Once economic benefits started to flow to the local tion, and hunger-related PVOs). A major point here is that villages, the reduced poaching of elephants led to an in effective incentives packages seldom require major funding, crease of their populations to the level where sustainable but rather effective funding aimed at very specific targets. harvests could far exceed the total costs of effective Therefore, development assistance agencies may need to ag- management programs. In addition, about half the costs gregate a significant number of community-level projects in of supporting the village scouts was equivalent to the total order to attain the project magnitude that is administratively derived from revenue from ivory collected by scouts from attractive. The major drawback to this approach is that it may elephants that died naturally. While this source of revenue breed dependence rather than self-reliance unless the sup- did not go back into the Revolving Fund, it does illustrate port is provided with great sensitivity, to the government the magnitude of funds that could be recovered by this form of local involvement in wildlife Return Profitsfrom Exploiation of management. Biological Resources In summary, the Wildlife Fund in Zambia acts as a legal Biological resources earn profits from tourism and mechanism for charging concession fees, selling wildlife harvesting, so creative ways and means need to be found tI., products, and engaging in comrne:cial ventures related ensure that a fair share of these profits are returned to the to wildlife development. The Fund can then direct the in comc into appropriate channels local people who are paying the opportunity cost of not to serve the interests of harvesting the resource themselves. Kenya. Zimbabwe, Z ambave a (ll ox 9)eve ope app opr ate fun andingthe managing interests the ofbiological local comresourcesmunities ofco-existing the area, asw wellith theas Zambia (Box 29) have all developed appropriate funding wildlife. It therefore reduces the need to depend on Cen echanismr based on the principle that protected areas should tral Treasury for funds, which in recent years has been earn a fair return on the money they bring into thle econom~y. unable to meet thle growing cost of' conservation. Many of' these are already being tapped by governments to 121 CONSERVING THE W)RI.I'S BI()LOGICAI. DIV-RSITY cover other expenditures: the point is that a more equitable Seek Support from the Private Sector return needs to go to conserving the biological resources that are bringing in the funds, even when the benefits of conser- In many countries, the private sector earns considerable vation are indirect, economic benefit from biological resources and may be able Trophy huting ill 11,111V countries o Africa has brought to provide voluntary support to conserving those resources. i py tgcousiderablefunds.s n trhicaves o A ericahas brouhL Contributions from enterprises involved iii resource extrac in considerable fuindIs some of which have been returned to managing the resource. In response to increased poaching, tion or in non-consumptive uses of'biological resources (such some govcrnments have banned trophy hunting, but this is as tourism) can be effective, though such voluntary support is diffi1cult to predict and incorporate inl planning eff'orts. Such primarily a political response, which often has a negative ifut topprediht porate il ne r impact on the wildlife. In conservation terms, an absolute voluntary support might be particularly appropriate where ban on sport hunting is often a misguided strategy because a number of tourist enterprises rely on protected areas for healthy populations of wildlife produce a harvestable surplus, their livelihood. because the number of animals taken by legal hunting is only Tb' private sector often provides significant incentives for a smnall fract ion of those taken illegally, because the earn conservation by providing grants to activities that lead to ings roi game hunting canl compensate locail Populenhanced management of biological resources. One outstand for any sacrifices they make in tie name of' conservations ing example is the International Trust for Nature Conserva and because the presence of legal hunting parties can deter tion. established by the Tiger Mountain Group (a nature illegal hunting. Thc sale of' between 100 and 200 licences tourism organization operating primarily in Nepal). This trust to foreign hunters to shoot elephants in Zamnbia would have was designed to recycle a portion of the profits from nature raised a sum equivalent to the external support provided to tourism into activities that Would promote the protection of the country by donors, even ignoring the value of the ivory wildlife and its habitat. or meat tor local people (Leader-Williams and Albon. 1988). One of the principal activities has been a conservation In other countries, mechinisms have been established for education programn aimed at the villages that surround Royal returning funds from logging activities to reforestation el- Chitwan National Park. where Tiger Tops Hotel is the flag forts. In Indonesia. for example, a levy of $4 per cubic meter ship of the Tiger Mountain Group. More recently, the scope of timber is collected from timber concession holders, to be of the Trust has been expanded to include more general con repaid when they have reforested their concession area (un- cern with sustainable development in the areas surrounding fortunately, this "deposit" is usually forfeited because its the Group's operations. The Trust is putting irto practice cheaper to w'rite off the loss than to ref'orest the concession). its belief that wildlife must increasingly pay for i'self if it is to survive in today's crowded world (Roberts and Johnson, Build Conditionality into 1985). Concession Agreements A variant of such support involves donations from multina tional corporations investing in resource-based activities in This mechanism can be an effective instrument in court- developing countries. Such multinationals can contribute to tries that have such extensive timber or fisheries resources conservation activities, both to protect their own investments that concessions are sold to private investors. As part of such and to contribute to host-country conservation goals. Such agreements, the concession holder could be required to pro- donations are often facilitated if the government conserva vide support to various incen'ive programs aimed at main- tion agency, or a private institution, hai established a taining the long-term productivity of the area being logged mechanism for receiving them: experience has shown that or fished. Where concessions are given for forest use, private industry is less eager to provide volunary finds to govern,nents must ensure that they realize a significant pro- regular government programs than to all independe2nt foun portion of forest rents and that, at a minimum, a proportion dation (especially if the donations are tax-deductible). of such rent is returned to managing the forest to ensure its Establish F '-'n' Co se vaio long-term productivity. In general, governments should Eoundaons for Conservaton design incentive systems that encoirage sustainable use of In some cases, foundations established by or for a pro the biological resources of tile forest ecosystems. tected area or protected area system can be a useful stimulus Profits earned from non-extractive concessions as from for generating non-governmental sources of funding (many hotels, tours, and restaurants, can often provide sufficient of which might come frorn sources discussed above). In In funds for running a protected area. Such concessions should donesia. for example, the Indonesian Wildlife Fund is sup be granted on the basis of conditions that do not detract from ported by voluntary contributions from tile timber trade. It the natural values of the protected area, and tile profits from was established by the Ministry of Forestry but operates in such concessions should be returned to the resource manage- dependently under a board of directors that allocates the funds ment agency. Such concessions might also be required trom in support of various conservation projects. In Zambia, in tour companies bringing tourists into protected areas, even contrast, an essential clement in the success of its Wildlife if they do not stay overnight: this could supplement admis- Fund has been its establishment withio the National Parks sion fees. and Wildlife Service. 122 HOW TO PAY FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Some foundations have international linkages. For exam- be used to advance the objectives of the Convention (broad pie, the Charles Darwin Foundation, established in 1960, ly, to enhance the conservation of biological diversity). It collects funds from a variety of foreign donors and was could draw on four main sources, based on the principle of responsible for managing Galipagos National Park until the enabling those who benefit from biological resources to pay early 1970s, when the National Park Service of Ecuador took the costs of ensuring that such resources are used sustainably: over that responsibility. The Foundation continues to main- * levies on activities that us," a resource within the biosphere tain the Charles Darwin Research Station and conduct as a dispersion system (I.r example, for carbon dioxide research on a wide range of topics of great interest to the from fossil fuel combustl.m); management of the Park (WWF. 1986). Similarly, the @levies on general trade in natural living materials or prod Seychelles Islands Foundation, under an international Board ucts derived directly from them; of Trustees and with funding from international sources, has * levies on patentable new genetic material, or on synthetic responsibility for managing Aldabra Strict Nature Reserve; products derived from wild sources; and it al,;o receives an annual grant from the government of' • voluntary contributions, gifts, or bequests made by any Seychelles. state, inter-governmental organizations (including develop ment aid agencies), or public or private bodies or Collect Interestfrom Invesiments individuals. Made by a ProtectedArea While voluntary contributions could be earmarked for In many cases, a major protected area can establish an en- specific projects or areas, no political conditions would be dowment fund, to be managed either by the management attached to contributions to the Fund. Further, governments authority or by an appropriate NGO. Janzen (1988) suggests would agree that the Fund would be tax-exempt and freely that tropical conserved wildlands can diversify their endow- transferrable from country to country. The Fund would be inent portfolios through the ownership of agricultural lands administered by a Conference of the Parties, with a Board adjacent to the protected area; the agricultural profits would established by the Conference. Payments from the fund will support management of the area. This has the ancillary be made to the State from which the biomaterial (or species) benefit of the protected area controlling the kinds of agri- originated, with t'lose payments being applied to the con culture carried out on adjacent lands, thereby providing a servation of biological diversity. In addition, payments would public showcase on the relationship between protected areas be made to States requiring financial support for the conser and agriculture, vation of biological diversity, with priorities based on a long term conservation program adopted by the Conference and Mechanisms Useful Primarily at on criteria established by the Conference. the International Level A key element in the success of such a fund is persuading those paying the money that the charge is equitable and would As noted ealier, funds generated at the national level r.eed be used in an effective fashion from which they would to be supplemented by funds from international source . A benefit, perhaps based on the principle that development is number of mechanisms are available for transferring funds dependent on ensuring that biological resources are used sus from industrialized nations to the tropics. tainably, and that depletion of such resources is an external ized cost. The proposed charges for conservation would then Use InternationalConventions to be seen as an intenalization of cost, and as a provision for Provide FinancialSupport future welfare and benefit. Establishing the administrative A number of international conventions provide some fund- machinery within user countries would probably be most ef ing for conserving biodiversity, usually through the fective, with the monies being transferred via an iaternational fund to conservation efforts in the countries of or.gin. Target mechanism of projects. The World Heritage Convention, for example, gives over $1 million per year to projects in natural industries might include timber (the European timber taders sites of great international importace for biological diver- have v'lready proposed a voluntary import duty, with the pro gunder the Convention on Wetlands of ceds tj be administered by ITTO), seeds, pharmaceuticals, sity Prjectfuningfossil fuel burners, and tourism. International importance amounts to about $600,000 per year. Several of the Regional Seas Conventions established Any system of funding an international convention must by UNEP involve Trust Fund agreements that provide signifi- be equitable and publicly acceptable, operate in a straight cant funding to conservation activities, forward way, be compatible with the General Agreement on The draft convention on the conservation of biological Tariffs and Trade, raise funds on an appropriate scale (in diversity developed by IUCN and now under consideration the hundreds of nillions of dollars per year), provide benefits by UNEP, contains a major element on funding. Under the to the payer, and raise funds in industrialized countries but convention, an International Fund for the Conservation of provide expenditure for genuinely relevant and properly Biological Diversity would be established. The Fund would monitored projects in developing countries. 123 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVERSITY Seek Direct Supportfrioi The debt-swap mechanism involves a conservation InternationalConservation Organi.-ations organization (WWF, Conservation International. 'Fhe Nature Conservancy. and others have becn involved) buying aLoun People living in industrialized countries earn considerable try's debt notes that arc Muing discounted on the secondary benefits from biological resources in tropical countries, and market (l3ox 30). These notes are presented to the debtor often h.,- considerable interest in conservation that can he country in exchange for local currtncV in the anount of the expressed through donations to conservation organizations. face value of the debt. with the local currency being invested These donations can be allocated to c'nservation activities in conservation tider the nlariag icnlint of. local national in in the tropics, and have often involved significant contributions. stituit ions. While this mechanism is IoSt useful in countries Such support has tended to focus on biological resources whose debts are heavily discountedL(and therefore penalizes rather than on peopl, but this is beginning to change, aid debtor countries that have sound linancial Imatnagenlicnt), it organizations such as WWF, Conservation International. is still ISCuI in a number of countries with significant New York Zoological Society, Frankfirt Zoological Soci- biological resources. However, they are sometimes perceived ety, The Nature Conservancy,. :and many others are now as yet another type of conditionality imposed from abroad. becoming more aware of the linkages between people and conservation, and indeed Conservation International's Ecosystem Conservation approach focuses mainly on these Box 30: Arranginga Debt-for-Nature linkages. Such groups can often provide at least :;Ccd fund- Swap. ing to get appropriate incentives projects started. IUCN, through its work in National Conservation Strategies. may Arranging a debt-for-natire swap involvyes a rumber be able to promote funding mechanisms being developed Ir of stages and a broad spectrum of variables that, with per incentives packages. Finally, private conservation agencies sistence, can be fine-tuned to orchestrate an agreement may have access to blocked funds owed to) private companies satisfactory to everyone. The first step is to obtain ap operating in developing countries, and be able to apply such prov:al in principle from the debtor country - specifical funds to conservation work. ly, from the governmenit. the central bank, and a private A variant of this approach is a new initiative frori IUCN conservation organization that will receive the funds and and the International Union of Director:; of Zoological manage the conservatuon program. The host country must Gardens known as the "'Heritage Species Program.'' It is decide what ,:xchange rate to apply in converting debt into based on the premise that certain species are special, either local currency, what conditions of payment to use in ex because they are highly endangered or are of particular ir- change for the debt, and whom to designate or accept as portance to people. A few of these will be designated a local agent to control the funds and dispense the pro "Heritage Species" and will be adopted by designated ceeds. The conservation program is established based on "Heritage Species Centers" that will assune special respon- local priorities, it may include site-specific projects or a sibility for raising funds to support conservation action, list of general conservation activities (for example. train especially in the country or region where tie species ing of park managers) to be undertaken when the local originates. Thc action proposed for each species will be agent deenis them appropriate. developed with the best available technical advice from Next, the debt to be acquired must be identified. Poten IUCN's Species Survival Commission and other relevant tial swappers must shop for debt notes that are ol'the right organizations. denonination, are accep"ble to the debtor-country government. and have an acceptable maturation schedule. Arrange Debt-for-NatureSwaps If the debt isnot donated, it njust be purchased - itself a technically coriplex transaction - at an acceptable The growing international debt held by developing coun- discount. tries is having serious consequences for economic develop- Once oltaind, the debt rust be converted into a local conservation. Par ment, political stability, and resouice currency instrument by the host governmient's central ticularly in Latin America, where debt burdens are highest, bank, in the iarner specified in the agreement. Finally, economies are stagnating and fiscal reform measures in the actual conservation program can begin. several countries have stimulated public protests. The pressure of meeting debt payments has contributed to the rate Source: WWF-US. 1988. and Conservation International, of biological resource degradation in many countries. Forest 1989. lands are often managed for immediate export returns, depleting what should be a renewable resource. Similarly. Ecuador is a small South American country with extraor the conversion of forest land to agricultural anid ranching land dinary levels of biological diversity, containing nearly twice is often subsidized in part to support export sales, in the long as many species of plants and animals as all of North run, this depletes the resource and econonic base of these America. As with many Latin American countries, Ecuador countries. is suffering from significant external debt; its debt balance 124 HOW TO PAY FOR CONSERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY has increased eightfold in the past decade. Ecuador is hav- of tropical forests, education and training, and support for ing such difficulties repaying the debt that the lending banks alternatives to destructive land-use practices. slashed the price in half in the last six months of 1988. After examining the situation, a small group of Ecuadorian pro- Renit "Conservation Concessions fessionals mobilized a private foundation, Fundaci6n Natura, to use the debt crisis as an opportunity to attract financial Such concessions, parallel to those for forestry or min resources to be invested in conservation of biological diver- ing, might be provided to international conservation organiza sity (Sevilla, 1988). Fundaci6n Natura will be in charge of tions for areas of outstanding international importance, in obtaining funds abroad through donations in hard currency: exchange for a rent that would be provided to the resource WWF-US has played itmajor role in supporting the effort. management ,,guacy for funding other areas. The conces With these funds, a fraction of the Ecuadorean external debt sion ageement wou!d specify standards ofimanagement, ac will be purchased at discount value on tilesecondary finan- cess to tilepublic, permissible developments (usually non cial market (lh'ctuating between 30 and 38 percent of the extractive), etc., and tileinternational agency would assume face value). '1he debt notes thus obtained will be exchanged full responsibility for living up to the concession agreement. by Fundaci6n Natura for stabilization bonds; the interest from A major problem with this approach is possible charges these bonds will be invested in conservation projects. The of "iriperialism'" or outside influence (which ignores the first year's proceeds from the interest-bearing fund cieated fact that outside influence isthe major factor involved in the by the agreement are targeted to implement a National Con- ,verexploitation of most local ecosystems). One way to over servation Strategy, with special emphasis on Sangay National come this concern would be for development agencies to con Park, Yasuni National Park, and Cotacachi-Cayapas sider providing s pport to local NGOs or other local agen Ecological Reserve. cies for purchasing concessions on a few outstanding areas The first ever debt-for-nature swap was negotiated with of local interest, and using thenm as a demonstration of how Bolivia by Conservation International in 1987. Since then, an area can be developed so that its biological resources can similar debt swaps have been arranged for Costa Rica, the be managed in an economically sustainable manner. Obvious Philippines, Madagascar, Zambia, and elsewhere, often with ly, this would require the local NGO to have demonstrated support from U.S.-based NGOs such as WWF. Conserva- its competence in managing its own affairs, and to have the tion International, The Nature Conservancy, and the National capacity to manage a small natural area: universities manag Wildlife Federation. The mechanism could also be adapted ing demonstration natural areas for research might be one to debts contracted by Third World governments with appropriate model. multilateral financial institutions such as the World Bank, As a variant, property rights for species or protected areas the International Monetary Fund, the Interamerican Develop- of outstanding importance might be issued to conservation ment Bank; with bilateral aid agencies such as USAID, organizations or relevant UN agencies, with payments be CIDA, SIDA; and with other governments. Debt swaps ing made to the government and the concession holder be enable the lender to write off debts if the debtor guarantees ing required to manage the species or area to a high inierna to invest the same amount of funds in projects aimed at con- tional standard (and subject to a contractual agreement with serving biological resources, the government). Conclusions Use Restricted Currency Holdings In general, conservation should be supported to the max In many countries, excess profits or local currency held imutn extent possible through the marketplace, but the by multinational corporations, or even by foreign govern- marketplace needs to be established through appropriate ments, must be spent within the country. Given proper policies from the central government. One problem faced mechanisms, such profits can be allocated to conservation, by all the funding mechanisms described above is that they For example, funds derived from PL 480 (aU.S. Public Law face opportunity costs; any funds earned might be used by that enables certain nations to pay in local currency for food the government in other ways that the government considers imports from the U.S.A., with the local currency to be spent of higher priority. The attraction of the methods suggested in the importing nation) and other public sector international is that the income is being earned by the biological resources, assistance operations can often be used to support conserva- and some of the funding is being provided by the public in tion efforts, including incentives packages. Kux (1986) has expression of their support for non-consumptive uses of pointed out that for USAID, at least, it should be relatively biological resources. painless to increase investments in conservation considerably The major requirement from government policy makers through greater use of local currencies generaled from sales is that they recognize the many values of biolog' alresources, of agricultural commodities provided by the U.S.A. to some and take advantage of'opportunities to invest in the continued developing countries. These funds could be used for activities productivity that such resources require. They also need to such as the purchase of land for protected areas, inventories be persuaded to create conditions whereby the private or 125 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY NGO sector can assume total management control of impor tant biological resources or areas and seek their own fund ing in an attractive tax climate. Through the use of innovative funding mechanisms, backed by compatible government policies, one of the major obstacles to progress in conserva tion can be overcome. The funding of the conservation of biological diversity needs urgent and realistic discussion by experts able to negotiate proposals that governments will accept as part of an overall convention or other binding international agree ment. Such experts should pay particular attention to: " the need to place an appropriate economic value on biological resources, properly reflected in inventories of national capital wealth and properly accounted for in na tional revenues when the resources are used; " the need to provide economic incentives for the conser •vition of biological diversity, at the international level (by tr" asfer of resources), nationally, and locally by ensur ing that local communities benefit from the biological diversity of their regions; " the prospects tbr charging and taxing systems linked in various ways to the use of biological diversity; " machinery for ensuring that the poorest countries, or those with very limited commerce based on biological diversi ty, are exempted from charging systems; " the case for an International Fund (supported by such charges), administered under a Convention; and " the case for voluntary contributions to such a Fund, possibly assessed in proportion to the economic benefits the contributing countries derive from the exploitation of biological diversity. Following page, overleaf: A young red-bellied lemur (Lemur rubriventer), from Ranomafana in the southeastern rainforest of Madagascar. Like most of Madagascar's plant and animal species, it is found nowhere else (photo by R.A. Mittermeer). 126 43 ij jr 12 CHAPTER IX ENLISTING NEW PARTNERS FOR CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Conservation makes fundamental contributions to sustain ing society, but while the benefits are widely shared, only a few institutions are given responsibility for conservation. A far wider range of collaborators is required, involving all ministries and departments that depend directly on biological resources. Earlier chapters have presented evidence that an essential Watershed managenent. MacKinnon (1983) examined the foundation of development is improved resource manage- condition of the water catchments of I I irrigation projects ment aimed at ensuring a sustainable flow of goods and serv- iii Indonesia for which development loans were being re ices from natural ecosystems. This will often involve main- quested from the World Bank. The condition of the catch taining areas under relatively natural vegetation, but such ments varied from an almost pristine state to areas of heavy areas need to be supplemented by improved resource use in disturbance due to deforestation, logging, or casual set the fields of agriculture, iimber production, fisheries, coastal tlements. By using standard costing for the development of zone management, and so forth, the protected areas, reforestation where necessary, and any It is apparent from the preceding chapters that the more resettlement of families required, the costs of providing ade strictly protected areas - nature reserves, national parks, quate protection for the catchments were estimated. These and monuments (IUCN categories I, II and III) - need to ranged from less than I per cent of the development costs be managed far more effectively, and to be brought into the of the individual irrigation project in cases where the catch mainstream of overall rural development without destroy- ment was more or less intact, to 5 percent where extensive ing the values for which they were established. In addition, reforestation was needed, and to amaximum of about 10 per the categories of protected areas that include extraction of' cent in cases where resettlement and reforestation were re biological resources as a management objective need to be quired. Overall these costs were trivial comnared with the implemented widely to provide goods and services to the local estimated 30 to 40 per cent drop in efficiencv of the irriga communities - and 'ie world at large - on a sustainable tion systems expected if catchments were not properly basis. This will require increased resources, and Chapter VIII safeguarded. suggested some sources of additional funding. Tourism (levelopment. Natural areas - mountains, rivers, However, in addition t,. these, new partners in conserva- wetlands, forests, savannas, coral reefs, deserts, beaches tion need to be sought among the line agencies. This chapter are major attractions for tourists. Tourism can bring suggests the benefits that could flow to such partners if they numerous socio-economic benefits to a country, in terms of became more active in conserving the natural resource base creating local employment, stimulating local economies, upon which their prosperity depends. generating foreign exchange, stimulating improvements to Contributions of Biological Resources local transportation infrastructure, and creating recreational The Cfacilities. Positive effects on the environment often derive to "Non-Conservation" Sectors from these socio-economic benefits (Goldsmith, 1975; Why should a ministry of agriculture, defense, or health McNeely and Thorsell, 1987). worry about conserving biological resources? Some argu- Agricultural developmin. While many, even most, agri ments were presented in Chapter II. The following examples cultural development project; deal primarily with farmsteads further illustrate the point, though of course specific applica- or arable lands, the success of agricultural development will tions will vary from country to country and community to often involve linkages with natural areas important for community. biological diversity. Each agricultural village is part of an 129 Previlo. Page Elank CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ecosystem. This ecosystem varies widely - lron the broad measures affect both inland and coastal wetlands important expanses of' river deltas where year-round irrigation is possi- for fisheries, and alternative means of managing these ble, to areas where seasonally irrigated fields are interspersed systems need to he developed. Fisheries departments need among forests, to areas where rain-fled crops dominate, to take a far more active role in managing such areas, in Legumes, medicinal plants, other cereals, tubers. tree crops, cluding allocating some habitats for strict protection. livestock, wild animals (such as pigs, monkeys, and rats), Energy. While energy is typically seen a.; a highly and fish all play important roles in most agricultural villages, technological field, much of' the energy needs of rural so agricultural development projects need to consider all these households in the tropics are still met by traditional sources, factors. Further. each agricultural community has ecological and many of these come from natural habitats important for relationships far beyond the village. For example. Sattaur conservation of biological resources. In addition to the (1987) points out that in the hills or Nepal, each hectare of hydroelectric implications of' natural areas mentioned above, farmland needs 3.48 hectares of' forest to support it. Many many forests provide firewood to local people: lor exam Nepalese forests are ecologically sensitive, requiring expert pie, over 90 percent of the energy needs of Nepal. Tanzania, management if they are to continue providing benefits in and Ma!awi are still met by firewood (Pearce. 1987a). In terms of todder, firewood, construction materials, fruit, and 1983. over 1.6 billion cubic meters of fuelwood were con medicinal plants. Agricultural development projects that in- sumed in the world. amounting to some 54 percent of total corporate means of' protecting the larger ecosystem within roundwood production from forests (FAO, 1985). While the which agricultural communities survive and flourish are far traditional eitergy sector is not commercialized, it still can more likely to succeed than those that are too narrowly based. form an important part of national energy policies, and im Such considerations will often involve ensuring that the rele- proved regimes for managing natural forests to provide vant communities are given nanagenint responsibility for firewood may bring major benefits to rural people: the the natural areas upon which their cotiwnued prosperity management of' natural forests is therefore of considerable depends. interest to ministries involved in energy. Conserving crop relatives. Responsibility f'or protecting Public health. Many tropical countries remain highly areas that harbor extremely important populations of wild dependent on medicinal plants (some 5,000 medicinal plants relatives of domestic plants often needs to be assigned to the have been catalogued in China, 2,500 in India, and 6,500 appropriate arm of the Ministry of Agriculture. These areas in Southeast Asia), and many of these are found in natural can be extremely important, such as the location in India that lorests. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 per supported the sole known population of the wild rice Orvza cent of the people in the Third World depend for their nivara, the only source of' resistance to orassy stunt virus. primary health care on medicinal plants. either grown locally Wild populations of rice that aie salt-tolerant could help adapt or collected from nature (Farnsworth, 1988). Since most the crop to saline soils or brackish irrigation water, and long- rural people still depend on traditional medicines to some stemmed populations of floating rice may help adaptation to extent, protecting the sources of' medicinal plants could be the deeper waters that may come with rising sea levels, a productive part of rural health projects. In Sri Lanka, the Natural areas important for wild relatives of domestic plants Ministry of Traditional Medicine has established a series of or animals, or for protecting wild populations of insects special small reserves to protect areas important for local useful in integrated pest control, should be established and medicinal plants. managed by agriculture ministries to ensure that all wild hidustry'. In addition to the hydroelectric energy benefits relatives of domestic plants are conserved as a basis for adapt- mentioned above, natural habitats can also contribute a wide ing to future changes. range of raw materials for industrial processes. Tropical Fisheries. The establishment and management of' protected forests produce gums. fats, oils, starches, resins, rattans, areas in coastal and marine habitats is still in its infancy, with fibers, dyes. tannins, and many others. Coral reefs and other most such areas being merely an extension seaward of' ex- marine habitats produce hundreds of products useful to in isting terrestrial protected areas, such as Ujung Kulon in Java. dustry. Ensuring the sustainable production of such products However, many critical habitats in the coastal zone need pro- should be of'considerable concern to those industries depen tection so that they can provide services to humanity on a dent on products available f'rom nature, and this may require continuous basis; in addition to shoreline protection (as in investments to be made by industry in protecting certain areas the Sundarbans of' 13:,ngladesh) and sustainable harvesting of particular value. These areas may help sustain an industrial of construction materials, such areas can be especially ira- base that can be largely self-suf'ficient in terms of raw portant as fish breeding grounds (particularly when the stir- materials, and since such industries are often highly profit rounding waters are over-harvested)(Hamilton and Snedaker. able, this provides a mechanism f'or the costs of productioni 1984; Ketchum, 1972). Virtually all wetland habitats are ima- to be internalized. portant for fisheries, but of particular relevance are inland Pollution control. Some natural areas, notably wetlands floodplains that are often affected by development projects near urban centers, are ef'f'ective natural sewage treatment (Goulding, 1980). Dams, irrigation systems, and other centers. For example, Calcutta's sewage has been naturally 130 ENLISTING NEW PARTNERS FOR CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY purified in the 4,000-ha "Salt Lakes" marshland east of the 0 In many countries, the military is an active participant in city for over 50 years. The wetlands serve as highly effi- rural development programs, providing logistic. , labor, cient oxidation ponds and support a thriving fishery that pro- and stability. vides employment for 20,000 fishermen and produces an an- * The military includes large numbcrs of impressionable nual catch of 6,000 tons. Coliform bacteria from feces are post-adolescent males as recruits, who are put through in reduced by 99.9 percent in the well-stocked ,onds (Maltby, tensive training programs that could easily incorporate 1986). The Salt Lakes therefore make an extremely impor- social and ecological considerations; military training pro tant economic contribution to the people of Calcutta, and grams continue throughout an individual's military career, similar functions are served by numerous wetlands through- with increasing sophistication through staff colleges. out the world. Investing in the maintenance of such systems • The defense services have access to excellent infl rmation can often make far more economic sense for a ministry of on landforms, vegetation, and other geographically based public health or sanitation than developing expensive new information useful for conservation purposes. sewage treatment plants. * Some i ternational legislation relevant to conservation, Disaster prevention. Natural areas important for conserv- such as the Law of the Sea, can only be enforced with ing biological resources often help prevent disasters such as military support. landslides and avalanches (aras in mountain forests) or * Many individuals in the defense services are from rural dampen the impacts of typhoons (coastal mangroves). Since areas and have particular affinity for nature and the out prevention is often far less expensive than disaster relief, doors, making them well predisposed for conservation; especially in terms of human costs, appropriate investments properly motivated, such individuals working in remote in protecting such areas can often be included as part of areas can make significant contributions to both in situ and disaster prevention programs. ex situ conservation of biological diversity. Land titling. Land tenure governs the use and disposal of * The military is concerned primarily with national secur land and its products so that the use of the land can be stabil- ity, and it is increasingly apparent that many threats to ized. When villagers do not have secure title to their land, national security have their roots in inappropriate ways they have little incentive to make investments that would en- and means of managing natural resources; the military sure sustainable use, and insecure tenure may bias the choice might therefore reasonably be expected to have a serious of crops against perennials, tree crops, and forest plantations. interest in resource management issues. Villagers lacking secure tenure are therefore forced to clear * As conflicts between people and resources increase in the new land continually, often destroying natural areas and !eav- coming years, the military will require detailed understand ing little but wasteland behind. Land titling projects therefore ing of the biological, ecological, social, and economic have an important contribution to make to conserving natural issues involved if they are to deal effectively with these areas (Kennedy, 1980). conflicts. In short, the various national military establishments The Special Case of the Military operate for the benefit of their respective nations. Since con In most parts of the world the defense services are a domi- servation of biological resources is essential to the well-being nant force politically, socially, and economically. While their of a nation, the military should also support conservation and primary task is to defend the nation's political viability, the sustainable development in the name of national security. defense services are increasingly coming to recognize that That they have seldom done so, at least explicitly, could well political, economic, and ecological viability are closely inter- be due to a lack of the right approach being made to them. related. Yet they have seldom been systematically approached One approach might be to develop a series of case studies to provideedr their support positive action in conservation in which the military are having a positive influence on con of biological resources. Indications that such an approach servation of biological resources (possibilities include Burma, would be both useful and productive include the following China, India, Madagascar, Pakistan, Peru, Sri Lanka, (realiz'g that considerable variations exist from country to Venezuela, and Zimbabwe). A plan might be prep,:ed for country). influencing the military, including actions such as develop * The officer corps of the military is the source of many ing conservation-oriented curriculum materials for recruit government leaders who make fundamental decisions that training programs, providing top military leaders with affect conservation and sustainable development (this is material demonstrating how conservation affects national most obviously the case during periods of direct military security, and developing guidelines and manuals on how to rule, but also holds in most developing countries manage areas undei military control for conservation objec generally). tives. A group of military leaders who have demonstrated " The military controls large areas of land, as training a sensitivity to environmental issues might be brought facilities, military reservations, border "buffer zones," together with conservation professionals, to recommend how etc., and such areas are often of considerable biological the defense services can be approached nmest effectively to and ecological value, promote conservation interests. 131 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY New Approaches to Managing However, many natural areas are being abused rather than Areas for Sustainable Production nurtured, and a number of general poli:y changes are re quired to enable tile most important areas to be identified, of Biological Resources and for the most appropriate management regimes to be A number of examples linking natural areas important for designed and implemented. Each nation will have its own conserving biological resources to various types of develop- particular opportunities and constraints. No recipe book will ment projects have been presented in this chapter. Many more autoniatically provide the right answers. But the basic prin could be provided, but the sample is sufficient to indicate ciple should be that the distribution of costs and benefits of that the long-term success of development projects - in other both conservation and exploitation should be equitable and words, their sustainability - very often depends on ensur- should lead to long-term sustainable use. Local support for ing that natural areas are sufficiently well managed to pro- protecting naturai areas must be increased through such vide a continuous flow of benefits to society. New approaches measures as education. revenue sharing, participation in deci to management may be required to ensure that these benefits siols, complementary development schemes adjacent to pro are actually delivered to local communities and to the global tected areas, and, where compatible with conservation, ac community at large. cess to resources. The various sectors that depend directly on the biological New approaches to linking protected areas to surrounding resources of natural areas need to become more responsible lands are required if the appropriate benefits are to flow to for ensuring that these areas are managed to deliver sus- society, involving a wide range of government and private tainable benefits. While national parks and wildlife depart- institutions in managing natural areas ofvarious management ments should be strengthened, they need to concentrate their categories. Concrete steps can be taken to ensure that such efforts on the areas most important for conserving biological areas are managed in ways that will bring sustainable benefits diversity. In addition, numerous sectors need to be involved to people, thereby contributing to forms of development that in managing natural habitats. Thus. national parks depart- will be durable in the long run. ments should to be joined in habitat management by a wide The elements now exist that will reverse the trend toward range of other institutions to represent all interests, the biotic impoverishment of the world. Novel approaches, Furthermore, other line agencies need to develop the new financial mechanisms, and new policies need to be ap capacity to manage biodiversity of particular relevance to plied at the appropriate level of responsibility to translate their respective missions. Forestry departments need to en- the good intentions into a reality of improved human well sure that annual felling plans incor-porate conservation ac- being and a secure biotic heritage. tivities; fisheries departments need to be concerned with The 1990s may be the last decade during which decisions, natural nurseries in mangroves; tourism departments need activities, and investments can bc made to ensure that many to be concerned about the quality of coral reefs: departments of the world's species and ecosystems are maintained, ex of industry and commerce need to be concerned about their amincd for their material and ecological value, and promoted sources of raw materials; departments of health need to be for sustainable use to support new and innovative approaches concerned about the wild sources of medicinal plants; irriga- to development. The combination of maintaining the max tion departments need to be concerned about the source of inurn possible biological diversity, tile nmaximum possible water; and the list goes on. cultural diversity, and the greatest possible scientific A major effort is therefore required to develop sufficient endeavor would seem the most sensible approach toward technology and expertise in the line agencies so that ihey can dealing with the dynamic future facing humanity. manage the areas for which they are responsible, and thereby We are at a crossroads in the history of human civiliza ensure the sustainability of' their own development efforts. tion. Our actions in the next few years will determine whether In many cases, a high-level coordinating and oversight body we take a road toward a chaotic future characterized by may be required to ensure that the management plans of the overexploitation and abuse of' our biological resources, or various line agencies are prepared in accordance with na- take the opposite road - toward maintaining great biological tional objectives for conserving biological diversity, diversity and using biological resources on a sustainable basis. The future well-being of humnan civilization hangs in the balance. Conclusions The governments of many nations have recognized the con tributions of natural areas to their development programs. Wetlands, coral reefs, mangroves, mountains, and tropical forests are important for social, economic, political, and ethical reasons, and with proper management they can sup port sustainable resource use in sectors ranging from forestry to tourism to rural development. 132 ANNEX 1: CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE ON EARTH BY PHYLUM KINGDOM: PROKARYOTAE Phylum: Methanocreatriccs Pseudomonads Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria Omnibacteria Aphragmabactcria Chemoautotrophic Bacteria Spirochactac Myxobacteria Thiopneutes Fermenting Bacteria Anaerobic Phototrophic Bacteria Aeroendospora Cyanobacteria Micrococci Chloroxybacteria Actinobacteria Nitrogen-fixing Aerobic Bacteria KINGDOM: PROTOCTISTA Phylum: Caryohlastea Chlorophyta Dinoflagellata Actinopoda Rhizopoda Foraminifera Chrysophyta Ciliophora Haptophyta Apicomplexa Euglenophyta Cnidosporidia Cryptophyta Labyrinthulomycota Zoomastigina Acrasiomycota Xanthophyta Mvxomycota Eustigmatophyta Plasmodiophoromycota Bacillariophyta Hyphochytridiomycota Phacophyta Chytridiomycota Rhodophyta Oomycota Gamophyta KINGDOM: FUNGI Phylum: Zygomycota Deuteromycota Ascomycota Mycophycophyta Basidiomycota KINGDOM: ANIMALIA Phylum: Placozoa Phoronida Porifera Brachiopoda Cnidaria Mollusca Ctenophora Priapulida Mesozoa Sipuncula Platyhelminthes Echitra Nemertina Annelida Gnathostomulida Tardigrada Gastrotricha Pentastoma Rotifera Onychophora Kinorhynca Arthropoda Loricifera iPogonophora Acanthocephala r'chinodermata Entoprocta Chaetognatha Nematoda Hemichcrdata Nematomorpha Chordata Ectoprocta KINGDOM: PLANTAE Phylum: Bryophyta Cycadophyta Psilophyta Ginkgophyta Lycopodophyta Coniferophyta Sphenophyta Gnetophyta Filicinophyta Angiospermophyta 133 ANNEX 2: THE WORLD CHARTER FOR NATURE 7he General Assenbh of the United Nations Adopts, to these ends, the present World Charter for Reaffirming the fundamental purposes of the United Na- Nature, which proclaims the following principles of conser tions, in particular the maintenance of international peace vation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be and security, the development of friendly relations among guided and judged. nations and the achievement of international cooperation in solving international problems of' an economic, social. cultural, technical, intellectual or humanitarian character. I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Aware that: 1. Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall a) Mankind is a part of nature and life deoends on the not be impaired. uninterrupted functioning of natural systems which cii- 2. The genetic viability on the earth shall not be corn sure the supply of energy and nutrients. promised, the population levels of all life forms, wild b) Civilization is rooted in nature, which has shaped human and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their culture and influenced all artistic and scientific achieve- survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be ment, and living in harmony with nature gives man the safeguarded. best opportunities for the development of his creativity, 3. All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be sub and for rest and recreation. ject to these principles of conservation; special protec Convinced that: tion shall be given to unique areas, to representative Evermn of life is unique, arranting respect regardless samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to a) Every to ian, ard othe rga ss the habitats of rare or endangered species. of its worth to man, and to accord other organisms such 4. Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine recognition man must be guided by a moral code of action. and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall b) Man can alter nature and exhaust natural resources by be managed to achievc,and maintain optimum sustainable his action or its consequences and therefore, must fully productivity but nt in such a way as to endangr the recognize the urgency of maintaining the stability and integrity of those o', er ecosystems or species with which quality of nature and of conserving natural resources. they coexist. Persuaded that: 5. Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by a) Lasting benefits from nature depend upon the maintenance warfare or other hostile activities. of essential ecological processes and life support systems, and upon the diversity of life forms, which are jeopar dized through excessive exploitation and habi:at destrtuc- II. FUNCTIONS tion by man. 6. In the decision-making process it shall be recognized b) The degradation of natural systems owing to excessive that man's needs can be met only by ensuring the prop consumption and misuse of natural resources, as well as er functioning of natural systems and by respecting the to failure to establish an appropriate economic order principles set forth in the present Charter. among peoples and ameng States, leads to the breakdown 7. In the planning and implementation of social and of the economic, s.-ial and political framework of economic development activities, due account shall be civilization, taken of the fact that the conservation of nature is an c) Competition flor scarce resources creates conflicts, where- integral part of those activities. as the conservation of' nature and natural resources con- 8. In formulating long-term plans for economic develop tributes to justice and the maintenance of peace. ment, popui'ition growth and the improvement of stand ards of living, due account shall be taken of' the long Reaffirming that man must acquire the knowledge to main- term capacity of natural systems to ensure the subsistence tain and enhance his ability to use natural resources in a man- and settlement of the population concerned, recogniz ner which ensures the preservation of the species and ceo- ing that this capacity may be enhanced through science systems for the benefit of present and futu,'e generations. and technology. Firmly convinced of the need for appropriate measures. 9. The allocation of'areas of the earth to various uses shall at the national and international, individual and collective, be planned. and due account shall be taken of the and private and public levels, to protect nature and promote physical constraints, the biological productivity and international cooperation in this field, diversity and the natural beauty of the areas concerned. 134 ANNEX 2 10. Natural resources shall not be wasted, but used with a III. IMPLEMENTATION restraint appropriate to the principles set forth in the 14. The principles set forth in the present Chp;ter shall be present Charter, in accordance with the following rules: reflected in the law and practice of each State, as well a) Living resources shall not be utilized in excess of their as at the international level. natiral capacity for regencration; 15. Knowledge f nature shall be broadly disseminated by b) The productivity of soils shall be maintained or all possible means, particularly by ecological education enhanced through measures which safeguard their as an integral part of general education. long-term fertility and the process of organic decom- 16. All planning shall include, among its essential elements, position, and prevent erosion and all other forms of the formulation of strategies for the conservation of degradation; nature, the establishment of inventories of ecosystems c) Resources, including water, which are not consumed and assessments of the effects on nature of proposed as they are used, shall be reused or recycied; policies and activities; all of these elements shall be d) Non-renewable resources which are copsumed as disclosed they to the public by appropriate means in time to are used shall be exploited with restiaint, tak- permit effective consultation and participation. ing into account their abundance, the ratioial pos- 17. Funds, programs and administrative structures necessary sibilities of converting them for consumption, and to achieve the objective of the conservation of nature the compatibility of thei: :xploitation with the func- shall be provided. tioning of natural systems. 18. Constant efforts shall be made to increase knowledge 11. Activities which might have an impact on nature shall of nature by scientific research and to disseminate such be controlled, and the best available technologies that knowledge unimpeded by restriction of any kind. minimize significant risks to nature or other adverse ef- 19. The status of natural processes, ecosystems and species fects shall be used. In particular: ';hall be closely monitored to enable early detection of a) Activities which are likely to cause irreversible degradation or threat, ensure timely intervention and damage to nature shall be avoided; facilitate the evaluation of conservation policies and b) Activities which are likely to pose a significant risk methods. to nature shall be preceded by an exhaustive examina- 20. Military activities damaging to nature shall be avoided. tion; their proponents shall demonstrate that expected 21. States and, to the extent they are able, other public benefits outweigh potential damage to nature, and authorities, international organizations, individuals, where potential adverse effects are not fully under- groups and corporations shall: stood, the activities should not proceed; a) Cooperate in the task of conserving nature through c) Activiies which may disturb nature shall be preced- common activities and other relevant actions, in ed by assessment of their consequences, and en- cluding information exchange and consultations; vironmental impact studies of development projects b) Establish standards for products and manufacturing shall be conducted sufficiently in advance, and if they processes that may have adverse effects on nature, are to be undertal:en, such activities shall be planned as well as agreed methodologies for assessing these and carried out so as to minimize potential adverse effects; effects; c) Implement the applicable international legal provi d) Agriculture, grazing, forcstrv and fisheries practices sion for the conservation of nature and the protec shall be adapted to the natural characteristics and con- tion of the environment; straints of given areas; d) Ensure that activities within their jurisdictions or con e) Areas degraded by human activities shall be re- trol do not cause damage to the natural systems habilitated for purposes in accord with their natural located within other States or in the areas beyond the potential and compatible with the well-being of af- limits of national jurisdiction; fected populations. e) Safeguard and conserve nature in areas beyond na 12. Discharge of pollutants into natural systems shall be tional jurisdiction. avoided and: 22. Taking fully into account the sovereignty of States over a) Where this in not feasible, such pollutants shall be their natural resources, each State shall give effect to treated at the source, using the best practicable means the provisions of the present Charter through its com available; petent organs and in cooperation with other States. b) Special precautions shall be taken to prevent discharge 23. All persons, in accordance with their national legisla of radioactive or toxic wastes. tion, shall have the opportunity to participate, individual 13. Measures intended to prevent, control or limit natural ly or with others, in the fornulation of decisions of direct disasters, infestations and diseases shall be specifically concern to their environment, and shall have access to directed to the causes of these scourges and shall avoid means of redress when their environment has suffered adverse side-effects on nature, damage or degradation. 135 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 24. Each person has a duty to act in accordance with the provisions of the present "harter; acting individually, in association with others or through participation in the political process, each person shall strive to ensure that the objectives and requirements of the present Charter are met. 136 ANNEX 3: INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION SUPPORTING CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Since international relations often work best within a framework of agreed legal instruments, considerable effort has been devoted to develop ing a series of conventions and other international instruments that promote the conservation of bio logical diversity. This annex briefly describes the main components of the existing international legal system. THE SCOPE OF EXISTING CONVENTIONS tant global measure concerned with habitat protection, but At global level, the Rarnsar Convention on Wetlands of it is clearly only able to cover a small part of the world's International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat and total biological diversity. In a similar way, while the regional the Paris Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural conventions listed above and the designation of Biosphere and Natural Heritage deal with aspects of habitat conserva- Reserves under a Unesco program provide valuable protec-. tion. A namber of regional measures also touch on or cover tion or public recognition of a range of sites, taken collec this field, notably: tively they meet only a fraction of the needs we identify in a) the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife the text. Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Washing- Various other international measures conserve particular ton, 1940): species or groups of species or protcct the living resources b) the Antarctic Treaty, with its subordinate Agreed of designated marine areas. At global level these include the Measures on Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Fauna; of Wild Flora and Fauna (Washington, 1973) and the Con c) the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the vention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild South Pacific (Apia, 1976); Animals (Bonn, 1979), and on a narrower geographical scale: d) the African Convention on the Conservation of a) the Convention on Conservation of Antarctic Marine Nature and Natural Resources (Algiers, 1968); Living Resources (Canbera, 1982), and e) the Convention on the Conservation of European b) various agreements preserving species or classes, Wildlife and Natural Habitat (Berne, 1976): and etc., e.g.: f) certain European Community Directives, notably on 0 International Convention for the Regulation of Whal the conservation of bird habitats. ing (Washington, 1946), establishing the International Of these, the World Heritage Convention is of spccial value Whaling Commission; in giving added status and some additional supporting 0 agreements protecting birds (International Conven resources to outstanding sites that arc already protected, but tion Ir the Protection of Birds (Paris, 1950); Benelux it has so far placed more emphasis on cultural than on natural Convention oa the Hunting and Protection of Birds sites and it is not designed as an instrument for the protec- (Brussels, 1970)); tion of the world's biological diversity per se. The Ramsar * agreements concerning measures for protection of Convention has been the means of dcsignation of over 400 marine and polar region species (Prawns, Lobsters sites covering some 30 million hectares, although these too and Crabs (Oslo, 1952); Fur Seals (Washington, arc invariably listed after they have gained protection under 1957): Antarctic Seals (London, 1972); Convention national legislation. The Conveation covers fresh water, on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources in estuarine, and coastal marine habitats that are important for the Baltic Sea and the Belts (Gdansk, 1973): Polar both the diversity of wild species they support and as the Bears (Oslo, 1973); Salmon (Rcykjavik, 1982)); and location of relatives of key cultivated plants (notably rice). * agreements protecting vicufia (Lima, 1979). As it has developed, the application of the Ramsar Conven- Since the biological diversity of the earth is also at risk tion has been broadened and it has become the most impor- from pollution, notice also needs to be taken of the substan 137 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY tial numLr of agreements in this field. At global level these provided by the convention for identifying such include: wetlands. a) the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Poilu- * By January 1989. the 54 Contracting Parties had tion by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters (Lon- designated 421 sites (covei ing almost 30 million hec don, 1972); and tares) onto the List of Wetiands of International Im b) the Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layers portance; no site has been renoved from the List (Vienna, 1985), with its Protocol on the regulation despite the possibility to do so in "urgent national of the manufacture and use of chlorofluorocarbons interest."' (Montreal, 1987); * Requires the establishment of reserve areas for and at regional level a substantial number of measures in- wetlands whether or not included on the List. cluding the Convention on Long-Range Trans-Boundary Air * Monitoring procedure adopted by Standing Commit Pollution in the European region (Geneva, 1979, with proto- tee for secretariat to review status of listed sites and cols), Conventions on the prevention of marine pollution in assist Contracting Parties in maintaining ecological the waters of the north-east Atlantic (Oslo, 1972), and in the character of sites. Baltic (Helsinki, 1983), the Regional Seas Conventions of 0 Requires cross-border cooperation for shared wetland UNEP, and a host of specific measures undertaken especially resources and international cooperation along flyways in Europe and North America. for migratory waterfowl. The Regional Seas Conventions prepared under UNEP e Financial regime established as from 1January 1988 auspices embrace both the protection of particular areas of based upon mandatory find voluntary contributions the marine environment, the safeguarding of marine and from Contracting Parties. Annual budget of SF; coastal species there, and the coordination and strengthen- 600,000 plus project funding gives annual turnover ing of action against marine pollution in these areas. As such in the magnitude of SFr I million. they extend across all three of the categories noted above. 2. The Convenion Concening the Protection of de World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, 1972). De DETAILS OF THE MIJOR INTERNATIONAL IN- positary: Director-General, Unesco. Secretariat: Provid STRUMENTS FOR CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY ed by Unesco, with specialist assistance provided by The four major international instruments that make signifi- IUCN and the International Council on Monuments and cant contributions to conserving biodiversity are so impor- Sites. tant that they deserve some expansion. The following high- 0 Currently has 109 State Parties, the most of any con lights the main elements of these conventions. servation convention. 1. 7he Convention on Wetlands ofInterntationalImportance e Unique in its use of international NGOs (ICOMOS especiallv as Waterfowl Habitat (Ransar, 1971). and IUCN)as technical "arbitrators." Depositary: Director-General, Unesco. Secretariat: Pro- * Recognizes the obligation of all states to protect vided by IUCN, with a branch at International Water- unique natural and cultural areas, and recognizes the fowl Research Bureau headquarters in the United obligation of the international community to help pay Kingdom (currently five permanent staff), for them. The combination of both cultural and natural * The only global nature conservation convention sites makes the Convention more comprehensive, but designed to cover a particular broad habitat type (in- also weakens its focus; participation in meetin-s has land, coastal, and marine wetlands), tended to be far stronger from the cultural side than * Broad in scope, as wetlands are defined to encom- the natural side. pass a wide variety of areas including rivers, lakes, * Establishes exceptional World Heritage Sites, of swamps, coastal areas, tundra, floodplains, and areas which the natural properties (as opposed to cultural of the sea that are less than 6 m deep at low tide. properties, which are far more numerous) protect wild This breadth in scope is both a strength and a weak- animals and plarts and their gene pools in those sites; ness of the Convention, as management approaches convention is rinforced by national legislation in vary so widely with the habitat type that it is difficult some countries, esp",'ially those with Federal systems. for all relevant agencies to be represented at • Includes on the list several of the most biologically meetings. diverse sites in !he world, including Manu National * Contracting Parties undertake to use wisely all wet- Park (Peru), Queensland Rainforests (Australia), Dja land resources under their jurisdiction (the wise use National Park (Cameroon), Serengeti National Park requirement has been suhject to much analysis by a (Tanzania), Great Smokies National Park (U.S.A.), Conference of Parties with guidelines developed for Iguaqu (Brazil), and Sinharaja Forest Reserve (Sri national implementation policies); Contracting Parties Lanka). also agree to designate for conservation at least one * Establishes the World Heritage Fund to ensure that wetland of international importance, under criteria areas are not lost because of a local lack of money 138 ANNEX 3 or skills (the Fund disperses nearly US$ 2 million per global convention. Obligates parties to protect en year). Each Party must contribute to the Fund, cur- dangered migratory species and to endeavor to con rently calculated at I percent of their contribution to clude international conservation agreements for the the annual budget of Unesco. conservation of migratory species. 3. The Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered * Provides a framework for (1) international coopera- Species of Wild Faunaand Flora (CITES) (Washington, tion betw een range states for the conservation of cer 1973). Depositary: Government of Switzerland. Sec- tain species of wild animals that regularly migrate retariat: Provided by UNEP; currently located in across or outside national boundaries, and (2) co- Lausanne, with eight full-time staff. ordinated research, management, and conservation " As of March 1989, some 99 States Parties to the measures such as habitat protection and hunting reg convention. ulation under regional and/or species-specific " Establishes lists of endangered species for which in- agreements. ternational trade is to be controlled via permit systems, 0 Provides an important adjunct to wetlands and water as a i .cans of combating illegal trade and over-ex- fowl conservation because of the high number of ploitation; revised appendices (listing protected species of waterfowl that are migratory. species) now include 406 animals and 146 plants on 0 Provides an important species-by-species complement Appendix I (which prohibits trade), and about 2,500 to a comprehensive scheme for the conservation of animals and 25,000 plants on Appendix II (which biological diversity, as international conventions are monitors trade). the only effective means of protecting animals that " Encourages international cooperation between govern- cross national boundaries. ments and organizations to control such trade, par- * Limitations include: insufficient Parties, lack of finan ticularly through informal consultations at the regular cial support, does not deal with fisheries. meetings of the Parties. " Establishes a network of national Management Authorities (to deal with mechanics of trade), and Scientific Authorities (to deal with biological aspects of trade) which operate in direct communication with each other and the secretariat. * Recommends that multilateral and bilateral develop ment agencies assist development countries on request and facilitate exchange of administrative and scien tific experience among trading countries. * Provides for a Trust Fund (established in 1979 under UN procedures) to finance the Secretariat and meetings of the Conference of the Parties. * Directed at species rather than habitats, so has neither the goal nor the effect of protecting large areas of the environment from degradation. * Has sometimes been criticized for being counter productive in pre',enting tropical countries from marketing their wildlife products in industrialized countries, even though the species in question are under effective management regimes. • Supported by technical advice from IUCN's Wildlife Trade Specialist Group, from WWF's TRAFFIC net work, and from trade data managed by WCMC's Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit. 4. The Convention on Conservation of Migrator , Species of Wild Animals (Bonn, 1979). Depositary: Government of the Federal Republic of Germany. Secretariat: Pro vided by UNEP: currently located in Bonn, FRG, with a full-time staff of one. * As of August 1988, 24 State Parties had joined. * Convention addresses a wider range of threats to migratory species than is to be found in any other 139 ANNEX 4: THE BALI ACTION PLAN How to Enable Protected Areas to Meet the Needs of the 1980s By IUCN's Commission on National Parks and Protected Arcas INTRODUCTION THE BALl ACTION PLAN The World National Parks Cong.ress met in Bali, Indonesia. Objective 1. TO ESTABLISH BY 1992 A WORLDWIDE from I I to 22 October. 1982, with the primary objective to NETWORK OF NATIONAL PARKS AND PROTECT- define the role of national parks and other protected areas El) AREAS, TO COVER ALL TERRESTRIAL ECO- in the process ol social and economic development. The Bali LOGICAL REGIONS. Action Plan builds on the reports of working groups from the world's eight biogeographic realms on priorities for each Activit\' I. 1 Develop and make available to all respon realm. The Plan recognizes that most countries already have sible for protected areas, tools and guidelines for the iden competent government agencies whose responsibility is the tification and selection of natural areas critical for meeting management of national parks and other categories of pro- the objectives of conservation and for supporting tected areas, and that each of these agencies is already car- development. rying out a program of work relevant to the needs and priorities of the country involved; the total budgets of these Priority Projects agencies exceeds $2 billion. However, the 450 prof'.ssionals 1.11.I. Preparation and publication of Managing Pro attending the Congress also recognized that there was a tected Areas, an IUCN publication on the concepts of serious lack of understanding of management tools (bio- protected area management, based on a workshop held geography. zoning, monitoring, training procedures, pro- at the World National Parks Congress. tected area economics, etc.), that budgets are not always I. 1.2. Preparatory workshop and publication of an allocated to the most important priorities, that clcar objec- IUCN document on identifying and selecting natural tives exist for relatively few protected areas, thLt manage- areas for conservation, (apractical, field-level manual ment plans are the exception rather than the rule, that rele- for direct application on the ground). vant infbrniation is not flowing as well as it should, that train- 1.1.3. Research to develop more detailed criteria for ing islagging far behind needs, and that government officials identification and selection of each of the eight IJCN and the public generally undervalue the role of protected categories for protected area management. areas ir environmentally sound development. The Bali Action Plan aims to provide guidance and Activity 1.2 Promote necessary technical, scientific and assistance to) those national agencies which are seeking to financial support for the identification, selection, plan improve th ir own management effectiveness in meeting the ning and management of protected areas which fit objectives for which their protected areas were established. strategically into the world network. Clearly, this is not the work of*the IUCN Secretariat alone: it must involve all parts (it the Union - State Parties, Government Agencies, and Non-Governmental Organiza- P1iority Projects tions - as well as IUCN's major international partners in 1d itiin o feq conservation: UNEP, Unesco. FAO. and the World Wildlife additiol support Fund. I1.2.2. Focusing support on priority countries and Fund.regions (tropical forests, areas threatened The Bali Action Plan has ten Objectives. Under each ob- tfcion tlands, a ra eronentsby deser jective is a series of Activities, and under each activity is a series of Priority Projects; the lists of projects are far from Activity 1.3 Further develop and distribute a biogeo exhaustive, but they do indicate the sorts of projects that will graphical classification system for use in the global be necessary for the activity to be carried out. analysis of protected area coverage. 140 ANNEX 4 S2.1.6. Preparation of a guide for protected area P.3.ri. ' Pomete managers and planners, showing in clear and concise 1.3.sys.lteofbinalgeograp p ntovi e Cterms tile ilpt,,tance of protectcd areas for conserva global system of biogeographic provinces, tion of coastal and marinL genetic resources. 1.3.2. Publish an Atlas of Biogeography, based on 2.1.7. Preparation of case studies to provide infor the work under 1.3. 1 and 2.3.1. mation on establishing and developing coastal and Activity 1.4 Develop and distribute a more detailed marine resources to planners and managers, particular biogeographical classification system with a flexibility of ly in the Pacific. Central America, and the Caribbean. scale which can be used in the analysis of protected area ActivitY 2.2 Develop a classification system for cat coverage at a variety of regional and national levels. egories of*marine, coastal and freshwvater protected areas. Priority Projects PrioritlProjects 1.4. I. Consultancy to develop a biogeographical r.1. *Further development and publication of IUCN classification system which can be widely applied at system of categories of coastal and marine protected the country level for conservation purposes. areas. 1.4.2. Application of the IUCN biogeographical classification system to selected priority countries. Activity 2.3 Furiher de\elop and distribute biogeograph 1.4.3. Application of the IUL N biogeographical ical classification systems for marine, coastal and fresh classification system to selected priority countries, water protected areas, at both the global level and at the 1.4.4. Review olf'all resource maps in Latin America regional/national level. and preparation of a comprehensive review of the P P biogeography of the Neotropics for resource planning 2.3.1. Complete final evclopment of the IUCN purposes, global system of coatal and marine biogeographic Activity 1.5 Promote the detailed evaluation at the provinces. regional and country level of protected area coverage. 2.3.2. Consultancy to develop a coastal and marine PriorityProjects biogeographical classification system which can be 1.5.1. Examination of' protcted area coverage in widely applied at the country and region level for con selected pri toritycountries c servation purposes. 2.3.3. Application of the IUCN coa, tal and marine biogeographical classification system to .,elected prior ity countries and regions (Indonesia, Melanesia, Ant- Objective 2. TO INCORPORATE MARINE, COAST- arctica, Caribbean, UNEP Regional Seas). AL AND FRESHWATER PROTECTED AREAS INTO Activity 2.4 Incorporate scientists. managers, admin istrators and supporters of marine, coastal and freshwater Activity 2. 1 Develop and distribute concepts and tools conservation into the protected areas community. for the establishment of protected areas in marine, coastal Prioit' Projects and freshwater environments. 2.4.1. Identification of those professionally involved PriorityProjects in aquatic conservation, flor inclusion into IUCN Com 2.1.1. Preparation and publication of Managing missions, CDC Consultant Roster, IUCN project Coastaland MarineProtectedAreas, an IUCN publi- screening and programme development procedures, cation on the concepts of protected area management and other work of the Union. in marine habitats. 2.4.2. Promote the inclusion of advisers from non 2.1.2. Preparation and publication of an IUCN docu- governmental organizations interested in the Antarc ment on establishment and management of protected tic environment on national delegations of the Antarc areas in freshwater environments, tic Treaty Powers, and establish close working rela 2.1.3. Organization and holding of' Marine Sanc- tionships between IUCN and SCAR. tuaries Symposium, to develop f'urther the scientific Activity 2.5 Promote the establishment of marine, coastal tools 2.1.4.for Designthe establishment and stimulation of marine of' research protected programs areas. and freshwater protected areas by all states, including the 2.i.4.ces afundstionifresyserchepgrams extension of all currently protected littoral areas into the directed at functio)ning of marine ecosystems, the paths autcevrnet and effects of' pollutants, and how to utilize such aquatic environment. knowledge in management. PriorityProjects 2.1.5. Preparation and publication of marine re- 2.5.1. Survey of legal and administrative procedures sources and conservation atlases for the North Sea and required to extend currently protected littoral areas into the Baltic. the aquatic environment. 141 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 2.5.2. Identification of all currently protected littoral 3.2.2. Promote appropriate measures to ensure that areas which could be extended into the aquatic effective eradication or control measures are under environment, taken in regard to introduced species in protected areas. 2.5.3. Preparation and publication of document for deLision-makers encouraging the extension of currently Activity 33 Docudient the living resources contained in protected littoral areas into the aquatic environment, protected areas, including preparing and disseminating in 2.5.4. Promotion of establshment, under the Law of ventories of wild species and populations of known or like the Sea, of large sanctuaries in the open sea. ly value as genetic resources. 2.5.5 Development of model ,-ucation programme Priority Projects focused on the significance of marine protected areas, 3.3.1. In East Africa, national inventory of eco the need for the wise use of marine resources, and an systems, in particular mangroves and other coastal increased awareness of human relationships with such wetlands, lagoons and coral reefs; national inventory areas. of threatened or endangered coastal and marine species 2.5.6. Planning and establishment of marine reserves and descriptions of related critical habitats with pro in the Mediterranean. posals for preserving them. Activity 2.6 Pro 3.3.2 Documentation of living resources contained mote cooperation between neighboring in protected areas in priority tropical forest countries. nations sharing resident and migratory species to establish 3.3.3. Documentation of plant genetic resources in networks of protected areas and other regulations to meet priority countries identified under the Plants the critical needs of those species, with special priority Programme. for threatened and endangered species. 3.3.4. Based on 3.3.2 and 3.3.3. review the extent PriorityProjects to which wild genetic resources are adequately main 2.6.1. Development of political, administrative, and tained by existing protected area systems. legal means for promot'ng cooperdtion between neigh- Activity 3.4 Develop and implement a system of report boring nations, in the contcAt of the Law of the Sea, ing on protected areas under particular threat. UNEP's Regional Seas Programme, and FAO's Marine Mammal Plan. PriorityProjects 3.4. 1. Development of system of reporting on pro Objective 3. TO IMPROVE THE ECOLOGICAL AND tected areas under particular threat. MANAGERIAL QUALITY OF EXISTING 3.4.2. Preparation and publication of annual IUCN PROTECTED AREAS. List of Threatened Protected Areas. Activity 3.1 Develop ard make available tools and guide- Activity 3.5 Support aration of area and systema systematic management approach plans towhich the preppro lines for the evaluation of the ecological capacity of pro- vide for management and development to be inaccordance tected areas to maintain living resources, and the evalua- with an appropriate range of conservation objectives. tion of area management to ensure that appropriate measures are being applied. PriorityProjects 3.5.1. Preparation of guidelines for designing sys Priority Projects tems plans and area management plans. 3.1.1. Further development of ecological theory of 3.5.2. Support to preparation of management plans protected area desigr. in priority countries. 3.1.2. Development and publication of methodology for determining carrying capacity of key wildlife Activity 3.6 Reinforce measures to reduce the external species. threats to protected areas. 3.1.3. Design a system for evaluating protected area PriorityProjects management, for application by managers. 3.6. 1. Design of model legislative and administrative Activity 3.2 Promote the development of concepts and measures regarding environmental impact assessments methods which will lead to scientific principles for prior to project finalization. management and support the continuous analysis of con- 3.6.2. Design of model measures to safeguard the in servation requirements for each area. tegrity of the environment when a development proj ect which affects a protected area isdeemed acceptable PriorityProjects in principle. 3.2.1. Establishment and operation of task force to 3.6.3. Promotion of measures of sustainable social develop ways and means of appl) ing scientific prin- and economic development which will relieve the ciples to protected area management. pressures of local populations around protected areas. 142 ANNEX 4 3.6.4. Promotion of rehabilitation of degraded lands Priority Projects and the regeneration and recovery of damaged natural 4.4.1. Prepare a model plan of an in situ gene bank areas through reforestation and other prograrns. in one of the biogeographic realms. 3.6.5. Preparation of manuals for guidance of plan- 4.4.2. Prepare plans for the establishment of in situ ners, managers, and (cecision-makers outside the pro- gene banks, including as appropriate the zoning of tected area system describing integrated environmen- existing protected areas and the designation of new tal approaches and other techniques for enhancing the ones. security of protected areas. Objective 5. TO PROMOTE THE LINKAGE Objective 4. TO DEVELOP THE FULL RANGE OF BETWEEN PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT WILDLAND MANAGEMENT CATEGORIES. AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. Activity 4.1 Develop and make available the concepts theActii'itv survey 5. 1of ecologicalDevelop andprocesses,make availablehabitat requirements,the tools for tools necessary for fihe design and implementation of thsuvyoeclgalpcsehbitrqiemn, eadand tolsnecary fborthterdestia and aqatimleetatn oand other components of protected area integrity to enable managers to critically examine the context for area con- PriorityProjcts servation, and bc able to associate conservation with 4. 1. 1. Elaboration of design of each of the IUCN development in adjacent lands. Categories for both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Priority Projects 4.1.2. Preparation and publication of guidelines for 5.1.1 Development of easily applied methodology for implementation of each of the IUCN categories, determining population status and trends and habitat 4.1.3. Promotion of the World Heritage Convention, requirements of wildlife species. including technical evaluation of nominations and pro- 5.1.2 Development of easily applied methodology for motion of additional nominations, assessing ecological processes within protected areas. 4.1.4. Preparation of management guidelines for natural World Heritage5 Sites.Cassistance Activity 5.2 Work with governments and development 4. 1.5 . C o ope ratio n with t he C o agencies to achieve the incorporation of pro u nc il o f Eu rope on thet e t d a a co s er i ns nd up rt w h nd v l p m t Palaearctic protected areas. tected area considerations and support within development projects. Activiitv 4.2 Establish pilot protected areas for each PriorityProjects category, within each realm, to demonstrate to political 5.2.1. Preparation of guidelines on incorporating pro leaders and local peoples the importance of these alter- tected area considerations within development projects. natives for supporting social and economic development 5.2.2. Cooperation with development assistance through sustainable approaches to resource management. agencies to incorporate protected area concerns within PriorityProjects development projects, including in Sri Lanka Pr2.it Prodets f(Mahaweli), Ivory Coast (Tai), and others to be iden 4.2.1. Identify and select appropriate areas for tified. establishing pilot protected areas in each category (both 5.2.3. Review of all major national and international terrestrial and marine) in each realm (total of 160 in the Aft'l areas). projects i h forpclRamiRealm in orderre tooslc select re bs h t a limited number which could most profitably benefit 4.2.2. Establishment ofpilot protected areas in each from IUCN input. category in each realm. 5.2.4. Preparation of a Consultant's Roster which Activityv 4.3 Include all 10 wildiand management cat- would facilitate the provision of appropriate expertise egories on the Unite '"ations List ofNationalParks and when required for protected area matters. Protected Areas. Activity 5.3 Develop policy guidelines and legal in PrioritPrstruments regarding the use of protected areas for re- 4.3.1.* Projects search, environmental monitoring and the collection of Establishment of network to report on cat- scientific materials. egories not currently included on the UN List (categories V, VI, VII, and VIII). Priority Projects 4.3.2. Preparation and publication of UNList ofPro- 5.3.1. Development of model guidelines for pro tected Areas. moting and managing research in protected areas. 5.3.2. Development of model legislation regarding Activity 4.4 Provide for the establishment of in situ gene research, environmental monitoring and the collection banks. of scientific materials. 143 CONSERVING THF WORI.YS BIOLOGICAL. DIVI-RSITY Activity 5.4 Develop tools and guidelines for the prac- Objective 6. TO DEVELOP THE FULL CAPACI- tical incorporation of new objectives for protected area TY TO MANAGE PROTECTED AREAS. management of particular relevance to sustainable te velopment,. including env ironni,,ntal mlonitoring and Activity 6.1 Promote the establishment and recognition genetic resources conservation. of protected area nanagement as a vital relvance professional career of to society. Priorit Projects PriorityPro 'ts 5.4. 1. Determination of technical feasibility of' mak- 6..1.. Pub'cation of Training Protected Area Pr ing genetic stocks available from protected areas. sonnel. based on workshops held at World National 5.4.2. Determination of legal and policy guidelines Parks Congress. based on technical feasibility identified in 5.4. 1. 5.4.3. Determination of administrative uidelines Activity 6.2 Develop and promote training seminars. based on 5.4.1 and 5.4.2. courses and workshops at the regional and local levels 5.4.4. Develop guide!ines for controlled wildlife crop- for protected area managers. ping in Category IV areas. ProiyProjects Activity 5.5 Investigate and utilize the traditional wisdom 6.2. I. Continued support for International Seminar of conmliunities affected by conservation measures, in- on National Parks. cluding implementation of ,int management arrangements 6.2.2. Design model training seminars/workshops on between protected area authorities and societies which new area establishment/evaluation of area manage have traditionally managed resources. ment/working with people in adjacent lands. 6.2.3. Holding of training seminars and workshops Priority Projects in tiletropics. 5.5. I Further investigation of thle role of' traditional Activity 6.3 Strengthen support to regional and national societies in the management of living res'ources. tivit .3 5.5.2. Preparation and publication of case stUdies ont the role of traditional societies in protected areas. Priority Projects 5.5.3. Pilot proiccts to implement involvement of 6.3. 1. Promote the implementation ofproposed train traditional societies in .onservation management. ing programs in the Neotropics. 6.3.2. Provision of support to regional training Activity 5.6 Carry out research to determine ways to schools in Africa and Asia. foster appropriate recreation and tourism in protected areas for which tourism has been deemed an objective, Activity 6.4 Promote the establishment of local, in and to minimize the adverse impacts of such activities, service training efforts for all personnel. Priority Projects Priority Projects 5.6. 1. Preparation of guidelines for management of 6.4. 1. Development of model curricula and training tourist activities in the Antarctic. methods for all levels of protected area personnel. 5.6.2. Assessment of e'ffects of' tourism on East African national parks. Objective 7. TO DEVELOP ECONOMIC TOOLS FOR SUPPORTING PROTECTED AREAS. Activity 5. 7 Develop ways and means of promoting Activit 7 / greater public support for protected areas. o Develop ,nd distribute tools for the analysis of values, tangible and non-tangible, monetary and n',n Priorit ' Projects monetary, associated with protected natural areas. 5.7. 1. Provision of assistance - financial, technical, Activity 7.2 Promote the quantification of values which and information - to voluntary conservation organiza- relate conservation to development, specifically watershed tions for enlisting public support for protected areas protection but also including genetic resources, pollution 5.7.2. Promotion of youth activities in support of pro- control, soil formation, amclioration of climate. provi tected areas (including tree-planting campaigns, work- son of' recreation and tourism, and others of' nature's study camps, field studies, and curricular elements). services. 5.7.3. Develop model interpretive programs for wide dissemination and adaptation to local conditions which Activity 73 Explore and publish concepts and tools emphasize the social and scientific values of protected which relate ecology and economics to promote a more areas, giving specific attention to issues of public consistent perspective for analyzing and explaining the concern, role of' protected areas in sustaining development. 144 ANNEX 4 Objective 8. TO IMPLEMENT AN EFFECTIVE 9.2.2. Preparation ofguidelines on the implications INVENTORY AND MONITORING SERVICE. of the Law of the Sea for coastal and marine protected Activitv 8.1 Expand and develop the Protcoted Areas areas. Data Unit (PADU) and related components of the Workl Activitv 9.3 Explore and promote the development of Conservation Molnitoring Center (WCMC). to prcvide in- tools and mechanisms for the fair sharing of costs and Formation oil protected areas, guide tle determination of benefits associated with protected areas inanagement. both priorities, and support development agencies (both na- among nations and between protected areas and adjacent tional and international) in relating the design of develop- communities. ment projects to critical protected areas. Pri'oitv Projects 9.3. I. Consultancy to advise on ways and neans to 8. 1.I. Provide support to the Protected Areas Data develop mechanisms For tilefIair sharing of costs and Unit at WCMC. benefits associated with protected area management. Activity 8.2 Publish and distribute realn-based direc- Activity 9.4 Explore tilepotential for nev agreements tories and periodic reports to inform and support national and instruments needed to fturther strengthen international and international organizations in their planning activities cooperation. particularly in relationship to genetic Priority Proets resources. 8.2. I. Preparation of data sheets and publication of one realm-based directory per year. Objective 10. TO DEVELOP AND IPIILEMENT A 8.2.2. Preparation of special reports to inform and (;LOBIAL PROGRAMME TO SUPPORT PROTECTED support national and international organizations in their AREA MANAGEMENT. planning efforts. Activity /0. 1 Design and implement regional action pro- Activity 8.3 Promote arrangements by international grams to ensure practical accomplishments close to the organizations, governments, and regional associations of ground. taking into account rclevant cultural and institu nations for the long-term development and use of data col- tional diversity, and the necessary responsiveness to local lection systems, such as satellite remote sensing, cover- needs. ing all protected areas. P rjw *j,P jc ts Prioritv Projects 10.1.1. Provision of support to IUCN Regional 8.3. 1. Consultancy to apply satellite remote sensing Councilors and CNPPA Regional Vice-Chairman to techniques to protected area needs, prepare and coordinate regional action plans. Activity 8.4. Promno.e and implement methodology for ActivitY 10.2 Provide technical and scientific guidance implementing monitoring systems. through the publication of a series of'documents on prac tical subjects ). global concern to protected area manage- Objective 9. TO IMPLEMENT INTERNATIONAL ment such as ihose noted in the preceding items. COOPERATION MECHANISMS. Priority Projects Activit 9.1 Integrate and strengthen ties between pro- 10.2.1. Publication of Proceedingsofthe Wo-M Na tected areas management and the Man and the Biosphere tional Parks Congress Programme, the Global Environmental Monitoring 10.2.2. Public,-tion of reports and documents result- System, and the World Heritage Convention, to realize ing from the Bali Action Plan. the full potential of these instruments for the coaimon ob jectives of conservation and sustainable development. Activity 10.3 Establish a communications network with Proriti Projects the global community responsible for or supporting pro- Prioy Paroectin itected areas to ensure the flow of information and sup 9.e.. Participation inWorl Heritage Committee port the identity of the protected area profession. meetings. Activity 9.2 Encourage and advise all States on tilepre,- * Projects aration, use. and, where reuired, updating of'interna- 10.3. 1. Investigate tileways and means availPble to aation. sealnd, whrqir,supdartingrofttearna-. establish and operate an international protected areas tional legal instruments which support protected areas. cmlncto e~ok commnunication network. Priority Projects 10.3.2. Maintain the publication of Parks magazine 9.2. I. Preparation of concise descriptive material on (in English, Spanish. and French) as one of the best the international legal instruments which support pro- means for communication among those involved or in tectcd areas. terestcd in protected areas. 145 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Activitv 10.4 Build the instituional support necessary to carry out these activities as follow up from the Congress. Activityv 10.5 Initiate stepi for th2 celebration of the next World Congress on National Parks in 1992, with intermediate international, regional and national events designed to further the Bali Action Plan. Activit'v 10.6 Charge the IUCN to monitor the im plernentation of this Plan and to report on progress at the next Congress. 146 ANNEX 5: THE WORLD BANK WILDLANDS POLICY - WILDLANDS: THEIR PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (Effective June 1986) INTRODUCTION aninmal species, wildlands are important for the replenish The maintenance of specific natural land and water areas ment of surrounding degraded or abandoned areas. in a state virtualIy utn modified by huIman activity, hereafter Preserving biohlgical diversity is important to development terined wildland management, is an important subset of the because of the economic potential of species that are cur broad environmental concerns addressed in "'Environmen- rently undiscovered, undervalued, or underutilized. Many tal Aspects of Bank Work" (1984). The conversion of previously unknown or obscure, and often threatened, species wildands to more intensive land and water uses (through land have turn'd out to have ma jor economic benelits. But less clearing, inundation, plantations, or other means) continues than 20 percent of the world's plant and animal (largely in to meet important dcvelopment objectives, and isan element vertebrate) species have ever been inventoried, and even of cerlain World Bank-supported projects. At the svime time, fewer screened for possible human uses. They therefore pres wildlands are rapidly diminishing in many Bank member clt valuable development opportunities if they are not irrever countries. The remaining wildlands can often contribute sibly destroyed. Il addition, there are important scientific, signiiIcandly to economic development, particularly in the aesthetic, ethical, and practical reasons to avoid or minimize longer term, when maintained in their natural state. The the extinction of the remaining biotic stock. While sonic Bank's policy therefore is to seek a balance between pre- species call be conserved cx%situ (such as in zoos or seed serving the environmental values of the world's more imi- banks), wildland management is the only technically and portant remaining wildlands, and converting some of' them economically feasible neans of preserving most ol' the to more intensive, shorter term hunmn uses. world's existing biological diversity. The World Bank already has considerable experience of' EnvironitentalServices wildland management in Bank-supported projects. This In addition to maintaining biological diversity, many policy codifies existing practices and provides op,"ational wildlands also perlform important "'enviroiniental services," guidance concerning conservation of' wildlands. such as improving water availability for irrigated agriculture, JUSTIFICATION industry, or human consulptilOn: reducing sedimentation of reservoirs, harbors, and irrigation works- minimizing floods, There are two principal justifications f'or wildland manage- landslides, and coastal erosion (and possibly droughts in some ment. First. wildlands serve tIo maintain biological diversity regions): improving water quality: and providing essential (i.e., the full range of the world's biota). Second, wildlands habitat for economically important fishery species. Despite provide environiental services important to society. In ad- their economic value and importance in meeting human dition, certain wildlands are essential for maintaining the needs, such environmental services are not always accord livelihood of tribal peoples, ed adequate attention because they are usually public goods Biological Diversity that tend to be poorly understood, undervalued, and even Wildland management is necessary to prevent the untimely overlooked. When environmental services are lost due to and often irreversible loss of a large proportion of the world's wildland elimination, remedial leasures are almost always remaining biola, including the more visible plant and animal far more expensive than prior maintenance. While many en species. Because their wildland habitats are tday rapidly vironmental services can also be maintained by establishing dspering,Becaselaire androwi nuts e (f apidll disappearing, a large and growing number more intensive water and/or land use systems (e.g., of'"plants and oi ain e a e tet et re p atto s . wllbio n aninals face extinction. Appropriate, low-cost wiildland Ixidali,, sewage treatment, tree plantations), wildld management meiasures call greatly reduce current extinction lanagelllent is frequently more cost-effective. rates tIo mucll lower (perhaps almost "natural") levels, Wildlands of Special Concernt without slowing the pace of econoiic progress. By preserv- Wildlands (f special concern are areas that are recognized ing tile integrity of the biotic community and its plant and to be exceptionally important in conserving biological diver 147 CONSERVING TiH- W(RI+IYS IIOLOGICAIL I)IVERSITY sity or perpetuating environmental services. They can be Cost of wildland mailagement components illBank-assisted classified intc two types. First are wildiands officially project have typically been low. They have normally ac designated as protected areas by governnents. sometimes counted for less than three percent of total project costs. and in collaboration with the United Nations or the international in half of the cases for less than one percent. Inmany in scientific community. These are National Parks. Biosphere stances, it is difficult to separate out the cost of the wildand Reserves. World Heritage Natural Sites, Wetlands of Initer- component because of it. integeration with other components. national Inipor.anct . areas designated for protected status In one case. wifdland n1,1ianageieril was the sole objective. in national conservation strategies or master plans, and thus accounting for 100 percent of project costs. At the other similar "'wildland management areas" (WMAs). i.e., areas extreme, a large number of Bank projects have achieved where wifdlands are protected and managed to retain a significant wildland management objectives at zero additional relatively iunodi fied state, cost. For example, manipulation 0 1a hydroelectric project's Second are wildlands as yet unprotected by legislation, but water release schedule costs little or nothing. even though recognized by tile national and/or international scientific and it provides major downstream benefits Ior wildlife. as well conservation communities, often in collaboration with the as fr people and cattle. United Nations, as exceptionally endangered ecosysteris, Wildland management components require additional Bank known sites of rare or endangered species. or important stafftiiie and can increase project complexity. but they have wildlife breeding. feeding, Or staging areas. These include rarely caused significant delays at any stage of the project certain types of wildlands that are threatened throughout cycle. Moreover. the faijure to incorporate adequate wildland much of the world, yet are biologically unique, ecologically components can result inl Much greater delays and complex fragile, or of special importance for local people and en- ity later on. Furthermore, the failure to incorporate adequate vironiiental services. Wildlands of special concern often oc- wildland components can substantially reduce project benefits cur in tropical l'orest. Mediterranean-type brushlands, and might restuIt in project failire. As wildland management mangrove swamps. coastal marshes, estuaries, sea grass coniponents wihiin Bank-supported projects become more beds, coral reels. small oceanic islands, and certain tropical routine, the additional staft effort required to manage thenm freshwater lakes and riverine areas. Within the spectrum of successfully is expected to decrease further. tropical forest, lowland moist or wet f'orest are the most The Bank's track record iii implementing wildland manage species-rich and often the Most vulnerable. Wildlands oIf ient con:ponients is encouraging. According to project conm special concern also occur iii certain geographical regions pletioni reports or environmental post-audits, implenmentation that havc been reduced to comparatively smiall patches and of only three out of 43 wildland components has been continue to undergo rapid attrition. As a result, these regions markedly slower than for miost other projects components. harbor some of the most threatened species in the world. In at least four cases, the wildland component has, been im plemented with less difficulty thiaii other project components. THE BANK'S INVOLVEMENT TO DATE Lessons Learned During the last 15 years, tie World Bank has assisted with A nuiber of important lessons have emerged from the financing of upwards of"40 projects with significant wildland Bank's experience with wildland management to date. First, management components. Most of thenii have involved wildland management components should be routinely and establishment or strengthening of WMAs. Bank-supported systematically incorporated into certain types of Bank proj WMAs include national parks. nature reserves. wildlife sanc- ecu. Up to now. this has not always been done and some tuaries, and those forest reserves managed primarily for their projects which would have beriefitted from wildland com watershed or biological v'alues, rather than for wood harvest. ponents have 'iot included them. Other wildland management components of' Bank projects Second, wildland components should be incorporated as have involved management of wildlife and the humans that early as possible within the project cycle to minimize costs utilize it. including anti-poaching measures, management of' and facilitate implementation. While inclusion of wildland water flows from reservoirs to maintain wildlife habitat, and components in later stages ol' the project cycle may at times relocation of certain species. be necessary because of unforeseen circumstances. it is more Wildland management comporents have two principal ob- efTective and less costly to incorporate them as early as possi jectives: first, to prevent. minimize. or partially compensate ble in the project cycle. for wildland elimination. thereby conserving biological diver- Third. Meeting wildlarid management goals requires ef sity: second. to preserve or improve the environmental serv- fective management "'oi the ground," 1'l siniply on paper. ices provided by wildlands, thereby enhancing the project's Colonists and resoutrce extractive companies have rapidly economic or social benefits. Most Bank-supported projects moved into stcl. "paper parks" (parks existing only on a emphasize one or the other objective: however some Bank- legal document or map, rather than on the ground) unless assisted projects have wildland components seeking both they were inaccessible for other reasons. The wildlamd objectives. imnagement objectives have to be translated into specific 148 ANNEX 5 measures with a budget Ir their implementation. These preservation. Specifically, (I) the Bank normally declines measures include hiring and training of personnel. provision to finance projects involving conversion of wildlands of of necessary infrastructure and Cquipment. developaiient o[ special Lmuncern even if this conversion occurred prior to the a sciClifically stoud ma.nace nint plan f6r each particUlar Bank being invited to consider financing. (2) When wildlands wildland. and a pt licV enu\' iroin lnt - legal. econ olic and other thanl those of special concern iay becolne involved. institutional - which suppt 'ts the wildland preservatitn tb - the Bank prefers site prto jects (in iands already converted jective. The mere declaration of' intent t) protect wildlands (e.g.. logged Over. ala ndt ed, degraded, or already or w iId i!e. or even tie designation of WM As on a niap. does cutivatcd areas) soertie ill tihe past. rather than in anticipa not elnsture etlffecti\ e IanageleniLunless specific sUppt rting tion ol'a Bank-fiinanced pro ject. Deviations f'roil this policy nleasures are inplemented. Must be explicitly justified. (3) Where develtopiment of Fourth. the multiple objectives of wildland management wildland is justified, then less valuable wildlands should be are most successfully attained if the WMA is careiully converted rather than More valuable ones. (4) When signi li designed. For example, a WMA cannot preserve bitlogical cant conversion (e.g.. 100 sq ki. or a significant propor and genetic diversity, evolLitionary processes. and en- tion of the remaining wildland area of'a specific ecosysteii. virollillental services if it is toto small. While some Bank- if smaller) tf vwildlands is justified. the loss should be coiii supported WMAs clearly appear sulfficiently large to ac- pensated by inclhsion tf wildland management components conplishIntost or all of tleir objectives, otlhers ire sto small in the project concerned. rather than in some lu ture project. that their ability to conserve biological diversity Or provide This component should diirecily support preservation of an environmental services or other benefits is questioniable, ecologically similar area. This policy pertains to any proj- Besides size, the specific location and shape of a WMA can ect in which the Bank is involved, irrespective of whether be important factors in determining its success. Appropriate the Bank is financing the project component that affects WMA dCsign features are best determined '.r each case by wildlaids. a conservation speci~ilist. The success of projects that do not eliminate any wildland Finally. tihe success olf a WMA, as f other project coni- olten depends on the environmental services provided by portents, is ctntingent upon government ctmmitment. This wildlands. In such cases, the Bank's policy is to require bor in tunL. tfteni depends upon tile degree of financial support rowers to include a project component to conserve the rele provided by some direct support Ir establishing or vant wildland in a WMA. rather than leaving its preserva strengthening WMAs by the bank. Most of the Bank- tion to chance. In areas without remaining wildlands, alter supported wildland components have provided some direct native conservation measures may be needed to provide support Ito establishing or strengthing WMAs. However, in similar project benefits. In other cases, where the wildlands some cases, the costs tf the WMA establishment wx'ere as- do not directly benefit or serve the objectives of the project, suiiied entirely by the Government, and the Bank took no the project may be imprtved by supporting management of specific measures to ensure tile continued availability of such wildlands to provide socio-econonic benefits in the general financing. By taking measures to ensure counterpart financ- project area. Projects with wildland management as the sole ing. or by providing tie financing itself, the Bank can help objective should also be encouraged. ensure the availability of the relatively modest sums necessary for WMA establishment and continuation. Financial support is usually not sufficient, however. It is Types of Projects Needing Wildland Management oftien also necessary to Maintain dialogue with governments, Components afflected local people, and environmental advocate.s about the Based upon these criteria, projects with the Following importance of conservation and tile benefits of WMAs aspects should normally contain wildland components: (tourismn. watershed protection, etc.) and to include local peo- a) A-grcuture and lIoesiock pro/ects involving: wildland pie in the planning and benefits. Government colimitiiient clearing. wetland elimination, wildland inundation for to the WMA is fostered by such dialogue, by supervision, irrigation storage reservoirs: watershed protection for by monitoring of national legal provisions, and by loan con- irrigation: displacement of wildlife by fences or donestic ditionality. In addition, two coliplementary and parallel ac- livestock: fisheY projects involving elimination of im tivities contribute to WMA success: (I) rural developnlent portant fish nursery, breeding, or feeding sites: over investments that provile larmcrs and villagers in the vicin- fishing or introduction of' ecologically risky exotic ity of thc WMA an alternaix'e to further encroachment, and species within aquatic wildhads:forespralecisinvolv (2) ctllerent national and sectoral planning and policies that ing access roads. clear-felling or other intensive logging promote wildland conservaition. of wildlands. wildland elimination. b) Transpotation prjects in volving: construction of POLICY GUIDANCE highways, rural roads, railways, or canals which The World Bank's general policy regarding wildlands is penetrate wildlands. thus casing access and facilitating to seek to avoid their elimination and rather to assist in their spontaneous settlement: channelization of rivers for 149 CONSIRVINHTIE WORLD'S ItI)I.O;ICAI DIVERSITY f!luVial nav igatioi Iredg irg and ililin,- of coastal wet- The establishment or strengthening of WMAs is particular lands for ports projects. Iy effective when the Government includes these wildland c) Hydro prjcts involving: large-scale Water development, areas ina national conservation or land use plan. A growing including reservoir, power. and water diversion number of Bank merber governments have undertaken some schemres: innrid :rtion or otler major transto rmation of type of systematic land use planninrig I' rw ildland Inariae aquatic or terrestrial wildlanIds: watersled protection for rerit. Such planning call take various fIorms, ranging from enhanced power output: corircti ii of' po'e r tiranrslnis- master plans" for a systerl ol national parks and otler sion corridors. WMAs. to "National Conservation Stratecies- which ad d) L',histrvlprojectsinvolving: chemical and lermial poIln- dress wildland iianiagemient as only one component of.a brorad tioi which amy damaCe wildlards: wildland loss tr(oim range of natural resoure plannini g coricerrins . ald ilr whicb large-scale iniiiinge: wildlarid convyers ion tor industrial policy iritervent ion such as economnic incentives are Used to fuels or feedstocks. iniluen ' resource utilization . Bank assistance with srch plan ning eftorts greatly streetlieris wildlarid rnagelmenit i the natior;al level. Wlten member gowerirents tgree to develop 7Typws of Illar1and Management Coflmit',t.s appr(1priate land use plans, it is import:r., Ior tile Bank to 1 The miost effectiveTbe~~idln typeetype of wildtaridefftiv mianagemiienit coriipo- reIrain 1itr anstsi1 Uprtinrg projectsto tilelan which pangeentsopo involve eliminating nent is support Ior the conservation oftecoilogically sim ilar wiIlla rda idrttri coBnoteer tC threse pilals wildlands in one or more \MAs. I cases where aiWt A Ii those relatively few Borrower countries in which already exists in the same. type ot' ecosystem that is to te wildlaid eliriratior ressures are stilt minor, tie require converted by a Bank-supported project, it may be preferable, rerit of a compensatory wildland coipoient can he inter for administrative or biological conservation reasons. to pretedI more flexibly to involve mneasures otier than the establisiment or strengtening ofone or more WMAs. Such enlarge the existing WMA, rather than to establish a liewir one. The government's wildland acnces. local University alternative options include careful project sitin to avoid con wildlife departments, and various international organizations 'errig tbe iore erviroireitally sensitive wildlands, sup can otien advise in sUcI jtdgriierits. port Ibr research on and management of particularly sensitive A wildlarnd management coiliponient could also involve the species. sunport tor aind use planni.ng eftorts. or institutional creation o 'w ildlif habitat, ilr addition to or ratter than strengthening of' tle government's wildland management preservation of already- existing hbtat. For example, agency, aind training in ecology, biological conservation, and marginal land on tile fringes of irrigation projects could be vw'ililard riarager converted to wildlife reserves by taking advantage of' the water supply created by the projects. Natural depressions or seasonal swamps couild be exploited by diverting water fi'ori DESIGN OF tbe canal systeis (probably a very small part oi' the total WILDLAND supply). Such reserves attract sigrificanit numbers of MANAGEMENT AREAS migratory arid residential waterfowl with miiniral additional Design Considerations project costs and land. WMA design features include size. shape, and siting. Be- A usefurl option is to irliproVe the quality oftrianiageriuent cause an optimal design may vary greatly in different of' existing WMAs. Many 1VMAs in Bank member court- ecosystels. it is best deternmined in each case by a conser tries receive insufficient on-tlie-grotUd Ianiagenlerlt. due to vation specialist. lack t' adequately paid staff. training. staT hiiiisirg. Other The size ot a cominpensatory WMA should be sufticient t0 inftrastructuirc, etquipment spare parts. fuel. or a well- maintain the biological diversity or other inmportant Values devcopcd niiariagerllent pl;,r through which el'ficient resource present inl the area to be converted. A WMA which is large allocation decisions can be riiade. Small componeit!: can enough to encompass a viable population of the largest local often lielp correct these deficiencies, Il couulntries ,,berc ef- prcdator (e.g.. eagle. tiger). or the seasonal erritories and fcctive management is clearly lacking, it is generally migration routes ol'dC large:t local herbivore. 1,'ill iiost like preferable to improve the managenert of existing WMAs 1y preserve all other pertinent ecological valu, s. These ob than to create new units "On paper." thereby further over- jectives would lost likely be achieved in a WMA larger than extending the limited capabilities ot the responsible agen- 1.0) st I ki. Many values are conserved in iioist forest ties. Whenever a new WMA isestablisedie as a project corn- WMAs of 50(1 sI ki although possibly not all ilrperpetuity. ponent, provisions are ncededito enisure effective manage- I rterim WMAs ol less than t00 si krll can be useful short lent. Since riiar11N wildlarid agencies (e.g.. departments ol terri expedients for subseiuent expansion into sUirrotndinlrg national parks or wildlife) are not as operationally effective degraded areas. In general. the larger tie WMA. tie greater as necessary, institutional strengthlning (particularly support tle number of' ecological interdependencies and gene pools for training) should be an iniportant element of Bank- that will be preserved. Both are necessary to a healthy and supported wildlad management conponents. setlf-perpeturating ecosystem. It is recognized that conflicting 150 ANNEX 5 pressures for more intensive land use often make the paratively large (3.200 sq kil)lumoga-Bone National Pmik, establishment of large WMAs difficul. In any case, coin- financed by th Indonesia Irrigation XV Project, cost roughly pensatory \VMAs should he lt smaller thin the wildland area US I imillion lfOr establishment and initial operating costs: converted by the project. most smaller WMAs can he expected to cost considerably The optimal shape of a WNIA Will dcp- Aid upon its obijec- less. yives. A nimore circular shape may preserve more biological In some instances. establishlment or enlarement of WNIAs diversity than other shapes of' tile same -:;ea. Shape is aso may require additional fluiMds forpu rchasi rn- Ilad from private deteriiined by tile Itwation e'centers of edenism and other Or tribal owners. It may at tiiles also be necessary to reset wildlife resources. Boundaries are rmtore effective when they tie and compensate people living within the boundaries of coincide With natural surficial features. such ;it a river or a newly-established WNIA. Usually. however. WMAs are watershed. established oin wholly ove rIll ilent -owned iroperties on To ensure that tile comnpensatory WMA is ecologically Which people have riot settled. similar to tie area to be converted, it is obviously necessary The largest recurrent cost of' WMAs is usually staff tio site the WMA in the saiie ecos\,senl as the area to be salaries. It is iiportant to maintain salaries at levels that ell converted. Moreover, siting tie \VMA some distance away courage high productivit\ and a degree (i perinanence, and from the converted area (separated by a inanaced buffer zone discourage corruption. Spare parts fOr nclhine ry. while for example) helps reduce pressures for encroachnent upon usuall y a relatively snall budet iterhr. are also a Vital recur tine WMA f'roi people living in the converted area. rent expendi1ure. Without a reliable supply of spare parts for often renlote WMA areas, necessary equriprinent will often lie idle or may become cannibalized to provide spare parts. Management Categories In some cases. salaries, spare parts. futel. and other recur- A variety of differernt use related categories can be used rent costs can be fully or partly met by lees collected fron in establishing WMAs. The choice ofcateg~ory depends upol tourists, persons engaCed in sorme form of harvesting, or tine particular objectives being accorded priority for manage- scientific researchers. Otherwise. small annual outlays frori niern. The system of categories devised hy IUCN indicate tile national or other government budget will be needed. the variety of WMAs appropriate under different Cil'CtlinStarnees. Management Plans" Personnel and Training Needs Wildland management areas typically need well-developed The need for well-t-irned personnel in the proper manage- manaeent plans to ensure efficient allocation of the scarce ment of WMAs cannot be ovcremphasized. Without adequate financial and skilled human resources devoted to their nunbers of such trained people. WMAs cannot effectively nranageient. A managenent plan is a written document serve their intended national or societal functions. Bank- which guides and controls tihe use of the resources of a WMA supported wildland project components should therefore pro- and directs the design of subsequent programs of manage vide for staffing levels and training activities that ensure coin- rnent and development. A thorough management plan will: petent management of WMAs. Tie appropriate nurber and a) Describe the physical. biological, social, and cultural types of WMA personnel depend Upon tie category of* features of tine WMA within a national, regional. and WMA. its size and its intensity of management. The local context: riniirnurn adequate permanent staff size for a "modest to b) Identify those items of particular concern frori which average" WMA is usually about eight. the objectives for managing specific areas of the WMA are derx ed: c) Describe appropriate uses oh the entire WMA through Equipment, Infrastructure, and Budgetat' Needs zoning; and Designation of WMAs on a map in no Way ensures that d) Lis: in chronological order the activities to be carried they will be managed to provide their greatest possible out to realize the proposed management prografis. benefits to society. Effective on-the-ground nanagemert re- Preparation and implernentation of*management plans are quires a variety of physical inputs. In Bank-supported carried out by tile government wildland agency. Project staff WMAs, efforts should be tmade to ensure that these inputs should ensrire that Bank-supported WMAs either have ade are provided as a project component in adequate supply and qurate management plans or will develop them early in the oi a tiniely basis. Some types of WMAs will require a variety project. Some parts of a nianagemnent plan can be completed of additional inputs. according to specific management in a fImv days. while others nmay take years to refine. While objectives, a longer-tern management plan is being developed as soon The budgetary requirements For establishing and operating as possible after loan signing, an 'interim rniaagement plan" WMAs will vary according to size and the amounts oif need- or 'operational plan" may be used. PPDES can be of ed infrastructure. equipment, and personnel. The coni- assistance in these matters. 151 CONSERVING THE \WORiD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Legal Considerations The success of a WMA may depend upon how its design tits into an overall national legal framework concerning mitural resources management in general and wildland management in pairticular. To maintain their legitimacy in the eyes of policy-makers and local populations, WMAs must have a firm legal loundation. National legislation, sometimes accompanied by regulations from the I lead of'State. is often needed to establish a WMA. Depending upon the pa::..lr situation, such legislation needs to establish precise WMA boundaries: specific management zones within the WMA. including bufTer zones: a central management authority (at the national or sub-national level) with tuambiguoUs respon sibilities: and mechanisms to channel local participation in WMA management decisions. Bank staf should ensure that Bank-supported WMAs are established and managed within a compatible legal and policy context. 152 ANNEX 6: GLOSSARY Alien: Belonging to another place: a I'reign organisl. lower, new price, which must be added to the henelits ac Allele: Ali\ of all possible lorlls of the genetic code for cruing to the new consumers (USAID. 1987. a specific trait in organisms. Cos!-Benefit Analyvsis: The analhtical technique used to Allopatric: Having separate or luctlll\ exclusive areas appraise projects with quantifiable benefits and costs over of geographical distrihution (compare sympatric). a finite planning hoirizon. In project analysis. costs are goods Autochthonous: From within: independent of external or services used inl a project that reduce the belefits of the sources: self-produced. pertaiiing to the Ccosvstemi (see Eco- project: benefits are any goods or services piroduced by a system). pro ject that advance the pro jcct., osbjective. In economic Biological Diversitv: The variety and variability among analysis. benefits increase the national income of the soci living organ isins and tile ecological complexes ill which they etv while costs reduce the national income oI tile society. occur (OTA. 1987), often shortened to "'biodiversity. ' A benefit f'orgone is a cst jus :is itch as a cost avoided "Species diversity" refers to the number of species foud is a benefit. Costs and benefits Ina ' he either tangible (land. within a given area. while "'geneticdiversit\ " refers to the labor, materials, equipment are tangible costs and increased variety of genes within a particuIa r species, varietV. or breed. prIdutiction ofa golod or se rvice is a tangible benefit) or in BiologicalResources: Living natural resources, including tangible (which by definition cannot be directly valued. plants, animals, and microorganisms, plus the environmen- though the\- may be quantified in snomc forn). tal resources to which species contribute. Biological resources Debt Swap: Mechanisms by which part of the external debt are tile pr.actical taret of' acti'itie, airmed at tile princil c OIla nation i. pt ;cliasCd at a liscount and is then sold back of'conscr\'ing biological diversity: they have two importarh to the government in local currency. with the proceeds be properties, the combination of which distinguishes them lro0m in used for conservation purposes. non-living resources: they are renewable il' conserved. and Discount Rate: The interest rate used to determine the they are destructible if not coiiserved (IUCN, 1980). present valtie of a future Value by discounting. The oppor Buffer Zone: Ani area on the cdg IOf a protected area that tunity cost of'capital is often taken as the discount rate. The has land-use controls that allow only activities compatible "'social discount rate.'' which expresses the preference of' with the objectives of the protected area: appropriate activities a society as a whole for present returns rather than future might include tourism, forestry. agroforestry. etc. '[le ob- returns, is used in economic analysis to discount the in jective (If such zones is to give added protection to the creniental net benefit stream. reserve. and to compensate local people fIOr the loss of ac- Disincentive (for conserving biological diversity): Any in cess to the biodiversity resources of the reserve (Oldfield. ducement or mechanism that discourages governments, local 1988). people, and international organizations from conserving CaryingCapacity: The Maxiiuin nl ibCr of organisms biological diversity. that can use a given area (of habitat without degrading the !colog,: A branch of science concerned with the inter habitat and without causing social stresses that result in the relationships of' living organisms with each other and their population being reduced. When applied to humans. the max- environment. iniuni Unimber 0f users that cali be sustained by a given set Economic Rent: A value in excess of the costs of produc of land resources at a particular level of technology. tion. including a return on the necessary investment. Highly Conservation: The maiiagement of human use of the relevant in forestry. where rents collected by concession umosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit holders can be a powerful incentive for increasing to present generations, while niaintaining its potential to meet production. the needs and aspirations off future generations. Thus con- Ecosystem: The totality of factors of all kinds that make servation ispositive, embracing preservation, maintenance, tip a particular environment; tho complex of biotic conlllil sustainable uitilizationl restoration and enhancement of*the it)' and its abiotic, physical environment, functioning as al natural environment (IUCN. 1980). ecological unit in nature. Consumer Surplts: The di fference between the total Ecotone: A transition (area) between two adjacent eco aiiio1t0lnt of unicy a cot!Slnser would he prepared to pay for logical Coiimunities. Some cquciantity (If a good, and tie aiwouInit tile consumer ac- Endentic: Natie . restricted or peculiar to a locality or tually has to pay. Il economic analysis, consumer surplus region. is a consideration when the output of ite proJct causes the Environment: All the physical. chemical, and biological market price of the product t0 flall. Those consumers actors impinging oi aIliving organisli. prcviou.0y paying the higher, old price (what they are will- EnvironmentalResource: Resources such as clean air, ing to pay) will reap a benefit (cOnsumer surplus) f'rom the clean water. aind scenic values that are not considered assets: 153 C()NSEiRItVING TiE: W\VRI.IYS I.(.( l.Il'l:tRSIlY as a result. most interest is oi actix\ities illld inusing "wild Icnetic iesource" is the wild relative of a plant or these resturces and to the wavs in which the actions of somc aninial that isalrcady known to he ol cononijc importance. users aflect the wellt- being Of, oFthers. The reasons Ii r ciinservinc such a restource are +\iidentt.pro Externalitv: A cost that is enratcd h\ that person, hut viding direct and immediate econlmic benefits: but the not paid for h\ him: flor example. extractiuc items from a 2LICltic miiatCrial consCrved h\ such a resource nlILsIUbe Made hillsidc may CaiSe increased sCdimentation of streams. the availal+,le Ito the people Wvho require it to illtirOVC the pro cost of which is borne by the do\wnstrcam fariers instead dnctivity, quality, or pest resistance of' u~tilizCd plants or of the loggcr. In project analv,sis, an etfect of a project felt anlimals. oultside tile priject ad n1LItincIuided iItilealunatittl t (lie Genetics: That part of biology that deals with 'ariation projet. Ill general. cconolilists consider an cxternalits to exist I.landhercdits. whenl prtiiintitin Or c msiUiptin 01*1a g tOIdr 'sler\ice 1w iic (;Is: Gcoraphic Ifformation Syslei. an iiifOriuation cctImom ic unit has a t lircct cfflt o tile \well',OfaP idUcrs tee Iiicllorhg that storles. analyzes. and d1 isplays both spatial 0r con sulniers inanithelr unit. without cmti nsation being and nion-spatial data. A GIS can transl'orni data held ina paid. Det,'iiicntal exterialities arisc il'the actioii is Iniul database to produc new inifrmation interially: I exam and the apcent who carried ittLtis 1i0 citehareeL lIr tiledLaliauc plc. fisi pipuIatin sites. produntivity Icxc Iaccessaiid done: beneficial externalities ari.,c if the actitn is beneficial other fIactors can I1 conibined iII a model to eslablish catch but the aCent who cirricd it t1 rccci\e iii (or iisufticient) limits (Parker. 198S). panient I'Mthe benefit. \When an cxtcrnalit\ is quanlified Habitat: The place or type of site \\,here a plant or aniimal 1 illliiiC Cte ri al added to tile priqcct aCilit s. it is SaiL hatuiraInllytnid m rMallv lives a L .criOw,: its honC. to have been internalit.is Lxtirpation: Local extinctiti: a species or s'bspccies Heredvtr: lit orpasiie disappearing Ilrill a localit\ ortregion withot becolming ex- Ihiredii" Ta'hiorianicC rIlationships between successive nc .Cenerations I of'a PoptilatiOl or species. tinet thitlliO1-111t Its rNtll~. Extiinction: "he extilutionarv tcrniation of a species llydrology: That branch of knovledge that deals with the catsec by failire Itorhirtidncc alil death io all renaininc properties. distribntitm, aind circulation of ,lielby IiIiithe water tll the stir th~e iati ~lall01'tll ~i , f'ace mee rs,of'"he sp.cies: tile natural fal-ilnrcto adapt to enof the land. in the soil and und1erlVing rocks. anLI in the vironiiental chainef atniospliere nmmaLFaunta: TheaaiaIer totatotal species ainial life of"an area: usually' the ftl Incentive (for conserving biologicaldiversity):An incen i a specof, i petriodufied.all tive is that which incites or motivates desired behavior; in stratum,11 get.graphicali ri, region, ecosysterm, habitat. Oro this context, an incentive is that which incites or motivates ciliilnlix'. governments, local people, and international organizations Flora: The total plant life 01fall arca: usuaIls tiletotal to conserve biological diversity. More broadly, an incentive iiniber of plant species inia specified pcriiud. geoltOgiCal is any inducement on the part of government that attempts strattlll. ctlnliity.OeigrapiiCal rcitin. eCtlSs'Stcli. habitat. Or to temporarily divert resources such as land, capital, and labor toward conserving biodiversity, and facilitates the par Food Web (Chain): Arrangelnmuit of the livii tirgaiisis ticipation of certain groups or agents ii. work that will benefit ton ebogical c Arrtiitics actrding ti the order if biodiversity. predator. actiogits'. Ii xich eac grdinp of iorgadisis ses Indigenous: Having originated in and being produced. tile next ienibers as a Itid source: e.g.. carlIiVOres eat herb- growing, or living naturally in a particular region ir cnviron ivores. which cat plants. niit: native. Gene: A section of a chromosome containing enough DNA Liinnology" That branch of kntwlcdge that deals with the to control th l' ri ation of one pitotein: acce controls the physics. chemistry. biology. and ecoiogy of inland waters transmission of'a hereditary character. (rivers, lakes, artificial lakes. swaiips and so oil). Gene Pool: The total tf the alleles ill a ptpulatitm 0if' Management: The el'frts of h.umans ttiselect, plan. organisms. organize and implement prigranis designed to aciicVc Genetic Drift: Changes inthe genetic ctmposition or'a specified goals: activities can range rinm prOtcctixeCmeasures ptpulatitin iiFani tgalilill LIe to cianc pres r atitn ircx to ensure that nature ielails ti nt rirlptctl h human Ldia in tinction of partiCnlar genes especially pronotuced in small fltnice. oilinto ce\cr-nitre manipulative (active) tasks re populations. (uLlil'LIr ti iiiaintainLdiver'sity. imistallfacilities, ctmtrol popula Genetic Resource: A genetic resource is the heritable tions. or eradicate aliens. characteristics ol'a plant or animial o lreal oirpotential benefit Monotypic: A taxi'. that Ias tnl one unit in tle ini to people. The ltii incldes Molern ctiltiVa rsand breeds: miediaelIy subordinate category .g.. a geIILis coiipriiiig traditional ctnltiVars and breeds: special genetic stocks only tne species tr a species not dii'isiblc into subspecies. (breeding lines. Mltants. etc.): wild relatixes OifLlOlesticated Mutualisn: A relationship betxveeiitwo tUnriated species: and genetic variants of' wild resource species. A organisms (different species) inwhich both ofthein benef'it. 154 ANNIX 0 Natural Resource: Includes renewable (forests, water, includes national parks. game reserves, multiple-use areas, wildlife, soils, etc.) and non-renewable (oil, coal, iron ore, biosphere reserves, etc. etc.) resources that are natural assets. Resource: A feature of' the environmeit that contributes Natural Selection: The dilfcrential reproductioii of'in- to inorganism's fitness. Also. often used to describe a source dividuals: the tendency for some individuals (plants or of natural wealth or revenue which can be biotic and animals) to produce more successfIul offspring than others, renewable (e.g. fish stocks inthe ocean) Or abiot ic and non- Natural selection isgenerally acknowledged to be the primary renewable (e.g.. gold). f*orce responsible f'Or evolution. Species: A groII of' actually or potCnlially interbreeding Niche: The suM total 01' all phys ical and biologicaI re- living organisms more or less isolated from other such qtuireilents for a spccies: different species occupying difTerent groups: insimple terns, a "kind" of plant or animal. niches: tile ecological role of an organism in a conlllunity. Subsidy: (overnment economic assistance granted directly especially in regard to fiO d cOnlsunhtipt. Literally. tile "pro- or indilectly to individuals or adminristrativye bodies to en 'ession" of the species, courage activities designed to satisfy the needs ol'the public. Opportunity Cost: The benefit f'Orgone by using a scarce It isdiscretionary and revocable. and isconditional upon cer resource Ibr one purpose instead of for its best alternative use. tami rules being observed. II contrast to grants. subsidies are Organism: Any living thing. ani mal or plant, that i! usually much mio re institutionalized and are primarily ailed less at a capable of carrying ou life particular, specific activity than at encouraging works processes. in the public inte'est Parasite: An organis i living i. or on. another unrelated Sustainable Development: A patte'n (Ifsocial and struc organism from which it obtains benefits and that it usually tual economic transformations (i.e. development') that injures. soletimes fatally, " otieoptinlizes economicthe econonlic ano and othertherio societali.eta bbenefits ent availablea Perverse incentive (regarding biological diversity): Any' in the present withlout jeopardizing the likely potential for incenti\ve that induces behavior leading to the reduction in similar benefits in tilefuture. biological diversity: obviously. '"perverse'" depeids on thle Symbiosis: The living iogether in more or less close asso perspective, and most perverse incentives liedesigned to L achieve positive policy objectives and tileperversity is usuallyInf cio o ilerhlins. ine tene l i poc y' Lia derive beniefit fi-r the relat ioiship. an exterinal factor. ~Symnpatric: Having tilesame or overlapping areas of' Photosynthesis: The process by which simple carbo- geographical distribution (compare allomric). hydrates (sugars. starches) are formed f'ronl carbon dioxide, Ta.'on: (plural: taxa) A term for any category used in water, and essential nutrients in special plant cells, using classification. Taxonomy is the science of' the classification sunlight as the energy source, of plants and animals. Tile fundamental taxon in biology is Pollination: 'iic process involving tiletransf'er of pollen tilespecies, which represents a real biological entity; this l'rom a stalen (male organ) Ital ovule (f'emale cell), pro- category can be defined generally in objective terms, whereas nloting the production of' fertile seeds in plants. all other taxa are either subdivisions Of the species or group- Pollinator: the agent (usually anmal) responsible for ing of species. which cannot be defined except in terms in pollinating flowers. volving subjective judgments. Population: A somewhat arbitrary grouping of individuals Terrestrial: Of', or relating to, the land. of a species. which is circumscribed according to a set of Vegetation: The total plant cover of an area. specific criteria: usually taken as all the individuals Of a Vertebrate: Any of a major group (Vertebrata) ofaninials species in a given time and place. (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and manmls) with a Predator: Aniorganism that preys upon and eats another segmented spinal column (backbone). organism (the prey). Watershed: Area bounded peripherally by waters parting Primay Productivity: The rate at which energy from light and draining to one or niore watercourses: a dividing point isabsorbed and itilized together with carbon dioxide, water, or line. and other nutrients in the production Of organic matter in Wetland: Temporarily or permanently inundated terrestrial photosynthesis. Net production is given by tilealount of systens bordering on aquatic systems and including shallow organic mnatier formed in excess of that used in respiration. systems such as estuaries, salt marshes. bogs. sponges, mires, It represents fod potentially avaifable to the consumners of swamps, floodplains. and niany coastal lakes and lagoons: an ecosy'stel: it cani be measured approxiately by sampling systenis that essentially are driven by littoral processes. vegetation at intervals and mleasuring the dry nlaSS produced per unit area per unit time. (As opposed to secondary pro duction. the amouItnt (If consumer (ani ial) tissue produced per unit area per unit tile ill any ecosystei). Protected Area: Any area of land that has legal Measures limiting hunan use oIftileplants and aninials within that area: 155 BIBLIOGRAPHY The following contains both citations from the text and ad ditional references that are relevant to how conserving biological diversity can contribute to development action. The most important references are marked with an asterisk (*). Abbott, A.T., E.A. Kay, and C.H. Lamoureux. 1982. American Institute of Biological Sciences. 1968. The role Natural Lindmarks Surv-e ofthe Ishmds of the Pacific. Na- of the biologist in preservation of the biotic environment. tional Park Service, Washington, D.C. 194 pp. BioScience 18(5):383-424. Abbott, 1. 1977. Species richness, turnover, and equilibrium Anders, G.. W.P. Graham, and S.C. Maurice. 1978. Does in insular floras ner Perth, Western Australia. Aust. J. resource conservation pay'? International Institute Econ. Botanv 25:193-208. Research Paper 14:1-42. Abbott, 1. 1978. Factors determining the nunber of land bird Anderson, D. 1983. Research goals for natural areas. Natural species on islands around South-western Australia. Oecologia Areas Journal3(1):27-32. 33:221-233. Anderson, 1. 1987. Epidemic of bird deformities sweeps US. Abbott, I. 1980. Theories dealing with the ecology of land- New Scientist: 3 September. birds on islands. Ad. Ecol. Res. 11:329-371. Arrow, K.J. and A.C. Fisher. 1974. Environmental preser Adamus, P.R. and G.C. Clough. 1978. Evaluating species vat'on, uncertainty and irreversibility. Quarterly J. for protection in natural areas. Biological Conservation Ecopiomnics 88:312-.,19. 13(2):165-178. ASEAN. 1985. Agreement on the conservation of nature and Adsersen, Henning. 1989. The are plants of Galipagos and natural resources. Environmental Poliey, and Law their conservation. liologicra Conservation 47:49-77. 15(2):64-69. Ahmad, Yusuf and G. K. Sammy. 1985. Guidelines fo En- Ashton, P.S. 1981. Techniques for the identification and con vironnental hnpact Assessment in Developing Countries. servatiov of threatened species in tropical forests. Pp. Hodder and Stoughton, London. 52 pp. 155-164 n: H. Synge (ed.), The BiologicalAspects of Rare Aiken, S.R. and C.H. Leigh. 1985. On the declining fauna Plant Comservation. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, of Peninsular Malaysia in the post-colonial period. Anbio England. 558 pp. 14:15-22. Ashion, P.S. 1984. Botanic gardens and experimental Aiken, S.R. and C.H. Leigh. 1986. Land use conflicts and grounds. Pp. 39-48 in: V.H. Heywood and S.M. Moore rain forest conservation in Malaysia and Australia. Land Use (eds.), Current Concepts in Plant TxLonony. Academic Policy 3:161-179. Press, London. Allard, R.W. 1960. Principlesof Plant Breeding. Wiley, Ashton, P.S. 1988. Conservation of biological diversity in New York. botanical garden. Pp. 269-278 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis Allegretti, Mary Helena, and S. Schwartzman. 1986. r- M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversity. National Academy Press, tractive Reserves: A Sustai,ableDevelopmnent Alternativefor Washington, D.C. 52! pp. Amazonia. Report to WWF-US, Washington, D.C. Astanin, L.P. and K.N. Biagosklinow. 1983. Conservation Allen, William H. 1988. Biocultural restoration ofa tropical of Nature. Progress Publishers, Moscow. 148 pp. forest. BioScience 38(3): 156-161. Atkinson, S.F. 1985. Habitat-based methods for biological Altieri, M.A. and C.L. Merrick. 1987. In situ conservation assessment. The EnvironmentalProfessional7(3):265-282. of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional Aubreville, A. 1971. The destruction of forests and soils in farming systems. Econ. Bot. 41:86-96. the tropics. Adansonia 2(11):5-39. 1 Altieri, M.A., M.K. Anderson, a.' L.C. Merrick. 1987. Austin, M.P. and C.R. Margules. 1986. Assessing represen Peasant agriculture and the conservaton of crop and wild tativeness. Pp. 45-67 in: M.B. Usher (ed.), Wildlife Con plant resources. Conservation Biology 1:49-58 servation Evaluation. Chapman and Hall, London. 394 pp. Altman, I. and J.F. Wohlwill (eds.). 1983. Behavior and Australian Conservation Foundation. 1980. The Value ofNa the NaturalEnvironment. Plenum Press, New York. 346 pp. tionalParksto the Comntnutniv. A.C.F. Hawthorn, Victoria. Amach,;r, R.C., R.D. Tollison and T.D. Willett. 1974. The 223 pp. economics of fatal mistakes: fiscal mechanisms for preserv- Ayensu, E.S. and R.A. DeFilipps 1981. Smithsonian In ing endangered predators. Public Polic, 7:411-441. stitution endangered flora computerized information. Pp. Previous Pag Blank 157 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL. DIVERSITY 111-122 in: L.E. Morse and M.S. Henifin (eds.), RarePlant Barclay, A.S. and R.E. Perdue. 1976. Distribution of anti Conservation:Geographical Data Organization. New York cancer activity in higher plants. Cancer Treatment Reports Botanical Garden, Bronx. 377 pp. 60(8): 1081-1113. Bachniura, F.T. 1971. The economics of vanishing species. Barrett, Scott. 1988. Economic guidelines for the conserva Natural Resources J. 11:675-692. tion of biological diversity. Paper presented at Workshop Backus, E.H. 1985. Comptter Geographic htortni,tion on Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 February 1988, Systenis to Manage BiogeographicData fir the Design of Costa Rica. HabitatReserves: A Study of the Puerto Rico Conserviation Baskin, J.M. and C.C. Baskin. 1978. The seed bank in a Data Center. Tropical Research Institute, Yale School of' population of an endenic plant species and its ecological Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, Connec- significance. Biological Conservation 14:125-130. ticut. Baskin, J.M.and C.C. Baskin. 1986. Some considerations Backus, E.H., R.M. Alfaro, L.F. Corrales, Q. Jimenez. in evaluating and monitoring populations of rare plants in L.H. Elizondo, and W.H. Soto. 1988. Costa Rica: Assess- successional environments. Natural Areas Journal neit ofthe ConservationofBiologicalResources. Fl 'idaci6n 6(3):26-30. Neotropica and Conservation International, S,i Josd, Costa Bastedo, J.D., J.G. Nelson, and J.B. Theberge. 1984. Rica, and Washington, D.C. Ecological approach to resource survey and planning for en Bacow, L.S. and M.W. Wheeler. 1984. Environmental vironmentally significant areas: The ABC method. En Dispute Rsoluion. Plenum Press, New York. 372 pp. vironmental Management 8(2): 125-134. Bailey, R.G. 1983. Delineation of ecosystem regions. En- Batisse, M. 1982. The biosphere reserve: a tool for en vironmnenal Management 7(4):365-373. vironmental conservation and management. Environmental Bailey, R.G. and H.C. Hogg. 1986. A world ecoregions map Conservation 9(2): 101-11. for resource reporting. Environmental Conservation BCAS. 1989. The Botanic GardensCoV.';rivation Strategy. 13(3): 195-202. IUCN/WWF, Gland, Switzerland. Baker, A.N., F.W.E. Rowe, and H.E.S. Clark. 1986. A Beanlands, G.E. and P.N. Duinker. 1984. An ecological new class of Echinodermata from New Zealand. Nature framework for environmental impact assessment. J.En 321:862-864. vironmental Management 18(2):267-277. Baker, H.G., H.A. Mooney, and J.A. Drake. 1986. Ecology Beddington, J.R. and R.M. May. 1980. Maximum sus of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii. tainable yield in system subject to harvesting at more than Springer-Verlag, New York, 321 pp. one trophic level. Math. Biosc. 51:261-281. Baker, M.L.B. and A. Ellington. 1985. The Worl Environ- Bell, B.C. 1981. Humanity in nature: Toward a fresh ap nient Handbook: A Director),of Natural Resource Manage- proach. Environmental Ethics 3:245-257. ment Agencies and Non-Governmental Enviromnent Bella, Leslie. 1987. Parks for Profit. Harvest House Ltd., Organizationin 145 Countries. World Environment Center, Montreal. New York, 280 pp. Bennett, J.W. 1982. Valuing the existence of a natural Balser, D., A. Bielak, G. de Boer, T. Tobias, G. Adindu, ecosystem. Search 13(9/10):232-235. and R.S. Dorney. 1981. Nature reserve designation in a cultural landscape, incorporating island biogeography theory. Bentkover, J.,V. Covello, and J. Mumpower. 1986. Benfits Landscape Planning 8(2):329-347. Assessments: The State of the Art. D. Reidel, Boston. Bannon, J.J. 1981. ProblemSolving in RecreationandParks Berck, R. 1979. Open access and extinction. Econometrica (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 396 47:877-882. pp. Bernstein, B.B. 1981. Ecology and economics: Complex Barborak, James R. 1988a. Innovative funding mechanisms systems in changing environments. Annual Review ofEcology used by Costa Rican conservation agencies. Paper presented and Systematics 12:309-330. at Workshop on Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 Beven, S.F., E.F. Connor and K. Beven. 1984. Avian February 1988, Costa Rica. biogeography in the Amazon Basin and the biological model Barborak, James R. 1988b. The role of economics in con- of diversification. J. Biogeog. 11:383-399. serving biological diversity: A non-economist's view. Paper BGCS (Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat). 1987. presented at Workshop on Economics, IUCN General 7he hIternationalTransfi'rForinatfirBotanic GardensPlant Assembly, 4-5 February 1988, Costa Rica. Records. Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Barbour, Clyde D. and James H. Brown. 1974. Fish species Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 70 pp. diversity in lakes. American Naturalist 108:473-89 Binswanger, Hans P. 1987. Fiscal and legal incentives with 158 BIBLIOGRAPHY environmental effects on the Brazilian Amazon. World Bank Management 7(3):211-22. Report ARU 69: 1-48. Bradshaw, A.D. 1983. The reconstruction of ecosystems. Bishop, R.C. 1978. Endangered species and uncertainty: the J.Applied Ecology 20(l):1-17. economics of a safe minimum standard. At. J. Agricultural Bradshaw, M.E. and J.P. Doody. 1978. Plant population Economics 60:10-18. studies and their relevance to nature conservation. Biological Bishop, R.C. 1980. Endangered species: an economic Conservation 14(2):223-242. perspective. 7rans. North Am. Wildl. Nat. Resourc. Conf Bratton, S.P. 1982. The effects of exotic plant and animal 45:208-218. species on nature preserves. NaturalAreasJourtal2(3):3-12. Blouin, M.S. and E.F. Connor. 1985. Is there a best shape Bratton, S.P. and P.S. White. 1980. Rare plant management: for nature reserves? Biological Conservation 32:277-88. Aftr preservation what? Rhodora 82:49-75. Boardman. R. 1981. InternationalOrganizationsand t Bresard, P. F. 1982. The Conservation ofNatltre. Indiana University Press, Bloom- BrsdPF.18Thrlefledstiosnthpeerle offield stations in the peser- nsvton 25 n N e I a U vation of biological diversity. BioScience 32(5): 327-330. ington. 215 pp. Baecklen, W.J. 1986. Optimal design of nature reserves: Breslin, 0. and M. Chapin. 1984. Conservation Kuna-style. Consequences of genetic drift. Biological Conservation GrassrootsDevelopment 8f2):26-35 38(4):323-338. Briggs, D.J. and J. France. 1983. Classifying landscapes and Boecklcn, W. J.and Nicholas J. Gotelli. 1984. Island habitats for regional environmental planning. J.Environment biogeographic theory and conservation practice: species-area Management 17(3):249-261. or specious-area relationships? Biological Conservation Briggs, J.C. 1974. Marine Z,)ogeography. McGraw-Hill, 29(I):63-79. New York, NY. Bolin, B., Bo.R. D66s, J. Jiger and R.A. Warrick. 1986. Brockman, C.F. and L.C. Merriam, Jr. 1973. Recreational 7he Greenhouse Effect, Climatic Change and Ecosystems. Use of Wildlands (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York. 329 John Wiley, Chichester, UK. pp. Bonnicksen, T.M. and E.C. Stone. 1985. Restoring Brookshire, D.S., A. Randall, and J. Stoll. 1980. Valuing naturalness to national parks. Environmental Management increments and decrements in natural resources service flows. 9(6):479-486. Am. J.Agric. Econ. 62:478-488. Boom, B.M. 1985. Amazonian Indians and the forest en- Brookshire, D.S., L.S. Eubanks and A. Randall. 1983. vironment. Nature 314:324. Estimating option price and existence values for wildlife Booth, William. 1989. Monitoring the fate of the forests from resources. Land Economics 59(1):1-15. space. Science 243:1428-1429. Brown, G.M. 1979. Notes on the economic value of genetic Bordwin, H.J. 1985. The legal and political implication of capital: What can the blue whale do for you? Department the international undertaking on plant genetic resources. of Economics, University of Washington, Seattle (MS). Ecology Law Quarterly 12(4): 1053-1070. Brown, G.M. 1985. Valuation of genetic resources. Paper Borman, F.H. 1976. An inseparable linkage: Conservation prepared for Workshop on Conservation of Genetic of natural ecosystems and the conservation of fossil energy. Resources, Lake Wilderness, WA. BioScience 26:754-760. Brown, G.M. and Jon H. Goldstein. 1984. A model for valu- BOSTID. 1983. Little-known Asian Animals with a Promis- ing endangered species. J.Enviromnental Economics and ing Economic Future. National Academy of Sciences Press, Management 11:303-309. Washington D.C. 131 pp. Brown, J.H. 1971. Mammals on mountaintops: none- BOSTID. 1985. Conservation of biological diversity in quilibrium insular biogeography. American Naturalist developing countries. Report to USAID from the Board on 105:467-478. Science and Technology for International Development, Na- Brown, J.H. 1984. On the relationship between abundance tional Research Council, Washington D.C. and distribution of species. American Naturalist BOSTID. i986. Proceedingsofthe Conference on Coinnion 124(2):255-279. Property Resource Management. National Academy Press, Brown, J.H. and A. Kodric-Brown. 1977. Turnover rates Washington D.C. 631 pp. in insular biogeography: Effect of immigration on extinc- Boudet, G. 1972. Desertification de I'Afrique tropicale tion. Ecology 58:445-449. seche. Adansonia 2(12):505-24. Brown S. and A.E. Lugo. 1982. The storage and produc- Bowonder, B. 1983. Environmental management conflicts tion of organic matter in tropical forests and their role in in developing countries: An analysis. Environmental the global carbon cycle. Biotropica 14:161-187. 159 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL I)IVIERSITY Brownrigg, L.A. 1985. Native cultures and protected areas: southern Africa. Pp. 81-91 in: Report on the FAO/Finand management options. Pp. 33-44 in.: J.A. McNeely and D. Workshop on Waterdshe1 Managenent in Arid and Seni-arid Pitt (eds.), Culture and Conservation: The Human Dinten- Zones e1 SADCC Countries, Maseru, Lesotho. soni in Enviromenta.' Planning. Croom Helm, London. Child, G. 1984. Managing wildlife for people in Zimbabwe. Buckley, R. 1982. The habitat unit model of island bio- Pp. 118-123 in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), Na geography. J.Biogeog. 9:339-44. tional Parks, Conservationand Developnment: 7he Role o/ Budowski, G. 1976. Tourism and environmental conserva- Protected Areas ;n Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institu tion: Conflict, coexistence, or symbiosis? Environm,ntal tion Press, Washington, D.C. Conservation 3(1):27-31. Child, G. 1988. Economic incentives and improved wildlife Bunyard, Peter. 1987. The significance of the Amazon basin conservation in Zimbabwe. Paper presented at Workshop on for global climatic equilibrium. The Ecologist Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 February 1988, 17(4-5): 139-14) . Costa Rica. Burgman, M.A., H. R. Akcakaya, and S.S. Loew. 1988. Childress, J.J., C.R. Fisher, J.M. Brooks, M.C. Kennicutt The use of extinction models for species conservation. 11, R. Bidigare, and A.E. Anderson. 1986. A methanotropic Biological Conservation 43:9-25. marine molluscan (Bivalvia, Mytilidae) symbiosis: Mussels Burton, J.A. 1984. A bibliography of Red Data Books. Orv. fueled by gas. Science 233:1306-1308. 18:61-64. Christiansen. M.I. 1'977. Park Planning Handbook. John Caldecott. Julian. 1988. Hunting and Wildlife Management Wiley and Sons, New York. in Sarawak. IUCN, Gland. 172 pp. Christiansen, Sofus and Gunnar Poulson (eds.). 1985. En Caldwell, L.K. 1984. International Environmental Policy: virontental Aspects ofAgricultural Development Assistance. Emergence and Dinensions. Duke University Press, Nordic Council of Ministers, University of Trondheim, Durham, NC. 367 pp. Norway. Caldwell, L.K. 1984. Political aspects of ecologically sus- *Ciriacy-Wantrup, S.V. 1968. Resource Conservation: tainable development. Environmental Conservation Economics and Policies. University of California Press, 1](4):299-308. Berkeley. 395 pp. Campbell, F.T. 1980. Conserving our wild plant heritage. Ciriacy-Wantrup, S.V. and W.E. Phillips. 1970. Conser Environment 22(9): 14-20. vation of the California Tule Elk: A socioeconomic study of a survival problem. Biological Conservation 3(I): 23-32. Carlquist, S. 1974. Island Biology. Columbia University Press, New York. 660 pp. Clark, Colin W. 1973a. The economics ofovcrexploitation. Carlson, A.A. 1977. On the possibility of quantifying scenic Science 181: 630-634. beauty. Landscape Planning 4(2,: 131-172. Clark, Colin W. 1973b. Profit maximization and the extinc *Carpentej. R. (ed.). 1983. Natural Systems for Develop- tion of animal species. J. Pol. Econ. 81: 950-961. meit. Matmillan, New York. 485 pp. Clark, Colin W. 1976. Mathematical Bioeconomics: 7he Op Carr, A.F. 111. 1982. Tropical forest conservation and timal Management of Renewable Resources. John Wiley, estuarine ecology. Biological Conservation 23(3):247-259. New York. Cartwright, J. 1985. The politics of preserving natural areas Clark, J.R. 1974. Coastal Ecosystens: Ecological Con in Third World States. Environmentalist 5(3): 179-186. siderations Jor the Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conservation Foundation, Wa, hington, D.C. 178 pp. and Plan CEMP (Centre for Environmental Management ning). 1988. Preliminary paper on compensation for the *Clark, J.R. 1977. Coastal Ecosystem Management: A establishment of protected areas within tropical forest Technical Manual ]or the Conservation of Coastal Zone ecosystems. IJNEP, Nairobi. Resources. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 928 pp. Chalk, D.E., S.A. Miller, and T.W. Hockstra. 1984. Multi- Clark, W.C. and R.E. Munn (eds.). 1986. Sustainable resource inventories: Integrating information on wildlife Development o1 the BiosVhere. Cambridge University Press, resources. Wildlife Society Bulletin 12(2):357-364. London. 491 pp. Charbonneau, J.J. and NI.J. Hay. 1978. Determinants and Clarke, B. 1979. The evolution of genetic diversity. Proc. economic values offhuniing and fishing. Trans. N. Ain. Wildl. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 205:453-474. and Natl. Res. Cold. 43. Clarke, J.E. and R.H.V. Bell. 1986. Representation ofbiotic Child, B. and G. Child. 1986. Wildlife, economic syste'ms communities in protected areas: A Malawian case study. and sustainable human welfare in semi-arid rangelands in Biological Conservation 35(4):293-312. 160 BIBLIOGRAPHY Clawson, D.L. 1985. Harvest security and intraspecific Conrad, Jon M. and Colin W. Clark. 1987. Natural Resource diversity in traditional tropical agriculture. Economic Botany Economics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 39:56-67. Conservation International. 1989. The Debt-lbr-Nature Ex- Clawson, M. 1980. Wilderness as one of* many land uses. change: A Tool lor International Conservation. Conserva- Idaho Law Review 16(3):449-468. tion International. Washington, D.C., 43 pp. Clem ents, James. 1981. Birds of the, Worl: A Checklist. Conservationtv. C n e v International.to ne n to 1990.a. W1ice s iRain go Eorest. l. .. Impqwra1 P Facts on File, New York. 562 pr. tie. Conservation International. Washington, I.C., 15 pp. Conway, William. 1986. The practical difficulties and finan- CNPPA. 1988. The Bali ALtlion Plan: The first five years. cial implications of endangered species breeding pro- Pp. 10-28 in: J. Thorsell (ed.), Nev Challengts fi)r the grammes. Int. Zoo Yearbook 24/25:210-219. World's Protected Area System. IUCN, Gland. 189 pp. Conway, William. 1988. Can technology aid species preser- Cocheba, Donald J.. and W. A. Langford. 1978. Wildlife vation? Pp. 263-268 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter valuation: the collective good aspect of hunting. J. Land (eds.), Biodiversitv. National Academy Press, Washington, Econ. 54(4):490-504. D.C. 521 pp. Cock, James H. 1982. Cassava: A basic energy source in Cook, Clive. 1988. Applying the user pays principle to na the tropics. Science 218:755-762. tional parks. Australian Ranger Bulletin 5(l):5-6 Cody, M.L. and J.M. Diamond. 1975. Ecology and Evolu- Cooper, C. 1981. Economic Evaluation and the Environ ti,.. of Communities. Harvard University Press., Cambridge. nunt. Hodder and Stoughton, London. Mass. Corbet, G.B. and J.E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Main mnalian Species. British Museum, London. 226 pp. Cohn, Jeffrey P. 1989. Gauging the biological impacts of i l d, T. 1985. Th e L n d in. David greenhouse effect. BioScience 39(3): 142-146. Sheldck Fni N irbi. 621 pp. the Sheldrick Foundation, Nairobi. 621 pp. Collar, N.J. and S.N. Stuart. 1985. Threatened Birds of Corner, E.J.H. 1978. Plant life. Pp. 112-178 in: D.M. Lup- Africa and Related Islands. (3rd edn.) ICBP/IUCN, Cam- ing, C. Wen, and E.R. Dingley (eds), Kinabalu: Summit of bridge. 761 pp. Borneo. Sabah Society, Kuching. Collar, N.J. and S.N. Stua:t. 1988. Kev Forestsfor Threat- Council on Environmental Quality (U.S.A.). 1980. Ecology ened Birds in Africa. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge. 102 pp. and living resources: Biological diversity. Pp. 31-80 in: Collar, N.J. and J. Andrew. 1988. Birds to Vatch.: 7e ICBP CEQ, Annual Report. Washington, D.C. World Check-list of Threatened Birds. ICBP Technical Crandall, Lee S. 1964. Management ol Wild Mammals in Publication No. 8. ICBP, Cambridge UK. 303 pp. Captivitv. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 769 pp. Collins, N.M. and M.G. Morris. 1985. Tireatemied Croisat, Leon. 1962. Space, Time, Form: 77he Biological Syn- Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: 77e IUCN Red Data thesis. Caracas, Venezi Ia. 881 pp. Book. IUCN, Gland. Switzerland. 401 pp. Cropper, The optimalM.L., consumption M.C. Veinstein of depletable and R.J. natural Zeckhauser. resources: 1978. An Connell, J.H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and elaboraition, correction, and extension. Quarterly J. coral rees: High diversity of trees and corals is maintained Economics 92: 337 353. only in a nonequilibrium state. Science 199:1302-1310. Crosscn, T.I. 1979. ,\ new concept in park design and Connell, J.H. 19P0. Diversity and the coevolution of corn- management. Biological C&nservatioi 15(2):105-125. petitors or, the ghost of competition past. Oikos Crowe, T.M. and A.A. Crowe. 1982. Patterns of distribu 35(2):131-138. tion, diversity and endemism in \frotropical birds. J. Zool. Connell, J.H. and E. Orians. 1964. The ecological regula- Loijdon. 198:417-442. tion of species diversity. American Naturalist 98:399-414. Crowley, Thomas J. and Gerald R. North. 1988. Abrupt Connell, J.H. and R.O. Slatyer. 1977. Mechanisms of sue- climate2496-0. change and extinction events in earth history. Science cession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. American Naturalist Crutchfield, J.A. 1962. Valuation of lishery resources. Land 111(4):1114-1119. Econ. 38(5): 145-154. Cuddington, J.T.. F.R. Johnson, and J.L. Knetsch, 1981. Conner, E.. and E.D. McCoy. 1979. The statistics and Valuing amenity resoUrces in the pi-esence of substitutes. biology of the species-area relationship. American Naturalist Land Economics 57:526-535. 133:791-833. Cumming, D.H.M. 1985. Environmental limits and sus- Connor, E.F., E.D. McCoy, and B.J. Cosby, 1983. Model tainable harvests. Paper presented to the Plenary Session of discrimination and expected slope values in species-area the Zimbabwe National Conservation Strategy Conference, studies. American Naturalist 122:789-96. Harare. 161 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Cummings, R., D. Brookshire, and W. Schulze. 1986. Vali- and Natural Resources Cotfien'ece. ing Environmental Goods: A State of 7he Art Assessment of *Davis, Stephen D., Stephen J.M. Droop, Patrick Greger- the Contingent Vah, ition Method. Rownian and Allenheld, eson, Louise Henson, Christine J. Leon, Jane L. Villa-Lobos, Totowa, NJ. 270 pp. Hugh Synge, and Jana Zantovska. 1986. Plants in Danger: Cummins, J.E. 1988. Extinction: The PCB threat to marine What do we K'ow? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. mammals. Ecologist 18(6): 193-195. Davis, S.H. 198P. Indigenous peoples, environmental pro Currie, D.J. and V. Paquin. 1987. Large scale biogeograph- tection, and sustainable development. IUCN Sustainable ical patterns of species richness of trees. Nature329:326-327. Development Occasional Paper 1:1-26. Dahl, A. L. 1980. Regional Ecosystems Survey of the South Day, D. 1981. The Doomsday Book of Animals. Viking Pacific Area. SPC Technical Paper 179, Noumea. 99 pp. Press, New York, N.Y. Dahlberg, K.A. 1983. Plant germplasm conservation: de Camino Velozo, Ronnie. 1987. Incentives for commun Emerging problems and issues. Mazingira 7(l): 14-25. ity involvement in conservation programmes. FAO Conser Dahlberg. K.A. 1987. Redefining development priorities: ration Guide 12:1-59. Genetic diversity and agroecodevelopment. Conservation de Groot, Rudolf. 1986. A Functional Ecosystem Eva/ua Biology 1:311-323. tion Method as a Tool in Environmental Planning and Deci Daly, H.E. 1980. Economics, Ecology and Ethics. Freeman, sion Making. Agricultural University, Wageningen, the San Francisco, CA. Netherlands. 38 pp. Daniel, J.G. and A. Kulasingam. 1974. Problems arising de Klemm, C. 1985. Preserving genetic diversity: A legal from large-scale forest clearing for agricultural use. Malai- review. Landscape Planning 12(3):221-238. sian Forester 37:152-160. Dearden, P. 1978. The ecological component in land use Drli gtiF.F.PandNDReflecicono197. Mn anNate planning: A conceptual framework. Biological Conseration the National Parks: Reflection on Policy'. The Conservation 146779 14:167-179. Foundation, Washington, D.C. 80 pp. Fondain shingtoP.. . 80rp: TDearden, P. 1981. Landscape evaluation: The case for a Darlington, P.J. 1957. Zoogeograph 'v: The Geographical multi-dimensional approach. . En vironmnental Management Distribution of Animals. J.• " Wiley and Sons, New York. 13:95-105.13lti-daEl Dasgupta, P. 1982. The Control of Resources. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Decker, D. and G. Goff. 1987. Valuing Wildlife: Economic and Social Perspectives. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. Dasmann, R.F. 1980. The relationship between protected areasand indigenous peoples. Pp. 667-671 in: J.A. McNeely DeLong, R., W.G. Gitmartin, and J.G. Simpson. 1973. and K.R. Miller (eds.), National Parks, Conservation and Premature births in California sea lions: Association with Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining high organochlorine pollutant residue levels. Science Society. IUCN/Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 181:1168-1170. D.C. Denniston, C. 1978. Small population size and genetic diver *Dasmann, R.F. 1984. Environmental Conservation (5th sity: Implications for endangered species. Pp. 281-289 in: edn.). Wiley, New York. 486 pp. S.A. Temple (ed.). Endangered Birds: Management Tech Dasmann, R.F. 1985. Achieving the sustainable use of niquesfor.reserving 77TreatenedSpecies. Madison, Univer species and ecosystems. Landscape Planning 12(3):211-220. sity of Wisconsin Press. *Dasmann, R.F., J.P. Milton, and P. Freeman. 1973. Devall, B. and G. Sessions. 1984. The development of Ecological Principles fbr Economic Decelopment. John natural resources and the integrity of nature. Environmental Wiley, London. 252 pp. Ethics 6(3):293-315. Dasmann, R.F. and D. Poore. 1979. Ecological Guidelines Devall, B. and G. Sessions. 1985. Deep Ecology: Living As for Balanced Land Use, Conservationand Development il If Nature Mattered. Peregrine Smith Books, Layton, Ut. High Mountains. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 40 pp. Di Castri, F. and M. Hadley. 1985. Enhancing the credibility Davidson, R.J. and T.J. Beechey. 1982. An agenda fo, a of ecology: C.1 research be made more comparable and natural heritage conservation strategy. Environments predictable? Geolournal 11(4):321-338. 14(1):77-84. Diamond, J.M. 1975. The island dilemma: Lessons of Davies, A.G. 1987. The Gola Forest Rrserves, Sierra Lone: modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural Wildlife Conservation and Forest Management. IUCN, reserves. Biological Conservation 7: 129-46. Gland. 126 pp. Diamond, J.M. 1984. Biological principles relevant to pro Davis, R.K. 1964. The value of big game hunting in a private tected areas design in the New Guinea region. Pp. 330-332 forest. Transactions Twenty-Ninth North American Wildlifi in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), National Parks, 162 BIBLIOGRAPHY Conservation,and Development: 7he Role ofProtected Areas Ehrlich, Paul R. 1985. Extinctions and ecL.system functions: in Sustaining Society. IUCN/Smithsonian Institution Press, Implications for humankind. Pp. 162-176 in: R.J. Hoage Washington D.C. (ed.), Animal Extinction: What Ever'one Should Know. Diamond, J.M. 1985. Introductions, extinctions, extermina- Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, USA. tions, and invasions. Pp. 65-79 in: T.J. Case and J.M. *Ehrlich, P.R. and A.H. Ehrlich. 1981. Extinction: The Diamond (eds.), Coimnunity Ecology. Harper & Row, New Causes and Consequences o1 the Disappearance 01 Species. York. Random House, New York. 305 pp. Diamond, J.M. 1987. Extant unless proven extinct? Or, ex- Ehrlich, Paul R. and H.A. Mooney. 1983. Extinction, tinct unless proven extant? Conservation Biology 1(I):72-76. substitution, and ecosystem services. BioScience Diamond. J.M. and R.M. May. 1976. Island biogeography 33(4):251-252. and the design of nature reserves. Pp. 163-186 in: R.M. May, Eisner, Thomas. In press. Chemical exploration of nature: (ed.), 77Teoretical Ecology: Principles antd Applicationa.. A proposal for action. it: Ecology, Economics, and Ethics: Oxford, Blackwell. 7he Broken Circle. Yale University Press. Dingwall, Paul (ed). 1987. Conserving the Natural Heritage Elkington, J. and T. Burke. 1987. The Green Capitalists: of the Antarctic Realm. IUCN, Gland. 222 p hndustry's Search for Environmental Excellence. Victor Gollancz, London. 258 pp. Dixon, John A., R. Carpenter, L. Fallon, P. Sherman, and S. Manopimoke. 1986. Economic Aualvsis of the En- Ellenburg, H. 1986. The effects of environmental factors and use alternatives upon the species vironmental Impacts ofDevelopment Projects. Asian Devel- of tropical rain forest. Applied Geographydiversity andand Developmentregeneration opment Bank, Manila. 100 pp. 28:19-36. Dixon, John A. and S. Wattanavitukul. 1982. A Sttari)' Elliott, H.F.L. (ed.). 1964. The Ecology of Man in the of Work on Benefit-cost Analysis of Natural Systenis and En- Tropical Enviroment. IUCN, Morges. 355 pp. viromnental Quality Apects of De velopEnent. Environment and Policy Institute, East-West Center. Honolulu. Elliott, H.F.L. 1972. Island ecosystems and with particular reference conservation to the biological significance of Dony, J.G. and 1. Denholm. 1985. Some quantitative islands in the Indian Ocean and consequential research and methods ofassessing the conservation value of ecologically conservation needs. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. hidia 14(2):578-608. similar sites. J. Applied Ecology 22(2):229-238. *Elliott H.F.L. (ed.). 1974. Second World Coference on Dorfinan, R. and Nancy S. Dorfman (eds.). 1977. Economics National Parks. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. 504 pp. of the Environnent. W.W. Norton, New York. 510 pp. Eltripgham, S.K. 1984. Wildlife Resources and Economic Drewett, J. 1988. Never mind the whale, save the insects. Development. John Wiley, New York. 325 pp. New Scientist, 17 December:32-35. Endler, J.A. 1982. Pleistocene forest refugia: Fact or fancy? Duane, W.L. 1980. On preserving nature's aesthetic Pp. 179-200 in: G. Prance (ed.), Biological Diversification features. Environmental Ethics 2(2):293-3 10. in the Tropics. Columbia University Press, New York. *Duffey, E. and A.S. Watts (eds.). 1971. The Scientific Erwin, Terry L. 1982. Tropical forests: Their richness in Management o1 Aniimal and Plant ComnunitiesforConser- Coleoptera and other arthropod species. Coleopterists vation. Blackwell Scientitic Publications, Oxford. Bulletin 36:74-75. Dunlop, Richard C. and Birendra B. Singh. 1978. A National Erwin, Terry L. 1983. Tropical forest canopies: The last Parks and Reserves Sywten for Fiji. The National Trust for biotic frontier. Bul. Entomological Soc. America Fiji, Suva. 117 pp. 29(l):14-19. Eachern, J. and E. L. Towle. 1974. Ecological Guidelines Erwin, Terry L. 1988. The tropical forest canopy: The heart for Island Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 65 pp. of biotic diversity. Pp. 123-129 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis Eagles, Paul F.J. 1984. The Planning antd Management of Washington,M. Peter (eds.), D.C. Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Environnmentally,Sensitive Areas. Longman, London and WsigoDC Nirne nar.16 Se e AFaeth, S.H. and E.F. Connor. 1979. Supersaturated and relaxed island faunas: A critique of the species-area relation- Ehrenfeld, David. 1972. Conserving Lift' on Earth. Oxford ship. J. Biogeog. 6:311-316. University Press, New York. 360 [0. FAO. 1981. Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project Ehrenfeld, David. 1988. Why put a value on bcidiversity? (GEMS): Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia, Tropical America Pp. 212-216 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), (4 Vols.) FAO/UNEP, Rome, Italy. Biodivewity. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. FAO. 1984. In Situ Conservation of Wil Plant Genetic Ehrlich, Paul R. 1982. Human carrying capacity, extinction, Resources: A Status Review and Action Plan. Forest and nature reserves. BioScience 32(5):321-326. Resources Division, FAO. Rome. 163 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL tIVt-RSITY FAO. 1985. Yearhoik ofForestProducts 1972-1983. FAO, Fishei, A.C. and J. Krutilla. 1972. Determination of optimal Rome. capacity of resource-based recreation facilities. Natural FAO/IBRD/WRI/UNDP. 1987. Tie Tropical ForestryAc- Resources J. 12(3):417-444. tion Plan. FAO, Rome. 32 pp. Fisher, A.C., J.V. Krutilla, and C.J. Cicchetti. 1972. The FAO/UNEP. 1981. Conservation of thc genetic resources economics of environmental preservation: A theoretical and of fish. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 217:1-43. empirical analysis. Am. Econ. Rev. 62:605-619. FAO/UNEP. 1982. Trofica Forest Resources. FAO,Rome. Fisher, J., N. Simon, and .1. Vincent. 1969. Widlifi in Danger. Viking Press, New York. Farnsworth, N.R. 1982. The Potential Consequences of Plant Extinctiooin the United States on the Current and Future Fitter Char. 196 Wildlcfc' olin Hond Why We Availability of Prescription Drugs. Paper presented at Sym posium on Estimating the Value of Endangered Species - Fitter, Richard and Maisie Fitter. 1987. The Road to Et Responsibilities and Role of the Scientific Community, An- tinction. IUCN, Gland. 121 pp. nual Meeting of the AAAS, Washington, D.C. Flemming, T.H., R. Breitwisch, and G.H.Whitesides. 1987. Farnsworth, N.R. 1988. Screening plants for new medicines. Patterns of tropical vertebrate frugivore diversity. Annual Pp. 83-97 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), Review of Ecology and Systematics 18:910109. BioditersitY. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. Fogden, M.P. 1972. The seasonality and population Farnsworth, N.R. and D.D. Soejarto. 1985. Potential con- dynamics of tropical forest birds in Sarawak. Ibis ;equences of plant extinction in the United States on the cur- 114:307-343. rent and future availability of prescription drugs. Economic Foose, T.J., R. Lande, N.R. Flesness, G.Rabb, and B. Read. Botany 39(2):231-240. 1986. Propagation plans. Zoobiol. 5:139-46. Farnworth, E.G., T.H. Tidrick, W.M. Smathers Jr., and Foresta, R.A. 1985. Natural regions and national parks: The C.F. Jordan. 1983. A synthesis of ecological and economic Canadian experience. Applied Geography 5(3):179-194. theory toward more capable valuation of tropical moist forests. Intenational Environmental Studies 21(t):11-28. Forester, R.R. 1973. Planning for Man and Nature in Na tional Parks: Reconciling Perpetuation and Use. IUCN, Fearnside, P.M. 1987. Deforestation and international Morges, Switzerland. 84 pp. economic development projects in Brazilian Amazonia. Con servation Biology 1(3):214-222. Forman, Richard T.T., Anne E. Galli, and Charles F. luxck. 1975. Forest size and avian diversity in New Jersey woodlots Fenner, F.J. (ed.). 1975. A National System of Ecological with some land use implication. Oecologia 26:1-8. Reserves in Australia. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 114 pp. Fosberg, F. Raymond. 1988. Artificial diversity. En vironinental Conservation 15(2):74. Field, C.R. 1979. Game ranching in Africa. Applied Ecology 4: 53-101. ' Frankel, G.H. 1974. Genetic conservation: Gur evolutionary responsibility. Genetics 78:53-65. Fillon, F.L., A. Jacquemot, and R. Reid. 1985. The Impor- Frankel, G.H. and E. Bennett (eds.). 1970. Genetic tance of Wildhifi, to Canadians. Canadian Wildlife Service, Fakl .. adE ent es) 90 eei Gttawa. 19 pp. Resources in Plants: Blackwell, Their Erploration and Conservation. Oxford, UK. 554 pp. Fisher, A.C. 198 Ia. Economic Analysis and the Ertinction of Species. Report No. ERG-WP-81-4. Energy and Re- Frankel, O.H. and J.G. Hawkes (eds.). 1974. PlantGenetic sources Group, Berkeley, CA. 19 pp. Resourcesfor Today and Tomorrow. Cambridge University Press, London, UK. Fisher, A.C. 1981b. Resources and Environnental Ec'onomnics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. *Frankel, G.M. and Michael E. Sould. 1981. Conservation 284 pp. and Evohtion. Cambridge University Press, New York. 327 284 pp.PP. Fisher, A.C and M. Hanemann. 1984. Option values and the extinc.!on of species. Working Paper No 269. Giannini Freeland, W.J. 1979. Primate social grops as biological Foundation of Agricultural Economics. Berkeley, CA. 39p. islands. Ecolog 60:719-28. Fisher, A.C. and W.M. Har:!mann. 1985. Endangered Freeman, J. 1986. The parks as genetic islands. National species: The economics of irreversible damage. Pp. 129-138 Parks 60(1):12-17. in: D.O. Hall, N. Myers and N.S. Margaris (eds.), Frost, Darrel R. (ed.). 1985. Amphibian Species of the Economics of Ecosvsten Management. W. Junk Publishers, World: A Taxonomic and Geographical Reference. Allen Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Press, Lawrence, Kansas. 732 pp. 164 BIBLIOGRAPHY Gadgil, M. and V.D. Vartak. 1976. The sacred groves of *Giles, Robert H. 1978. Wildlif' Management. W.H. western Ghats in India. Economic Botany 30(2):152-160. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. 416 pp. Game, M. 1980. Best shape for nature reserves. Nature Gillis, M. 1986. Non-wood Forest Products in hi(onesia. 287:630-2. Department of Forestry, University of North Carolina, Garcia, Jose Rafiael. 1984. Waterfalls, hydropower, and Chapel Hill, North Carolina. water for industry: Contributions lorm Canainia National Gilpin, M.E. and J.M. Diamond. 1980. Subdivision of nature Park. Pp. 588-591 in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), reserves and the maintenance of species diversity. Nature National Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role 285:567-8. oJ'ProtectedAreas in Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institu- Gilpin, M.E. and J.M. Diamond. 1981. Immigration and ex tion Press, Washington, D.C. 825 pp. tinction probabilities for individual species: Relation to in- Gardner, J.E. 1981. National parks and native peoples in cidence functions and species colonization curves. Proc. Nat. northern Canada, Alaska, and northern Australia. Fit- Acad. Sci. 78:392-396. vironmental Conservation 8(3):207-215. Ginzburg, L.R., L.B. Slobodkin, K. Hohnson, and A.G. Garratt, Keith. 1984. The relationship between adjacent lands Bind-an. 1982. QUasiextinction probabilities as a measure and piotected areas: Issues of concern for the protected area of impact on population growth. Risk Analysis 2:171-81. managzr. Pp. 65-71 in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller Glick, D. and J. Betancourt. 1983. The Rio Platano biosphere (eds.), National Parks, Conservation,and Development: The reserve: Unique resource, unique alternative. Ambio Role o'ProtectedAreas in Sustaining Societyv. Smithsonian 12(3/4): 168-73. Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Godfrey-Smith, W. 1979. The value of wilderness. En- Geertz, Clifford. 1983. Local Knowledge. Basic Books, New vironmental Ethics 1(4):309-319. York. 244 pp. Goeden, G.B. 1979. Biogeographic theory as a management Gehlback, F.R. 1975. Investigation, evaluation and prior- tool. Environ. Gonsui. 6:27-32. ity ranking of natural areas. Biological Consetvation 8:79-88. Goldsmith, F.B. 1973. The ecologist's role in the develop- Gentry, A.H. 1979. Extinction and conservation of plant J.ment Lintnean for tourism: Society53)2-87 A case study in the Caribbean. Biological species in tropical America: A phytogeographical perspec- J 5(3):265-287. tive. Pp. 110-126 in: 1. Hedberg (ed.), Systenatic Botany, Goldsmith, F.B. 1975. The evaluation of ecological resources Plant Utilization, and1 Biosphe're Conservation. Almiquist and in the countryside for conservation purposes. Biological Con- Wiksell International, Stockholm. servation 8:89-96. Gentry, A.H. 1982a. Neotropical floristic diversity: Phyto- G6mez-Pompa, A. 1988. Tropical deforestation and Maya gentry. A.o9.netopicabeotiwtic ivenrst PndSothy silviculture: geographical connections between Central and South An ecological paradox. Tulane Studies in America, Pleistocene climatic fluctuations, or an accident Zoology and Botany 26:19-37. of the Andean orogeny? Annuals ofthe Missouri Botanical G6mez-Pompa, A., C. Vasquez-Yanes, and S. Guevara. Garden 69:557-593. 1972. The tropical rain forest: A nonrenewable resource. Science 177:762-765. A.H. 1982b. Patterns of neotropical plant species Gime A. diversity.Gentry, Evol. Biol. 15: 1-84. G6mez-Pompa, A., J.S. Flores, and V. Sosa. 1987. The "Pet Kot": A man-made tropical forest of the Maya. Intercien- Gentry, A.H. 1984. An Ovi'rview ofNeoronicalPhytogeo- cia 12:10-15. graphic Patterns with an Emphasis on Amazonia. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.GodndR.18.Amjrnwpotuiyofnac Goodland, R. 1988. A major new opportunity to finance biodiversity preservation. Pp. 437-445 in: E.O. Wilson and Gentry, A. H. 1986. Endemism in tropical versus temperate Francis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversity. National Academy plant communities. Pp. 153-181 in: Michael E. Sould (ed.), Press, Washington D.C. ConservationBiology" The Science of Scarcity and Diver- Goodman, D. 1975. The theory of diversity-stabiliy rela sity. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA. tionships in ecology. Quarterly Review of Biology Gentry, A.H. and C.H. Dodson. 1987. Contribution of non- 50(2):237-265. trees to species richness of a tropical rain forest. Biotropica Goodman, D. 1987a. Consideration of stochastic 19:149-156. den,ography in the design and management of biological Gilbert, L.E. 1980. Food web organization and conserva- reserves. Natural Res. Modeling 1:205-34. tion of neotropical diversity. Pp. 11-34. in: M.E. Soul6 and Goodman, D. 1987b. How do any species persist? Lesso; s B.A. Wilcox (eds.), Conservation Biology. Sinauer for conservation biology. Conservation Biology 1():59-63. Associates, Sunderland, Mass. Goodson, J. 1988. Conservation and Management of Giles, Robert H. 1971. Wildlifi, Managenei,t Techniques (3rd Tropical Forests and Biodiversitv in Zaire. Unpublished edition). The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C. 633 pp. document, USAID, Zaire. 165 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVFRSITY Gordon, H.S. 1954. The economic theory of a common prop- Hamilton, L.S. and Jeff M. Fox. 1987. Protected area erty resource: The fisher. J.Pol. Econ. 124-142. systems and local people. Paper presented at Workshop on Goulding, M. 1980. The Fishes and the Forest. EvIorations Fields and Forests, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China. in Amazonian Natural History. University of California Hamilton. L.S., and S.C. Snedaker (eds.). 1984. Handbook Press, Berkeley. 280 pp. .for Mangrove Area Management. Honolulu, Hawaii, East- Government of India. 1983. Eliciting Public Support for West Centre. 123 pp. Wildlife Conservation. Report of Indian Board for Wildlife Hammack, J. and G.M. Brown, Jr. 1974. Waterfio'l and Task Force, Department of Environment, New Delhi. Wetlands: Toward Bioeconomic Anal'sis. Johns Hopkins Graham, N.E. and W.B. White. 1,8. The El Niflo cycle: University Press, Baltimore, MD. A natural oscillator of the Pacific Ocean-atmosphere system. Hanemann, W. Michael. 1988. Economics and the preser Science 240:1293-1302. vation of biodiversity. Pp. 193-199 in: E.O. Wilson and Grassle, J.F. 1985. Hydrothermal vent animals: Distribu- Francis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiverwity'. National Academy tion and biology. Science 229:713-717. Press, Washington, D.C. Grassle, J.F. 1989. Species C1versity in deep-sea com- Harcourt, A.H., H. Pennington, and A.W. Weber. 1986. munities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 4(1): 12-15. Public attitudes to wildlife and conservation in the Third World. Or\: 20(3): 152. Greenwood, P.H. 1974. The cichlid fishes of Lake Victoria, East Africa: The biology and evolution of a species-flock. Harmon, David. 1987. Cultural diversity, human sub Bull. British Museun (NaturalHistory) Supplement 6:1-134. sistence, and the national park ideal. Environmental Ethics Groves, R.H. and J.1. Burdon. 1986. Ecology of Biological 9(2):147-158. Invasions. Cambridge University Press, New York. 166 pp. Harrah, D.F. and B.K. Harrah. 1975. Conser'ationEcology: Grubb, P.1. 1977. The maintenance of species richness in Metuchen,Resource; forNew Conservation Jersey. 323 Education.pp. Scarecrow Press, plant communities: The importance of the legeneration niche. Biol Rev. 52:107-145. Harris, Larry D. 1984. The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory antd the Preservation of Biotie Diver Gulick, P., C. Hershey, and J. Esquinas Alcazar. 1983. sit . Universi of Chicago Preservai oof pp. GeneticResources of Cassava and Wild Relatives. Interna- sity of Chicago Press, Chicago. 211 pp. tional Board for Plant Genetic Resources 82/111, Rome. Harris, R.B., L.A. Maguire, and Mark L. Shaffer. 1987. Gupta, T.A. and A. Guleria. 1982. Non-Wood Forest Prod- servationSample sizes Biology for minimum !:72-77. viable population estimation. Con ucts from hIdia. IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi. Haffer, J. 1985. Avian zoogeography of the neotropical ecologyHarris, Stuart.of economics. 1985. TheSearch economics 16(9-12):284-290.of ecology and the lowlands. Pp. 113-146 in: P.A. Buckley, M.S. Foster, C.S. Morton, R.S. Ridgely and F.G. Buckley (eds.), Neotropical Harrison, J., K. Miller and J. McNeely. 1982. The world Ornithology. Ornithological Monographs No. 36, American coverage of protected areas: Development goals and en Ornithologists Union, Washington DC. vironmental needs. Ambio 11(95):238-245. Hahn, C. 1982. 77e Economic Rationalefor Protection attd Hart, W.J. 1966. A Systems Approach to Park Planning. Management of Natural Areas in Developing Countries. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. 118 pp. Natural Resources Defence Council, Washington, D.C. 47 Hartshorn, G.S. 1978. Tree falls and tropical forest PP. dynamics. Pp. 617-638 in: P.B. Tomilson and M.H. Zimmer Hair, Jay D. 1988. The economics of conserving wetlands: (eds.), Tropical Trees a"Living Systems, Cambridge Univer A widening circle. Paper presented at Workshop on sity Press, Cambridge. Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 February 1988, Hartwick, J.M. and N.D. Olewiler. 1986. The Economics Costa Rica. of Natural Resource Use. Harper and Row, New York. Hall, Charles A., C.J. Cleveland, and R. Kaufmann. 1986. Hatley, T. and M. Thompson. 1985. Rare animals, poor peo Energy and Resource Quality: The Ecology ofthe Economic pie, and big agencies: A perspective on biological conser Process. John Wiley, New York. 577 pp. vation and rural development in the Himalaya. Mountain *Hall, D.O., N. Myers, and N.S. Margaris (eds.). 1985. Research and Development 5(4):365-377. Economics ofEcosystem Management. W. Junk Publishers, Haulot, A. 1985. The environment and the social value of Dordrecht, The Nethei lands. tourism. International J. Environmental Studies Hamilton, A., D. Taylor and J.C. Vogel. 1986. Earlyforest 25(4):215-218. clearance and environnental degradation in south-west Hawkes, J.G. 1983. The Diversity of Crop Plants. Harvard Uganda. Nature 320:164-167. University Press, Cambridge. 184 pp. 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Classifica- Holt, W.V. and H.D.M. Moore. 1988. Semen banking: Is tion of coastal and marine environments. EnvironmentalConi- it now feasible for captive endangered species'? OryXr servation 11(3): 199-207. 22(3): 172-178. Hazlewood, Peter T. 1989. The Tropical Forestry Action Honacki, James H., K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl (cds.). Plan: Opportunities and Challenges. Paper submitted to the 1982. lamntal Species of the Worl: A T7L4onomic and 8th Meeting of the TFAP Advisers Group, 9-11 May 1989, GeograpqhicRefe rence. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas. 694 Paris. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. pp. Hazlewood, Peter T. In Press. Cutting our L)sse.: Polio' Hoose, P.M. 1981. Building an Ark: Tools for the Preser- Reform to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources. World Re- vation of Natural Diversit* Through Land Protection. Island sources Institute, Washington, DC. Press, Covelo, CA. 212 pp. Heaney, L.R. 1986. Biogeography of mammals in Southeast Hough, J.L. 1984. An approach to an integrated land use Asia: Estimates of rates of colonization, extinction and system on Michiru Mountain, Malav i. Parks 9(3/4):1-3. speciation. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 28:127-165. Hough, Walter. 1926. Fire as an Agent in Human Culture. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 139, Government Printing Hedberg, I. (el.). 1978. Sy'stematic Botany P/ait Utiliza- Office, Was'-ington D.C. 270 pp. tion, and Biosphere Conservation.Slmqvist and Wiksel! In ternational. Stockholm. Houseal, Brian, C. MacFarland, G. Archibold, and A. Chiari. 1985. Indigenous cultures and protected areas in Cen- Helliwell, D.R. 1969. Valuation of wildlife resources. tral America. CulturalSurvival QuarterlY March: 10-19. Regional Studies 3:41-47. Houston, D. 1971. Ecosystems of national parks. Science Helliwell, D.R. 1973. Priorities and values in nature con- Hoso,8 .1. servation. J. Environmental Management 1(1 ):85-127. Helliwell, D.R. 1975. Disctint rates and environmental con- Hoyt, Erich. 1988. Conservingthe Wild Relatives of Crops. servation. Environme,al Conservation 2(2): 199-201. IBPGR, IUCN, WWF, Rome. 45 pp. Helliwell, D.R. 1976. The extent and location of nature con- Hubbell, S.P. 1979. Tree dispersion, abundance, and diver servation areas. EnvironmentalConservation 3(4):255-258. sity in a tropical dry forest. Science 203:1299-1309. Helliwell, D.R. 1982. Assessment of conservation values of Hubbell, S.P. and R.B. Foster. 1983. Diversity of canopy large and small organisms. J.EnvironmentalManagement trees in a neotropical forest and implications for conserva 15(2):273-277. tion. in: S.L. Sutton, T.C. Whitinore and A.C. Chadwick (eds.), Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management, Heywood, Vernon. 1989. Conservation biology of threatened Blackwell, Oxford. species, manuscript. Hubbell, S.P. and R.B. Foster. Higgs, A.J. 1981. Island biogeography theory and nature 1986. Commonness and rar- He dign.981. Isladbiogeog raphy they a4 nity in a neotropical forest: Implications for tropical reserve design. J. Biogeog. 8(2): 117-124. servation. Pp. 205-231 in: M.E. Sould(ed.), Conservationtree con Higgs, A.J. and M.B. Usher. 1980. Should nature reserves Biology: 7he Science of c,.,rcity and Diversity. Sinauer be large or small? Nature. 285:568-9. Associates, Sunderland, i\issachusetts. 584 pp Hill, M. 1983. Kakadu National Park and the aboriginals: Hueting, R. 1985. Results of an economic scenario that gives Partners in protection. Ambio 12(3/4):158-67. top priority to saving the environment instead of encourag- Hodgson, G. and J.A. Dixon. 1988. Logging versus fisheries ing production growth. Environmentalist 5(4):253-262. and tourism in Palawan: An environmental and economic Hufschmidt, Maynard M. et al. 1983. Environment, Natural analysis. East-West EnvironmentandPolicy Institute Oc,'a- Sywtemis, andDevelopment: An Economic Valuation Guide. sional Paper 7:1-95. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 338 pp. Holdgate, M.W. 1982. The environmental information needs Hufschmidt, Maynard M. and Ruangdej Srivardharta. 1986. of the decision-maker. Nature and Resources 18(l):5-10. The Nam Pong water resources rroject in Thailand. Pp. Holdgate, Martin W. 1989. The implications of climatic 141-162 in: John A. Dixon and M. Hufischmidt (eds.), change and rising sea level. In: W. Verwey, Proceedings Economic Valuaion Techniques for the Environment - A of the InternationalCongress on Nature Management anld case Stud' WKorkbook. Johns Hopkins University Press, Sustainable Development. International Organizing Services, Baltimore, MD. Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Humphreys, W.F. and D.J. Kitchener. 1982. The effect of Holling, C.S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecologicai habitat utilization on species-area curves: Implications for systems. Annual Review of Ecologyamid Systematics 4: 1-23. optimal reserve area. J.Biogeog. 9(5):391-396. 167 CONSERVING THE WOR!. YS BIOLOGICAL I)IVFRSITY Huntley, B.J. 1978. Ecosystem conservation in southern IUCN/Unesco. 1987. Directory of Biosphere Reserves. Africa. Biogeography and Ecology of Southern Africa. Unesco, Paris. 41:1333-1384. IUCN/UNEP. 1986a. Review ofthe Protected Areas System Huston, M. 1979. A general hypothesis of species diversity, in Oceania. IUCN, Gland. Switzerland. 239 pp. American Naturalist. I13:81-10 1. IUCN/UNEP. 1986h. Review of the Protected Areas System Hutto, R.L, S. Reel and P.B. Landres. 1987. A critical in the(, Af'otropicalRealn. IUCN, Gland Switzerland. 259 evaluation of the species approach to biological conserva tion. Endangered Species Update 4(12):1-4. Isakov, Y.A. and V.V. Krinitsky. 1986. The system of pro- intIUCN/UNEP. the Indo-Mala\'an 1986c. Realm. Review IUCN, ofthe Gland,Protected Switzerland. Areas SYsten 284 tected natural areas in the U.S.S.R. and prospects for its development. Soviet Geogaphy 27(2): 102-I 14. PP. Island Resources Foundation. 1981. Economic Imnpact IUCN/UNEP. 1988. Coral Reef"v ol the World. Volume I: Analysisfor the Virgin Islands National Park. U.S. Dept. Atlantic and Eastern Pacit'c (373 pp), Volume 2: Indian of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, D.C. Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf (389 pp); Volume 3: Central and IUCN. 1979. The Biosphere Reserve and1( its Relationship to Cambridge,Western Pacific U.K./UNEP, (329 pp). Nairobi.IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and 26 pp. other Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. *IUCN. 1980. Wor-ld('op ieri'ation Stratile.Livim Resoulr-e IUCN/WWF Plants Conservation Progirmme. 1988. Ceti tres of Plant Divertity: A Guide and Strategy for their Con- ConservationJr Sustainable Development. IUCN-UNEP- WWF, Gland. 44WWF, pp. land.44 ~servation. IUCN, Gland. 40 pp. IUCN. 1985. 1985 United Nations List of National Parks Izac, A.-M.N. 1986. Resources policies, property rights and and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 174 pp. conflicts of interest. Australian J. Agricultural Economics 30(1):23-27. IUCN. 1986. Director*v of Wetlands ofInttrnationalhnpor tance. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Jacobs, P. and D. Munro (eds.). 1987. Conservation With IUCN. 1987a. IU('N Directors' oj Afrotropical Protected Equity: Strategies for Sustainable Development. IUCN, Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 1034 pp. Gland, Switzerland. 466 pp. IUCN. 1987b. Captive Breeding: IUCN PolicY Statement. Jain, S.K. and K.L. Mehra (eds.). 1983. Conservation of IUCN, Gland. 3 pp. Tropical Plant Resources. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. India. IUCN. 1987c. The IUCN Position Statement on Transloca tion of Living Organisms. IUCN, Gland. 20 pp. Jain, S.K. and A.R.K. Sastry. 1982. Threatened plants and IUCN. 1987d. C'entres of Plant Diversity: A Guide antd Biltihabitats: 2-9A review of work in India. Plants Conservation Bulletin 2: 1-9. Strategy for their Conservation. IUCN Threatened Plants Unit, Kew, Richmond, U.K. Janzen, D.H. 1983. No park is an island: Increase in in IUCN. 1987e. Population and Sustainable Development: terferen :e from outside as park size increases. Oikos Task Force Report. IUCN, Gland. 63 pp. 41:402-41C. IUCN. 1988a. 1988 IUCN Red List of ThreatenedAnimals. Janzen, Dan. 1988. The use of economic incentives in Costa IUCN, Gland. 154 pp. Rica's Guanacaste National Park. Paper presented at IUCN. 1988b. Significant Trade in Willife: A Review of Workshop on Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 Selected Species in CITES Appendix II, Volume 1: Mae- February 1988, Costa Rica. mals (183 pp); Volume 2: Reptiles and Invertebrates (306 Jarvinen, 0. 1982. Conservation of endangered plant popula pp), Volume 3: Birds (351 pp). IUCN, Gland, and CITES, tions: Single large or several small reserves'? Oikos Lausanne. 38(3):301-307. IUCN. 1989a. Conservation et Utilization Rationelle des Jenkins, R.E., Jr. 1977. Classification and inventory for the Ecosystemes Forestiers en Afrique Centrale.Report to EEC. perpetuation of ecological diversity. Pp. 41-52 in: A. 240 pp. Marmelstein (ed.). Classification, hIventory,, and Analysis IUCN. 1989b. The impact of climatic change and sea level of Fish and Wildlife Habitat. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv rise on ecosystems. Paper submitted to Commonwealth ice, Washington, D.C. Secretariat. Jenkins, Robert E., Jr. 1985. The identification, acquisition, IUCN/ELC. 1984. Species Mentioned in Legislation. IUCN, and preservation of land as a species conservation strategy. Bonn, FRG. 20 pp. Pp. 13 1-140 in: R.J. Hoage (ed.), Animal Extinctions: What 168 BIP'n.IOGRAPHY Everyone Should Know. Smithsonian Institution Pres.,, Kassam, A.H. and G.M. Higgins. 1980. Land Resourcesfor Washington D.C. Populations of the Future. FAO/UNFA, Rome 369 pp. Jenkins. R.E., Jr. and W.B. Bedford. 1973. The use of Keitcer, R.B. 1985. On protecting the national parks from natural areas to establish environmental baselines. Biological the external threat dilemma. Land and Water Law Review Conservation 5(3): 168-174. 20(2):355-420. Johannes, R.E. 1978. Traditional marine conservation Kellert, S.R. 1984. Assessing wildlife and environmental methods in Oceania and their demise. Annual Review of values in cost-benefit analysis. J.Environmental Manage- Ecology and .Svstematics 9:49-64. mnent 18(4):355-363. Johannes, R.E. 1982. Traditional conservation methods and Kelman, Steven. 1981. What Price Incentives: Economics protected marine areas in Oceania. Ambio 11(3):258-261. and the Environment. Auburn House, Boston, MA. Johansson, P-O. 1987. 77te Economic "heorv and Measure- Kempton, R.A. 1979. The structure of species abundance nent ofEnvironnientalBenefits. Cambridge University Press, and measurement of diversity. Biometrics 35(2):307-321. London. 238 pp. *Kenchington, R.A. and B.E.T. Hudson (eds.). 1984. Cor- Johns, A.D. 1985. Selective logging and wildlife conserva- al ReefManagement Handbook. Unesco Regional Office for tion in tropical rainforest: Problems and recommendations. Science and Technology in South-East Asia. Jakarta, Biological Conservation. 31:355-75. Indonesia. Johnson, M.P., L.G. Mason, and P.H. Raven. 1968. Kennedy, Duncan. 1980. Cost-benefit analysis of entitlement Ecological parameters and plant species diversity. American problems: A critique. Standard Law Review 33(2):419-431. Naturalist. 102:297-306. Jones, D.M. 1982. Conservation in relation to animal disease Kennedy, J.L. 1985. Conceiving forest management as pro in Africa and Asia. Pp. 271-285 ini: M.A. Edwards and U. amidviding Management for current 13(1/2):121-132.and future social value. Forest Ecology McDonnell (eds.), Aninal Disease in Relation to Animal Conservation. Symposia of the Zoological Society of Kepler, C.B. and J.M. Scott. 1985. Conservation of island London. ecosystems. Pp. 255-271 in: P.O. Moors (ed.), Conserva- Jones, J. Greg, W.G. Beardsley, D.W. Countryman, and tion of Island Birds. International Council of Bird Preserva- Dennis L. Schweitzer. 1978. Estimating economic costs of tion, Cambridge, UK. allocating land to wilderness. Forest Sci. 24(3):410-422. Ketchum, B.H. (ed.). 1972. The Water's Edge: Critical Jones-Lee, M. W. 1976. The Value of Life: An Economnic Problems of the Coastal Zone. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Analysis. University of Chicago Pres.:, Chicago. 303 pp. Jordan, C.F. 1985. Nutrient Cycling in Tropical Forest King, A.W. and S.W. Pimm. 1983. Complexity, diversity Ecos)ystems. WilIcy, Chichester. 190 pp. and stability: A reconciliation of theoretical and empirical results. American Naturalist. 122:229-239. Jordan, W.R. and M.E. Gilpin (eds.). 1987. Restoration Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Kirkpatrick, J.B. 1983. An iterative method for establishing priorities for the selection of nature reserves: An example Juday, G.P. 1983. The problem of large mammals in natural from Tasmania. Biological Conservation. 25:127-34. areas selection: Examples from the Alaska ecological reserves system. Natural Areas Journal 3(3):24-30. Klee, G.A. (ed.). 1980. World Systemns of Trcditional Resource Management. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Juvik, J.O. and S.P. Juvik. 1984. Mauna Kea and the myth 290 pp. of multiple use: Endangered species and mountain manage ment in Hawaii. Mountain Research and Development Kleiman, Devra G. 1989. Reintroduction of captive mam 4(3): 191-202. mals for conservation. BioScience 39(3): 152-161. Kangas, P. 1987. The use of species-area curves to predict Klopfer, P.H. 1959. Environmental determinants of faunal extinctions. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America diversity. American Naturalist 93:337-342. 68:158-162. Kloppenburg, J., Jr. and D.L. Kleinman. 1987. The plant Karr, J.R. 1976. Within- and between-habitat avian diver- germplasm contro-versy: Analyzing the distribution of the sity in Africa and neotropical lowlands habitats. Ecological world's plant genetic resources. BioScience 37(3): 190-198. Monographs 46:457-481. Konstant, W.R. and R.A. Mittermeier. 1982. Introduction, Kasran, Baharuddin. 1988. Effect of logging on sediment reintroduction and translocation of Neotropical primates: Past yield in a hill dipterocarp forest in peninsular Malaysia. J. experiences and future possibilities. International Zoo Year- Tropical Forest Science 1(I):56-66. book 22:69-77. 169 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL t)I\ ERSITY Krebs, C.J. 1984. Ecology: 7he ErperimcntalAnalsis of Ledec, G. and R. Goodland. 1986. Epilogue. in: D.A. Distribution and Abundance. 3rd Ed. Harper & Row, New Schumann and W. L. Partridge (eds.), The Human Ecology York. of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America. Westview Kristensen, R.M. 1983. Loricifera, a new phylum with Press. Boulder, CO. Aschelmninthes characters from the meiobenthos. Z. Zool. Ledec. G. and R. Goodland. 1988. Wildlands: Their Pro Syst. 21(3):163-180. tection and Managenent in Economic Developnent. The Krutilla, J.V. and A.C. Fisher. 1975. The Economics of World Bank, Washington, D.C. 278 pp. Natural Environments: Studies in the Valuation of Comnniodity Ledig, F.T. 1986. Conservation strategies for forest gene and Amenities Resources. Resources for the Future/Johns resources. Forest Ecology and Managenent 14(2):77-90. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 292 pp. jcdig, F.T. 1988. The conservation of diversity in forest Kux, Molly. 1986. Land use options to conserve living trees. BioScience 38(7):471-479. resources and biological diversity in developing countries. Lehnann, S. 1981. Do wildernesses have rights? En (MS), University of Florida. virontental Ethics 3(l): 129-146. Kwapena, N. 1984. Wildlife management by the people. Pp. Lehmkuhl, J.F. 1984. Determining size and dispersion of 315-321 in. J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), National minimum viable populations for land management planning Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role of Pro- and species conservation. Environmental Management tected Areas in Sustaining Society. Smithsonian lnstitut'n 8(2):167-176. Press, Washington, D.C. Leigh, E.G. 1981. The average lifetime of a population in Lacy, R.C. 1987. Loss of genetic diversity from managed Leig e.r1981. h aver liof a0oplaio9 i populations: Interacting effects of drift, mutation, immigra- a varying environment. I. Theor. Biol. 90:213-39. tion, selection, and population subdivision. Conservation Leigh, E.G., Jr., A.S. Rand. and D.M. Windsor (eds.). Biology 1:143-159. 1982. 7he Ecology of a Tropical Forest: Seasonal Rhythms and Long-Termn Changes. Smithsonian Institution Press, Lamprey, H. 1974. The distribution of protected areas in anton. C relation to the needs of biotic community conservation in Washington. D.C. eastern Africa. Proceedings of a Regional Meeting on the Leigh, J.H., J.D. Briggs, and W. Hartley. 1982. The con Creation of a Coordinated System of National Parks and servation status of Australian plants. Pp. 13-25 in: R.H. Reserves in Eastern Africa. Supplementary Paper No 45. Groves and W.D.L. Ride (eds.), Species at Risk: Research IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. in Australia. Springer-Verlag, New York. Lande, R. 1988. Genetics and demography in biological con- Lemons, J. 1986. Research in the National Parks. En servation. Science 241:1455-1460. vironmnental Professional 8(2): 127-137. Landres, P.B., J. Verner, and J.W. Thomas. 1988. Lesley, J.T. 1978. Genetics of Livestock Improvement. Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: A critique. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Conservation Biology 2:316-328. Lesslie, R.G., B.G. Mackey, and K.M. Preece. 1988. A Langford, William A., and Donald J. Cocheba. 1978. The computer-based method of wilderness evaluation. En wildlife valuation problem: A critical review of economic vironmental Conservation 15(3):225-232. approaches. Can:. WildI. Set,. Occ. Paper 37:1-35. Lewin, R. 1984. Parks: How big is big enough? Science Lanly, J.P. 1982. Tropical Forest 1esources. Food and 225:611-612. Agriculture Organization, Rome. 106 pp. Lewin, R. 1986. In ecology, change brings stability. Science Lausche, B.J. 1980. Guidelines for protected area legisla- 234:1071-1073. tion. IUCN Environnental Polic vandLaw Paper 16:1-108. Lewin, R. 1986. Damage to tropical fores's, or why were Laut, P. and T.A. Paine. 1982. A step towards an objective there so many kind of atnimals? Science 234:149-150. procedure for land classification and mapping. Applied Lewis, Dale M., G.B. Kaweche, and Ackim Mwenya. 1987. Geography 2(2): 109-126. Wildlife conservation outside protected areas: L'ssonsfront Leader-Williams, N. and S.D. Albon. 1988. Allocation of an experiment in Zambia. Lupande Research Project Publica resources for conservation. Nature 336:533-535. tion 4:1-14. Lecomber, J.R.C. 1979. The Economics of Natural Re- Lewis, Harrison F. 1951. Wildlife in today's economy: sources. Macmillan, London. Aesthetic and recreational values of wildlife. Trans. N. An. Ledec, G. 1987. Effects of Kenya's Bura irrigation settle- Wildl. Conf 16:13-16. ment project on biological diversity and other conservation Lewontin, R.C. 1974. The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary concerns. Conservation Biology 1:247-259. Change. Columbia University Press, New York. 170 BIBLIOGRAPHY Lisboa, P.L.B., U.N. Maciel, and G.T. Prance. 1987. Some IslandBiogeography. Princeton University Press. Princeton, effects of colonization on the tropical flora of Amazonia: A NJ. 203 pp. case study from Rondonia. Cencia Hoje 6:48-56. Machlis, Gary E. and David L. Tichnell. 1985. 7e State Livingston, Jan. 1986. The common property problem and of thel World s Parks: An International Assessment of Re pastoralist economic behavior. J. Development Studies source Management, Polio\v and Research. Westview, 23:5-19. Boulder, Colorado. Loomis, J.B. 1986. Assessing wildlife and environmental Machlis, Gary E. and David L. Tichnell. 1987. Economic values in cost-benefit analysis: State of the art. J. En- development and threats to national parks: A preliminary vironnental Management 22:125-131. analysis Environmental Conservation 14(2): 154. Lothian, Andrew. 1985. A cost-benefit study of national MacKinnon, J.R. 1983. Irrigation and watershed protection parks on Kangaroo Island, South Australia. In: Proceedings in Indonesia. Report t(. the World Bank. of the Conference on Conservation and the Econontiy 1984. *MacKinnon, J.R., K. MacKinnon, G. Child, and J. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Thorsell. 1986. Managing ProtectedAreas in the Tropics. Lovejoy, T.E. 1976. Wo must decide which species will go IUCN, Gland. 295 pp. forever. Smithsonian 7(4):52-59. MacKinnon, J.R. and S. Stuart. 1989. The Kouprey: An Ac- Lovejoy, T.E. 1980. Discontinuous wilderness: Minimum tion Planfor its Conservation. IUCN, Gland. 19 pp. areas for conservation. Parks 5(2) 13-15. Maguire, L.A. 1986. Using decision analysis to manage en- Lovejoy, T. E. 1984. Application of ecological theory to con- dangered species. J. Environmental Management servation planning. Pp. 402-413 in: F. di Castri, F.W.G. 22(4):345-360. Baker and M. Hadley (eds.), Ecology in Practice:Part I Mahar, Dennis J. 1988. Government PoliciesandDeforesta- Ecosystem Management. Tvc,. ly, Dublin. tion in Brazil s"Amazon Region. World Bank, Washington Lovejoy, T.E. 1985. Strateg .,for preserving species in the D.C. 56 pp. wild. Pp. 97-113 in: R.J. floage (ed.), Aninal Ertinctions: Maheshwari, J.K. 1980. Plant resources of the Himalaya and What Everyone Should Know. Smithsoi .i Institution Press, their conservation. J. Himalayan Studies and Regional Washington, D.C. Development 4:3-9. Lovejoy, T.E. 1986. Species leave the .:.,. one by one. Pp. Malingreau, J.-P. and C.J. Tucker. 1988. Large-scale 16-17 in: Bryan G. Norton (ed.), The Preservation of deforestation in the southern Amazon Basin of Brazil. Ambio Species: 7he Value ofBiologicalDiversity. Princeton Univer- 17:49-55. shy Press, Princeton, NJ. Malla, K.B. 1986. Report on Land Use Changes with Em- Lovejoy, T.E., J.M. Rankin, R.O. Bierregaard, K.S. Brown, phasis on Forest Coverin Nepal. National Remote Sensing L.H. Emmons, and M.E. Van der Voort. 1984. Ecosystem Center, Kathmandu, Nepal. decay in Amazon forest fragments. Pp. 295-325 in: M.H. Malone, S., R.A. Mittermeier, K. Mohadin, M. Werkhoven, Nitecki (ed.), Etinctiots. University of Chicago Press, M.J. Plotkin, J. MacKnight, and T.B. Werner. 1990. A Chicago. Preliminary Action Plan Jbr Conservation in Suriname, Lugo, Ariel. 1988. Diversity of tropical species: Questions WWF, Washington, D.C. that elude answers. Biology Inernational 19:1-37. Maltby, Edward. 1986. Waterlogged Wealth. Earthscan, Lusigi, Walter J. 1978. PlanningHtnan Activities on Pro- London. 200 pp. tected NaturalEcosystemts. - ;sertationes Botanicae 48. J. Margules, C., A.J. Higgs and R.W. Rafe. 1982. Modern Cramer, Vaduz, Germany. 233 pp. biogeographic theory: Are there any lessons for nature Lusigi, Walter. 1984. Mt. Kulal biosphere reserve: Recon- reserve design? Biological Conservation. 24:115-128. ciling conservation with local human population needs. Pp. 459-469 in: J.A. McNeely and D. Navid (eds.), Conserva- Margules, C., A.O. Nicholls and R.L. Pressey. 1988. Se lion, Science, and Society. Unesco-UNEP, Paris. ty.lecting Biological networks Cotnseri'atiotn. of reserves to 43:63-76. maximize biologiconl diversi *Lyster, S. 1985. International Wildlife Law. IUCN En- Margules, C. and M.B. Usher. 1981. Criteria used in assess vironinental Policy, antd Litt Paper22: 1-470.MaglC.ad .BUse.18.rirauednass ing wildlife conservation potential: A review. Biological MacArthur, R.H. 1972. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in Conservation. 21:79 i09. the Distribution of Species. Harper and Row, lie.,, York. Margulis, L. and . V. Snwartz. 1982. Five Kigdoms: 269 pp. An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla o1 Life On Earth. W.H. MacArthur, R.H. and E.O. Wilson. 1967. The Theory of Freeman and Co., New York. 376 pp. 171 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Marks, Stuart A. 1984. 1Tie Inperial Lion: Human Dimen- tinuous variation in mass and background extinction of sions of Wildlift, Management in CentralAfrica. Westview marine taxa. Nature 325:143-145. Press, Boulder, CO. 210 pp. McLellan, C.H.. A.P. Dobson, D.S. Wilcove, and J.M. Marietta, D.E., Jr. 1979. The interrelationship of ecological Lynch. 1986. Effects of forest fragmentation of New and science and environmental ethics. Environmental Ethics Old World bird communities: Empirical observations and 1(2):195-207. theoretical implications. In: J.Verner, M. Morrison, and Martens, J. 1982. Forests and their destruction in the C.J. Ralph (eds.), Modeling Habitat Relationships ol Ter Himalayas of' Nepal. Plant Research and Development restrial Vertebrates. University of Wisconsin Press, 15:66-96. Madison. Martin, P.S. 1984. Prehistoric overkill: The global model. McMahan, L. 1980. Legal protection for rare plants. Amer Pp. 354-403 in: P.S. Martin and R.G Klein (eds.), Quater- ican University Litt Review 29(3):515-569. nary Etinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. University of McMichael, D.F. (cd.). 1971. Societ's Demnand frw Open Arizona Press. 892 pp. Air Recreation, Wilderness, and Scientific Reference Areas. *Martin, P.S. and R.G Klein (eds.). 1984. Quaternary*Ev- Institute of Australian Foresters. Canberra. tinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. University of Arizona McNaughtun, S.J. 1977. Diversity and stability of ecological Press. 892 pp. communities. American Naturalist I11(3):515-525. Martin, R.B. 1986. Communal Areas Management Pro- McNeely, J.A. (ed.). 1981a. Cons'rvingAfrica "Natural gramnmneforIndigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE). Branch of Heritage. IUCN, Gland. 271 pp. Terrestrial Ecology, Working Document No. 1/86, Depart- McNeely, J.A. (ed.). 1981b. Conserving the Natural ment of National Parks and Wildlife Management. 110 pp. Heritage ofLatin America and the Caribbean. IUCN. Gland, Martin, R.B. and V. Clarke. 1988. Predicted Returns for Switzerland. 329 pp. Wildlij Management in thc Oma'vComunnalLind. Annex McNeely, J.A. 1982. 7he World' Greatest Natural Areas. to the Land Use Study in Omay Communal Land, Zimbabwe, IUCN, Gland. 49 pp. Agricultural and Rural Development Authority, Harare. McNeely, J.A. 1987. How dams and wildlife can co-exist: Mascarenhas, A. 1983. Ngorongoro: A challenge to con- natural habitats, agriculture, and major water resource servation and development. Ambio 12(3/4): 146-152. development projects in tropical Asia. ConservationBiology May, R.M. 1974. Stability and Complexity in Model Eco- 1: 228-238. systems. 2nd ed. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. *McNeely, J. A. 1988. Economics and Biological Diversi May, R.M. 1975. Island biogeography and the design of ty: Developing and Using Economic Incentives to Conserve wildlife preserves. Nature 254:177-178. Biological Diversity. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 200 pp. May, R.M. 1988. How many species are there on earth'? McNeely, J. A. 1989a. Agriculture and biological diversi Science 241:1441-1449. ty: International policy issues. Paper resulting from workshop Mayr, E. and R.J. O'Hara. 1986. The biogeographic on Agriculture and Conservation Biology, Asilomar, CA. evidence supporting the Pleistocene forest refuge hypothesis. 20-23 Nov. 1988. Evolttion 40(l):55-66. McNeely, J.A. 1989b. Minimum quality criteria for McConnell, K.E. and J.G. Sutinen. 1979. Bioeconomic ecologically sensitive areas. Report prepared for the Asian models of marine recreational fishing. J. Env. Econ. and Development Bank. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 43 pp. Mgt. 6:127-139. McNeely, J.A. and J.Harrison. in prep. Protected areas and climate change: Assessing the adaptability of the existing McCoy, E.D. 1983. The application of island-biogeographic network. theory to patches of habitat: How much land is enough? Biological Conservation. 25(1):53-61. *McNeely, 1. A. and K.R. Miller (eds.). 1984. National Parks, Conservation, and Developmnent: The Role of Pro McEachern, and E. L. Towle. 1974. Ecological Guielincs tected Areas in Sustaining Socie'ty. Smithsonian Institution fo~r Island Development. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.PrsWhitoDC83p. Press, Washini.ton, D.C. 838 pp. McElroy, M.B. and R.J. Salawitch. 1989. Changing comn- McNeely, J.A., K. R. Miller, and James W. Thorsell. 1987. position of the global stratosphere. Science 243:763-770. Objectives, selection, and management of protected areas in McGonigle, R.M. 1981. The economizing of ecology: Why tropical forest habitats. Pp. 181-204 in: C. Marsh and R.A. big, rare whales still die. Ecology Latw Quarterly Mitternieier (eds.), Primate Conservation in the Tropical 9(1):119-237. Rain Forest. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York. McKinney, M. L. 1987. Taxonomic selectivity and con- McNeely, J.A. and D. Navid (eds.). 1984. Conservation, 172 IiilBI.I()( RAPtIY Science and Society: The Proceedings of the First Interna- Tile foundation of national park programs in the future. Pp. tional Congresson Biosphere Reserves. Minsk, Byelorussia, 326-347 in: H. Elliott (ed.), Second Worl Conh'renc'e on U.S.S.R. 600 pp. National Parks. IUCN Gland. Switzerland. McNeely, J.A. and David Pit (eds.). 1984. Clturleand Con- Miller, K.R. 1975. Guidelines for the manageclnt and servatin: The Huinan Dimension in Environmental Phaui- development ol'national parks and reserves in the American ning. Crooin Helm, London. 308 pp. Huniid Tropics. Pp. 94-105 in: Proceedings IUCN Meeting on the Use o ''cological GuidelinesJlOr Develonnent in the McNeely. J.A., F. Suiardla. and D. Rabor (eds.). 1978. Anerican Hunid Tropic. , IUCN, Norges. Bogor. In Willif' Management in South'east Asia. Biotrop. donesia. 236 pp. *Miller, K. R. 1980. Planning National Parks/lorEcoevel opinent. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. McNeely, J.A. and J.W. Thorsell (eds.). 1985. Peole and Protecte'd ArealS in the Hindukush-Hinalhva. ICI MO)D. Miller. R. I. 1979. Conse.ving the genetic integrity of faiunal Kathnhdu. 250 pp. populations and communities. Environmientcil Conservation 6:297-304. McNeely. J.A. and J.W. Thorsell. 1987. Guidelines for Miller, R.I. and L.D. Harris. 1977. Isolation and extirpa Develolment of'Terrestrial and Marine National Parks,fifr tions in wildlife reserves. Biological Conservation Tourisnl and Travel. World Tourism Organization, Madrid. 12(:11-315. 29 pp. Miller, R.S. and D.R. Botkin. 1974. Endangered species: Menges, E.S. 1986. Predicting the future of rare plant Models and predictions. Amnerican Scientist 62(l):172-181. populations: I)emographic niciiitoring and modeling. Natural Areas Journal 6(3):13-25. Mishra, FIR. 1984. A delicate balance: tigers, rhinoceros, tourists and park management vs. the needs of the local peo Mercer, D.E. and L.S. Hamilton. 1984. Mangrove ceo- pie in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Pp. 197-205 in: systems: some economic and natural benefits. Nature anld J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), National Parks, Con Resources 20(2):14-19. servationand Developmnent: The Role of Protected Areas in Merriam. Larry C. 1964. The Bob Marshall wilderness areas Sustaining Society. Smithsonian Institution Press, of Montana: Some sociveconoinic considerations. J. Eorestrtv Washington, D.C. 62(11):789-795. Miltermcier, R.A. 1986. Ani Action Plan Jbr Conservation of Biological Diversity in Madagascar. World Wildlife Fund- D.C.v Messerschmidt, Don. 1985. People's participation in park US, Wasiiton J.A. resource planning and management. Pp. 133-140 in: McNeely and J.W. Thorsell (eds.), People anid Protected Mittermeier, R.A. 1988. Primate diversity and the tropical Areas in the Hindukush-Hinhalava. ICIMN/OD, Kathmandu. forest: Case studies from Brazil and Madagascar and the in 250 pp. portancc of' the megadiversity countries. Pp. 145-154 in: Middleton, J. and G. Merriam. 1985. The rationale for con- tionalE.O. WilsonAcademy and Press,Francis Washington, M. Peter (eds.), D.C. Biodiversity. 521 pp. Na Biological Con servation: Problems from a virgin forest. servation 33(2): 133-145. Mittermeier, R.A. and T.B. Werner. 1990. Wealth of Plants and Animals Unites "Megadiversity" countries. Tropicus: Miller, Daniel J. 1989. Introductions and extinction of fish 4(1): 1,4-5. in the African great lakes. Trenads in Ecology and Evolution Moen, A.N. 1973. Wilel' Eclogy A A ll 4(2):56-59. ihiJe coogy: An tica Ap proach. W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. 458 pp. Miller, David L. 1986. Technology, territoriality and Mooney, H. (ed.) 1985. Ecological Consequences 01 ecology: The evolution of Mexico's Caribbean spiny lobster Biological ivsions. Springer Verlag, New York. fishery. Paper presented at Workshop on Ecological Manage ment of Common Property Resources, IV International Con- Mooney, H. 1988. Lessons from Mediterranean-climate gress of Ecology, Syracuse. New York. regions. Pp. 157-165 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversitv. National Academy Press, Washington, Miller, J.R. 1981. Irreversible land use and the preserva- D.C. tion of endangered species. J. En)vironmental lEcononmics (11td Manageent 8: 19-26. Mooney, H. and J.A. )rake. 1987. The ecology invasions. ol'biological F-nvironmentalist 19(5):10-37. Miller, J.R. and F.C. Menz. 1979. Some economic con- Morauta. L.. J. Pernetta. and W. Heaney (eds.). 1982. Tradi siderations for wildlife preservation. Southern Economic J. tional Conservation inPua New Guinea hplications for 45(3I:718-729. Totav. Institute of Applicd Social and Economic Research, Miller, K.R. 1973. Development and training ofpersonnel: Boroko, Papua New Guinea. 173 CONSERVING TH. WORI)'S BIOLOGICAL III-VERSITY Morony, J.L., W. Bock, and J. Farrand. 1975. Riferenue NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 1972. Genetic List of Birds of the World. American Museum of Natural Vulneralilitly of Major Crop.v. National Academy Press. History, New York. Washington. D.C. 307 pp. Movcan, J. 1982. Development and economics in Plitvice NAS. 1980. Research Pioritic.s in "'opical Biologv. Corn National Park. Amhio 11(3):282-285. mittee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology. National Myers, N. 1972. National parks in savannah Africa. Science Academy of Sciences. Washington. I).C. 116 pp. 178:1255-1263. NAS. 1986. Ecological K'nle'eanl Lnvironmental Prob Myers, N. 1976. An expanded approach to the problem of lem-Solving. National Academy Press, Washington. D.C. disappearing species. Science 193:198-202. 388 pp. Myers, N. 1979. 7he Sinking Ark: A New Lo'ok at the Prob- Nature Conservancy Council. 1979. Nature Conservation in lem of'DisalqpearingSlecies. Pergamon Press. Oxlord, UK. the Maline Elnvironment. Report of the NCC/NERC Joint Myers, N. 1980. Conversion of TropicalMoist Forests. Na- working Party on marine wildlife conservation. Natural Con tional Research Council, Washington D.C. servancy Council, London. 64 pp. Myers, N. 1982. Forest refuges and conservation in Africa Navid, D. 1984. International cooperation for wetland con with some appraisal of survival prospects for tropical moist servation: The Ramsar Convention. Transactions North forests throughout the bionie. Pp. 658-672 iln: G.T. Prance. American Wiillifi' and Natoal Resources Cmfirenc e (ed.), Biological Diversifiction in the )'opfics. Columbia 49:33-41. University Press, New York. Newman, James R.and R. Kent Schereiber. 1984. Animls Myers, N. 1983a. A IVealth of Wild S)ecies. Westview Press, as indicators of ecosystem responses to air emissions. En Boulder, CO. 272 pp. virounental Managmennt 8(4):309-324. Myers, N. 1983b. Tropical moist lorests: Over-exloited and Nichol. J.E. 1982. Parameters for conservation evaluation. under-utilized? Forest Ecology and Management 6(1 ):59-79. J. Environmental Management 14:181-194 Myers, N. 1983c. A priority-ranking strai"y for threatened Nicholls. Yvonne 1.(ed.). 1973. Source book: Emergence species? Environmentalist 3(1):97-120. of proposals for recompensing developing countries for main Myers, N. 1984. The Primary' Source: Tropical For'ests and taining environmental quality. IUCN Environmental Policy Outr Ftuture. W.W. Norton & Co., New York. 399 pp. and l m, Paper5. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. *Myers, N. (ed.). 1985. The Gaia Attlas )f'PlanetManage- Nicoll, M.E. and 0. Langrand. 1989. Madagascar: Revue ment. Pan Books, London. 272 pp. de la conservation et des aires piotgjes.WWF, 1989. 374 Myers, N. 1987a. Tackling mass extinction of species: a PP. great creative challenge. The Horace M. Albright Lecture Niklas, K.J., B.H. Tiffney, and A.H. Knoll. 1985. Patterns in Conservation. University of California, Berkeley, in vascular land plant diversification: An analysis at the California. species level. i: J.W. Valentine (ed.), Phanerozoic Diver Myers, N. 1987b. The extinction spasm impending: sit*Patterns: Profiles in Macroevolution. Prin,:tlon Univer Synergisms at work. Conservation Biology 1:(1)14. sity Press, Princeton, N.J. Myers, N. 1988a. Tropical delorcstation and climatic Nilson, G. 1983. The Endangered Species Handbook. change. Paper for Conference on Climate and the Geo Animal Welfare Institute. Washington, D.C. 245 pp. Sciences, May 22-27. Louvain University Belgium. Nitecki, M.H. 1984. Ertinctions. University of Chicago Myers, N. 1988b. Tropical forests: much more than stocks Press, Chicago. of wood. J. TrDo-ical Ecology 4:209-221. Norgaard, R.B. 1984. Environmental economics: an cvolu Myers, N. 1988c. Threatened biotas: "Hotspots" in tropical tionary critique and a plea for pluralism. Division of forests. Environmentalist 8(3): 1-20. Agricultural Sciences. University of California, Berkeley, Myers, N. 1988d. Natural resource systems and human ex- CA. Working Paper 299:1-24. ploitation systems: Physiobiotic and ecological linkages. Norgaard, R.B. 1987. The economics of biological diversi World Bank Environment Department Working Paper ty: Apologetics or theory? In: D.D. Southgate and J.F. Dis 12:1-61. inger (eds.), 1987. Sustainable Resource Developmnent in the Namkoong, G. 1982. The management of genetic resources: Tlhird World. Westview Press. Bouldc'-. CO. A neglected problem in environmental ethics. EL'vinonten- Norgaard, R.B. 1988. The rise of the global exchange tal Ethics 4:377-378. economy and the loss ol biological diversity. Pp. 206-211 Namkoong, G. 1986. Genetics and the forest of the future. in: E.O. Wilson and Frimcis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversity. Unasy'va 38(152):2-18. National Academy Press, Washington. D.C. 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY Norton, Bryan. 1983. On the inherent danger of andervalu- Conservation, and Development: 7he Rol' o/ProlectedAreas ing species. Manuscript, Center for Philosophy and Public in Sustaining' Society. Simithsonian Institution Press, Policy, College Park, MD. Washington, D.C. 8251 pp. Norton, Bryan. 1986. 7he Preservationo/Species: The Vah Olson, S.L. and H.F. James. 1982. Fossil birds from the of Bio/ogical Diversitv. Princeton University Press, Hawaiian islands: Evidence for wholesale extinction by man Princeton. Ni. before western contact. Science 217:633-635. Norton, Bryan. 1987. Biodiversity and the public lands: The Olwig, K.F. and K. Olwig. 1979. Underdevelopment and spiral of life and how it all works, with examples. JVi/derness the development of "natural" park ideology. Antipode 50(176): 17-38. 11(2):16-25. Norton. Bryan. 1988. Commodity, amenity, and morality: Opdam, P., G. Rijsdijk, and F. Hustings. 1985. Corn- The limits of quantification in valuing biodiversity. Pp. munities in small woods in an agricultural landscape: Effects 200-205 in.: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), ofarea and isolation. Biological Conservation 34(4):333-352. Biodiversitv. National Academy Press, W-ashington. D.C. Oren, D.C. 1987. Grande Carajfis, international financing Noss, R.F. 1983. A regional landscape approaci, to main- agencies. and biological diversity in Southeastern Brazilian tain diversity. BioScience 33:700-706. Amazonia. Conservation Biology 1:222-228. Noss, R. and L. Harris. 1986. Nodes, networks, and Organization of American States. 1978. FinalReporton Con- MUM's: Preserving diversity at all scales. Etvironmental servation of Ma/or Terrestrial Ecosystems of the Western Management. 10:299-309. Hemisphere. San Jose, Costa Rica. NRC (National Research Council). 1975. Underexploited Organization o!f American States. 1987. Minitnin Conflict: 7ropicalPlants with Promising Economic Value. Board on Guidelinesfor Planingthe Use f Ainerican Humid Tropic Science and Technology for International Development Environments. OAS, Washington, D.C. i98 pp. Report 16. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, O'Riordan, T. 1981. Problems encountered when linking en- D.C. 187 pp. vironental management to development aid. Entvironmnen- NRC (National Research Council). 1982. Ecological Aspects tlist 1(): 15-24. of Development in the Humid Tropics. National Academy *OTA (U.S. Congress, Oflice of Technology Assessment). Press, Washington. D.C. 297 pp. 1987. Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity. U.S. Oates, J.F. 1985. Action Plan fir African Prinate Conser- Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 334 pp. vation: 1986-1990. IUCN, Gland. 41 pp. Oxley, D.J., M.B. Fenton, and G.R. Carmody. 1974. The O'Brien. Stephen J. and J.F. Evermann. 1988. Interactive effects of roads on populations of small mammals. J. Ap influence of infectious disease and genetic diversity in natural plied Ecology II (I ):51-59. populations. Trends in Ecology and Ehvo/tion 3(l0):254-259. Padua, M.T.J. and A.T.B. Quintfo. 1982. Parks and Odum, W.E. 1976. Ecological Guidelines for Tropical biological reserves in the Brazilian Amazon. Ambio CoastalDevelopment. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 61 pp. I1(5):309-314. OECD (Organization lor Economic Cooperation and Devel- Padua, M.T.J. and A.T.B. Quintfo. 1984. A system of na ope (Organizationfori. En-coomic ooperonand eve tional parks and biological reserves in the Brazilian Amazon. OECD, Paris. Pp. 565-571 in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), Na tional Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role af Oka, H.1. and W.T. Chang. 1961. Hybrid swarms between Protected Areas in ,) staining Society. Smithsonian Institu wild and cultivatcd rice species Orvza perennis and O. sativa. tion Press, Washington, D.C. 825 pp. Ei'/uio Evolution 15:418-430. PresW4hig8nD4.305PP Palmberg, Christel and J.T. Esquinas-Alcazar. 1988. The *Oldfield, Margery. 1984. The Va/ac ofconieviitg Genetic role of international organizations in the conservation of plant Resources. U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Serv- genetic resources. Paper presented to Symposium on the ice. Washington, D.C. 360 pp. Conservation of Genetic Diversity Davis, CA, 25 July. Oldfield, M.L. and J.B. Alcorn. 1987. Conservation oltradi- Park, C.C. f981. Man, river systems, and environmental tional agroccosystems: Can age-old farming practices effec- impacts. Progress in Phvsical Geographv 5(l):1-31. tively conserve crop genetic resources? BioScience Parker, H.D. 1988. The unique qualities of a geographic in 37(3):199-208. formation system: A commentary. Photogramntatic Oldficld, Sara. 1988. Buffer zone management in tropical Engineering and Remote Sensing 54( I): 1547-1549. moist forests. IUCN Tropica/ Forest Papcr 5:1-49. Partridge, E. (cd.). 1981. Responsibilities to Future Genera- Olembo, R. 1984. UNEP and protected areas. Pp. 861-684 lions: Environmental Ethics. Prometheus Books, Buffalo, in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), National Parks, NY. 319 pp. 175 CONSERVING THt- WORLD'S BIOLOGICAl. I)IVERSITY Pearce, D.W. 1975. The Economics of Natural Resource Pigran, J.J. 1980. Environmental implications of tourism Depletion. Macmillan, London. development. Annals ol Touri.sin Research 7(4):554-583. Pearce, D.W. 1976. Enironnental Economies. Longnans. Pimental, D. 1987. Technology and natural resources. Pp. London. 679-695 in: D.J. McLaren and B.J. Skinner (eds.). Resources Pearce, D.W. 1987a. The sustainable use of natural resources and World Develomnent. John Wiley. London. in developing countries. hi: R.K. Turner (ed), Suistafinable Pimlott, Douglas H. 1969. The value of diversity. Traims. En1vironmental Managelc'nt: Principles and Practice. N. Am. lVilll. anid Neit. Res. Con.f. 34:265-273. Frances Pinter. London. Pinm, S.L. 1984. The complexity and stability of eco Pearce. D.W. 19 7b. Economic values and the natural en- systems. Nature 307(5949):3-1-326. vironment. University College Lonmon Discussion Papers in Piniil. S.L. 1987. Determining the effects of introduced Economics 87(8): 1-20. species. Trends in E,cology and Evolution 2(4):106-108. Peet, R.K. 1974. The measurement of species diversity. An- Pimni, S.L., H. Lee Jones, and J.Diamond. 1988. On the nil Review of Ecology and Svstenttics 5:285-307. risk of extinction. American Naturtalist. 132:757-785. Peeters, J.P. and J.T. Williams. 1984. Towards better use Pister, E.P. 1979. Endangered species: Costs and benefits. of gene-banks with special reference to information. Phnt Environmental Ethics. 1:341-352. Genetic Resource News (FA0) 60:22-32. Plotkin, Mark J.1988. The outlook for new agricultural and Perrings, C.A. 1987. Economy anid nvironment: A industrial products from the tropics. Pp. 106-116 in E.O. 7heoretical Essay on the hIterdepeenceofEconomic im Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), 1988. Biodivemsityv. Na EnvironmentalSystems. Cambridge University Press, New tional Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 521 pp. York. 192 pp. Plourde, C. 1975. Conservation of extinguishable species. Perrings. C.A. 1988. An optinial path to extinction? Pover- Natural Resources J. 15:791-798. ty and resource degradation inthe open agrarian economy. *Plucknett. D.L.., N.J.H. Smith. J.T. Williams, and N. M. J. Developmnent Economics. Anishetty. 1987. Gene Banks and the World's Food. Perrings, Charles. H. Opschoor, J.Artzon, A. Gilbert, and Princeton University Press, Princeton. N.J. D. Pearce. 1988. Economics anld tit Envirmymt'mlt: A Con- Polunin, N.V.C. 1983. Marine "genetic resources" and the tributionto the Nationtal Conservamtion St-teyfi" Botswnmia. potential role of' protected areas in conserving them. En IUCN, Gland. 171pp. virotimnenital Conservation 10(1):31-41. Peskin, H.M. 1981. National income accounts and the en- Polunin, N. and H.K. Eidsvik. 1979. Ecological principles vironment. Natural Resources J.21:511-537. for the establishment and management of national parks and reserves. Environmental Conservation 6(1):21-26. Peterkin. G.F. 1968. International selection of areas for preserves. Biological Conservation 1(1I):55-61 . Pontificiae Acadeniiae Scientiarvm. 1988. Study week on a modern approach to the protection of the environment. Pon Peters, Charles M.. A.H. Gentry, anJ R. Mendelsohn. 1989. tificiae ilcademniae Scientiarvm Docvmenta 23:1-24. Valuation of a tropical forest in Peruvian Amazonia. Nature Poore, Duncan, and . Sayer. 1987. The Management of 339:655-656. TropicalMoist Forest Lmands: EcologicalGuidelines. IUCN, Peters, R.L. and J.D.S. Darling. 1985. The greenhouse ef- Gland. 63 pp. 'eet and nature reserves. iBioScience 35:707-7 17. Poore, M.E.D. 1984. Planning reserves in densely-populated Peterson. D. 1976. Survey of livestock and wildlife: Seasonal areas: Examples from Europe and from the Mediterranean distribution in areas of masailand adjacent to Tarangire Park. region. Pp. 511-524 in: F. Di Castri, F.W.G. Baker, and Final report to the regional livestock development depart- M. Hadley (eds.), Ecology in Praclic, (Part 1), Tycooly In ment and the Masai range development project. Mimeo. ternational, Dublin. 524 pp. Peterson, George L. and Alan Randall. 1984. Valuation of Population Reference Bureau (PRB). 1Q89. World Popula Wihllifi' Resource Benefits. Westview Press, Boulder, CO. tion Data Sheet. [Computer diskette]. Population Reference 258 pp. Bureau, Washington. D.C. Pickett, S.T.A. and J.N. Thompson. 1978. Patch dynanics Porter, R.C. 1982. The new approach to wilderness preser and the design of nature reserves. Biologicail Conseriftion vation through benefit-cost analysis. J. Environmental 13:27-37. Lconolnics tuid Managemment 9(1 ):59-80. Picton, H.D. 1979. The application of insular biogeographic Prance, G. 1982a. Biological Diversijication in the Tropics. theory to the conservation of large mammals in the northern Columbia University Press, New York. 714 pp. Rocky Mountains. Biological Conservation 15(1):73-79. Prance. G. 1982b. Forest refuges: Evidence from woody .76 BIBIIOGRAI'llY angiosperms. Pp. 137-15"! in: G Praace (ed.), Biological Rambo, A.T. 1979. Primitive man's impact on genetic Diversification in the Tro)ics. Cdiumbia University Press, resources of the Malaysian tropical rain forest. Malaysiant New York. AMi. Biol. 8:59-65. Prance, G.T. and T.S. Elias. 1977. Evtinction is Forever. Ramsay, W. 1976. Priorities in species preservation. En- New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. 437 pp. viromnental A'/ffirs 4:595-616. Pran .:,G.T., W. Bale, B.M. Boom, and R.L. Carneiro. Randall. Alan. 1979. Resource Economics. An Economic Ap 1987. Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conserva- proach to Natural Resource and Environntental Policy. Grid tion in Amazonia. Conseration Biol :;,,1(4):296-310. Publishing. Columbus. Ohio. 321 pp. *Prescott-Allen, C. and R. Prescott-Allen. 1986. The First Randall, A. 1986. Human preferences, economics, and the Resource: Wihl Species in the North American Economny. preservation of species. Pp. 79-109 in: B.G. Norton (ed.), Yale University Press. New Haven, CT. 529 pp. 7he Preservation of SpI'cies. Princeton University Press, Prescott-Allen, R. 1986. National Conservation Straiegies Princeton, N.J. and Biological Diversity. Report to IUCN, Gland, Randall, Alan. 1988. What mainstream economists have to Switzerland. 67 pp. say about the value of biodiversity. Pp. 217-223 in: E.O. Prescott-Allen, R. and C. Prescott-Allen. 1982a. What s Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversity. National Wildlifi Worth ? Ec'ononicContributionsof Wild Plantsand Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Animals to Developing,Countries. International Institute for Randall. Alan and Holn R. Stoll. 1983. Existence value in Environment and Development (Earthscan), London. 92 pp. a total valuation framework. hi. Robert D. Row and L.G. Prcscott-Allcn, R. and C. Prescott-Allen. 1982b. The case Chestnut (eds), Managing Air Quality antd Scenic Resources for in-situ conservation of crop genetic resources. Ntture cit National Parks and Wilderness ,Ireas. Westview Press, and Resources I ,(I ): 15-20. Boulder, CO.314 pp. Proscott-Allen. X. and C. Prescott-Allen, 1983. Genes from Rapoport, E.H., G. Borioli, J.A. Monjeau, J.E. Puntieri, the Vild. Earthscan. London. 101 pp. and R.D. Oviedo. 1986. The design of nature reserves: A Preston. F.W. 1960. Time and space and the variation of simulation trial for assessing specific conservation value. species. Ecology 41(2):611-627. Biological Conservation 37(3):269-290. Principe, Peter P. 1988a. Valuing diversity of medicinal Ratcliffe, D.A. 19- I. Criteria for the selectio of nature plants. Paper presented at IUCN/WHO/WWF International reserves. Advancement o1 Science 27(2):294-296. Consultation on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Ratcliffe, D.A. 1977. A Nature Con eri'ationReview. Can- Chiangmai, Thailand. bridge University Press, Cambridge. Principe, Peter P. 1988b. The Economic Value 0JBiological Raup, D.M. 1981. Extinction: Bad genes or bad luck'? Acta Diversity Among Mecicinal Plants. OECD, Paris. Geologica Hispanica 16(1-2):25-33. Quisumbing. E. 1967. Philippine species of plants facing ex- Raup, D.M. 1986. Biological extinction in earth history. tinction. Araneta Journal ofAgriculture 14:135-162. Science 231:1528-1533. Rabe, F.W. 1984. Selection of high mountain lakes as natural Raup, D.M. 1987. Diversity crises in the geologic past. in: areas. Natural Areas Journal 4(1):24-29. E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversity. Na- Rabinowitz, D., S. Cairncs, and T. Dillon. 1986. Seven tional Academy, Washington, D.C. forms of rarity and their frequency in the flora of the British Raup, D.M. and ii. Sepkoski, Jr. 1982. Mass extinction Wsles. Pp. 182-204 in: M.E. Sou.16 (ed.), Co nsertio n in the marine fossil record. Science 215:1501-1503. Biology: "lTitScience (Scarcit * and Diver'sitv. Si nauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. 584 pp. Raven, P.H. 1981. Research in botanical gardens. Bot. Ragozin, D.L. and G.Brown, Jr. 1985. Harvest policies and Jarb. Syst. 102:53-72. nonniarkct valuation in a prcdator-prey system. J. En- Raven, P.H. 1987. 1 he scope of the plant conservatm prob vironmnental Economics and Management, 12:155-168. lern world-wide. Pp. 19-29 in: D. Bramwell, 0. Hamann, Rails, K. amnd J.Ballou. 1983. Extinction: Lessons from zoos. V. Heywood. and H. Synge (eds.), Botanic Gardens and the Pp. 164-84 in. C.M. Schonewald-Cox, S.M. Chambers, B. World Conservation Strategy. Academic Press. London. MacBryde and L. Thomas (cds.), Genetics cuttIl Coiseric- Raven, P.H. 1988. Biological resources and global stabil tion: A Refirence for Managing Wild Animal and Plant ity. Pp. 3-27 in: S. K:'wano, J.H. Connell, and T. Hidaka Populations. Benjamin-Cumming,., Menlo Park, CA. (eds.), Evohutiot and CoadtaptalioninBioic Commnunities. Rails, K., K. BrUgger, and J. Ballou. 1979. Inbreeding and University of lTokyo Press. Tokyo. juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, and S.E. Ei,...iorn. 1986. Biology 206:1101-1103. of Phtis. Worth Publishers, New York, USA. 775 pp. 177 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Raven, P.H. and G.B. Johnson. 1989. Biology. Times Mir- Roberts, J.O.M. and B.D.G. Johnson. 1985. "Adventure" ror/Mosby College Publishing, Boston. 1229 pp. tourism and sustainable development: Experience of the Tiger Ray, G.C. 1988. Ecological diversity in coastal zones and Mountain group's operations in Nepal. Pp. 81-84 in: 1.A. oceans. Pp. 36-50 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter McNeely and J.W. Thorsell (eds.), 1985. People and Pro (eds.), Biodiversitv. National Academy Press, Washington, tected Areas in the flindukush-Hiinjtya. ICIMOD, D.C. 521 pp. Kathmandu. 250 pp. Ray, G.C., J.A. Dobbin, and R.V. Salm. 197'. Strategies Rcarts, T.H. and L.J. O'Neil. 1985. Species selection for for protecting marine mammal habitats. Oceanus habitat assessments. Transaction of the North American 21(3):55-67. Willife And Natural iResources Conjrence 50:352-362. Regier, H.A. and E.B. Crowell. 1972. Application of Rogers, D.L. and S.E. Randolph. 1988. Tsetse flies in ecosystem theory, succession, diversity, stability, and stress Africa, bane or hoon? Conservation Biology 2:57-66. to conservation. Biological Conservation 4(2):83-88. Rolston, H. III. 1985a. Duties to endangered species. Bio- Reid, Walter V., J.N. Barnes, and B. Blackwelder. 1988. Science 35(0:718-726. Bankrolling Successes: A Portfolio of Sustainable Develop- Rolston, H., III. 1985b. Valuing wildlands. Environmental ment Projects. Environmental Policy Institute and National Ethics 7:23-48. Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C. 48 pp. Ronsivalli, L.J. 1978. Sharks and their utilization. Marine *Reid, Walter V. and Kenton R. Miller. 1989. Keeping Op- Fisheries Review 40(2):1-13. tions Alive: 77he Scientific Basis for ConservingBiodiversity. Roome, N.J. 1984. Evaluation in nature conservation deci World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. sion making. Environmenial Conservation 11(3):247-252. Rendel, J. 1975. The utilization and conservation of the Pith, R.R. 1976. Spatial heterogeneity and bird species world's animal genetic resources. Agriculture an,; Environ- diversity. Ecology 57(3):773-782. mnent 2(2): 101-119. Roughgarden, J. 1979. Theory of Population Genetics and Rennie, J.K. and C. Convis. 1989. Natural Resources hi- Evohtionar , Ecology: An hitroduction. Macmillan, New formation in Southern Africa. Report to IUCN. York. Repetto, Robert. 1987. Economic incentives for sustainable Rowe, J.S. and J.W. Sheard. 1981. Ecological land production. Annals of Regional Science 21 (3):44-59. classification: A survey approach. Environmental Manage Repetto, Robert. 1988. The Forest for the Trees? Govern- ment 5(5):451-464. ment Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources. World Rowell, G. 1989. Annapurna, Sanctuary for the Himoalaya. Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. 105 pp. National Geographic. 176(3):390-405. Repetto, Robert and Malcolm Gillis (eds.). 1988. Public Ruddle, K. 1986. No common property problem: village Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources. Cambridge fisheries in Japanese coastal waters. Paper presented at University Press, Cambridge. 432 pp. Workshop on Ecological Management of Common Proper Repetto, Robert, William Magrath, Michael Wells, Christine ty Resources, IV international Congress of Ecology, Beer, and Fabrizio Rossini. 1989. Wasting Assets: Natural Syracuse, New York. Resources in th, National hIcome Accounts. World Ruggieri, C.D. 1976. Drugs from the sea. Science Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. 194:491-497. Ribbink, A.J., B.A. Marsh, A.C. Marsh, A.C. Ribbink, and Saenger, P., E.J. Hegerl, and J.D.S. Davie (eds.). 1983. B.J. Sharp. 1983. A preliminary survey of the cichlid fishes Global Status of Mangrove Ecos).;tems. IUCN, Gland, of rocky habitats in Lake Malawi. South African J. Zoology Switzerland. 18(3): 149-310. Sagoff, M. 1974. On preserving the natural environment. Richter-Dyn, N. and N.S. Goel. 1972. On the extinction of Yale Law Journal 84(2):205-267. a colonizing species. Theor. Pop. Biol. 3:406-33. Sahni, K.C. 1979. Endemic, relict, primitive and spectacular Ricklefs, R.E. 1987. Community diversity: Relative roles taxa in Eastern Himalayan flora. hIdianJourn.i ofForestry of local and regional pre,'esses. Science 235(4785):167-171. 2:181-190. Ricklefs, R.E., Z. Naveh, and R.E. Turner. 1984. Conser- Sale, J.B. 1981. 7he Importance and Values of Wild Plants vation of Ecological Processes. IUCN, Gland, Swit7'.-land. and Animals in Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 44 pp. 34 pp. Salm, K.V. 1984. Ecological boundaries for coral-reef Riney, T. 1982. 7he Study and Management ofLarge Main- reserves: Principles and guidelines. Environmental Conser mals. J. Wiley and Sons, New York. vation 11(30:199-207. 178 BIBLIOGRAPHY *Salm, R. and J. Clark. 1984. Marine and CoastalProtected Scott, J.M., B. Csuti, J.D. Jacobi and J.E. Estes. 1987. Areas: A Guide for Planners and Managers. IUCN, Gland. Species richness: a geographic approach to protecting future 302 pp. biological diversity. BioScience 37:782-788. Samples, Karl, John Dixon, and Marcia Gowen. 1986. In- Scott, J.M., C.B. Kepler, P. Stine, H. Little, and K. Taketa. formation disclosure and endangered species evaluation. 1987. Protecting endangered forest birds in Hawaii: the Land Economics 62(2):306-312. development of a conservation strategy. Pp. 683-696 in: R.D. Samson, F.B. 1983. Minimum viable populations: A review. McCabe, (ed.), Transactions of'the 52nd North American Natural Areas Journal. 3(3):15-23. Wildlife and Natural R"sources Conference, Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. Sargent, F.O. 1969. A resource economist views a natural Scott, M.E. 1988. The impact of infection area.ttand JournaCosrfto 24(l):8-1 1. 1988.i impact and diseaseieae on area. Journal of Soil antd Water Conservation 24(I ):8-11. animal populations: Implications for conservation biology. Sattaur, Omar. 1987. 'Iees for the people. New Scientist Conservation Biology 2(t):40-57. 10 September. Scott, Margaret. 1988. Loggers and locals fight for the heart Savidge, J.A. 1987. Extinction of an island forest avifauna of Borneo. Far Eastern Economic Review 28 April:44-48. by an introduced snake. Ecology 68(3):660-668. Seal, U.S. 1988. Intensive technology in the care of ex situ Sax, J.L. 1980. Mountains Without Handrails: Reflection on populations of vanishing species. Pp. 289-295 in: Wilson, the National Parks. University of Michigan Press, Ann E.O. ait P ancis M. Peter (eds.), Biodiversitv. National Arbor. 152 pp. Acacemy Pres:;, Washington, D.C. 521 pp. Schall, J.J. and E.R. Pianka. 1978. Geographical trends in Seidensticker, J. 1984. Managing Elephant Depredation in numbers of species. Science 201:679-686. Agriculture and Forestry Development Projects. World Bank Scheuer, P.J. 1973. Industrv of Marine Natural Products. Technical Paper, Washington, D.C. 33 pp. Academic Press, New York. Sevilla, Roque Larrea. 1988. Debt swap for conservation: the Ecuadorean case. Paper presented at Workshop on Schneider, S.N. 1989. The greenhouse effect: science and Economics, IUCN General Assembly, 4-5 February 1988, policy. Science 243:771-781. Cosia Rica. Schoener, Amy. 1974. Experimental zoogeography: Colon- Shaffer, M.L. 1981. Minimum population sizes for species ization of marine mini-islands. American Naturalist conservation. BioScience 31:131-134. 108:715-38. Shaffer, M.L. 1983. Determining minimum viable popula- Schoener, T.W. 1983. Rate of species turnover decreases tion sizes for the grizzly bear. hIt. Cong. Bear Res. Manage. from lower to higher organisms: A review of the data. Cikos 5:133-9. 41!(3):372-377. Shaffer, M.L. and F.B. Samson, 1985. Population size and *Schonewald-Cox, Christine, S.M. Chambers, B. Mac- extinction: a note on determining critical population sizes. Bryde, and L. Thomas. 1983. Genetics and Conservation: American Naturalist. 125: 144-52. A Reference for Managing Wild Aninal and Plant Popula- tions. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing, Menlo Park, CA. ShnDR196HofrtsoteFrs:CateacigShane, D.R. 1986. Hoofprints on the Forest: Cattle Ranching 722 pp. and the Destruction of Latin America s Tropical Forests. Philadelphia Institute or the Study of Human Issues, Schonewald-Cox, C.M. and J.W. Bayless. 1986. The boun- Philadelphia, PA. 159 pp. dary model: A geographical analysis of design and conser- Shaw, W.W. and E.H. Zube (eds.). 1980. Rildlife Values. vation of nature reserves. Biological Conservation S t, of an a School of Renewble Natra 34(4):305-322. Universit,, of Arizona, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Tucson, AZ. Schreiber, R. 1977. Landscape planning and protection of Shcail, J. 1984. Wildlife conservation: an historical perspec the environment: The contribution of landscape ecology. Ap- tive. Geography 69(2): 119-127. plied Sciences and Development 9:128-139. Schulze, W., R. D'Arge, and D. Brookshire. 1981. Valu- ofseisdvrtyJ.BoogShmida, A. and M.V. Wilson. 1985. 2ll20Biological determinants ing environmental commodities: Some recent experiments. Land Econ. 151-171. Siegfried, W.R. and B.R. Davies. 1982. Conservation of Schwartzman, S.1987. Extractive production in the Amazon ecosystems: Theory and practice. SANSP 61:1-97. rubber tappers' movement. Paper presented to "Forests, Simberloff, D.S. 1982. Big advantages of small refuges. Habitats, and Resources: A Conference in World En- Natural History 91(4):6-14. vironmental History," 30 April, Duke University, Durham, Simberloff, D.S. 1983. Island biogeography theory and the NC. citing of wildlife refuges. Sol'. J.Ecol. 13:215-25. 179 CONSERVING THE WORLD'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Siniberloff, D.S. 1984. Mass extinction and the destruction Sould, M.E. 1987. Viable Populations fr Conservation. of moist tropical forests. J. General Biol. (Moscow) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. MA. 45 :767-778. Soul6, M.E. and K.A. Kohm (eds ). 1989. Research Simberloff, D.S. 1986. Are we on the verge of a mass ex- Priorities fir Conservation Biology. Is u,',I Press, Covelo, tinction in tropical rain forests? Pp. 165-180 in: David K. CA. Elliott (ed.), Dynamics oJ Evi'nction. John Wiley, New York. Soulk, M.E. and D. Simberloff. 1986. What do genetics and Simberloff, D.S. and L.G. Abele. 1982. Refuge design and ecology tell us about the design of nature reserves? Biolog;ical island biogeographic theory: efflects of fragmentation. Conservation. 35:19-40. American Naturalist. 120:41-50. Soul6, M.E., B.A. Wilcox, and C. Holtby. 1979. Benign Simberloff D.S. and James Cox. 1987. Consequences and nele m e l of fulco a ps in te game r ere o costs of conservation corridors. Conservation Biology neglect: A model oflfaunal colapse in the game reserves of l(1):63-71. East Africa. Biological Conservation 15:259-272. Simberlofff, D.S. and E.O. Wilson. 1969. Experimental *Soul6, M.E. and B.A. Wilcox. 1980. ConservationBiology: zoogeography of islands: the colonization of empty islands. An Evolutionary-Ecolo ical Approach. Sinauer Associates, Ecology 50:278-96. Sunderland, Massachusetts. 395 pp. Simpson, G.G. 1964. Species diversity of North American Sousa, W.P. 1984. The role of disturbance in natural com recent mammals. Svstematic Zoology 13(1):57-73. munities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systenatics Sinden, J. 1981. Estimating the value of wildlife for preser- 15:353-392. vation: A comparison of approaches. J. Environmental SPC/IUCN. 1985. Action Strategy fr Protected Areas in Management 12:11-125. the South Pacific Region. SPC, Noumea. 21 pp. Sinden, J. and A. Worrell. 1979. Unpriced Values: Deci- Spence, A.M. 1984. Blue whales and applied control theory. 'dons Without Market Prices. J. Wiley, New York. Pp. 43-71 in: Y. Ahmad, P. Dasgupta and K-G Maler (eds.), Sinden, .I.A. and G.K. Windsor. 1981. Estimating the value Environmental Decision Making. Hodder and Stoughton, of wildlife for preservation: A comparison of approaches. London. J. Environmental Management 12(1): 111-125. Spencer, J.E. 1966. Shifting Cultivation in Southeast Asia. Slatkin, M. 1987. Gene flow and the geographical structure University of' California Press, Berkeley, CA. 247 pp. of~natural populations. Science 236:787-792. Stamps, J.A., M. Buechner, and V.V. Krishnan. 1987. The Slatyer, R.O. 1975. Ecological reserves: size, structure, and effects of edge permeability and habitat geometry on emigra management. Pp. 22-38 in: F. Fenner (ed.), A National tion from patches of habitat. American Naturalist S.ystem of Ecological Reserves in Australia. Australian 129(4):533-552. Academy of Sciences, Canberra. Smith, N.J.H. 1987. Genebanks: a global payoff*. Profs- Stanley, Steven M. 1985. Extinction as part of the natural sional Geogr97her 39(1):1-12. evolutionary process: a paleobiological perspective. Pp. 31-46 in: R.J. Hoage (ed.), Animal Extinction: What Evet Smith, P.G.R. and J.B. Theberge. 1986. A review of criteria one Should Know. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washing for evaluating natural areas. En vironmental Managenent ton, D.C. 10(6):715-734. Smith,71573.aaStanley, S.M. 1987. Periodic mass extinctio. )fthe Earth's Smith, V.K. and J.V. Krutilla. 1979. Endangered species, species. Bull. Anericamn Academy of Arts and Sciences irreversibilities and uncertainty: A comment. American J. 60:29-48. AgriculturalFconomics 61: 371-375. Stanton, Nancy L. and J.D. Lattin. 1989. In defense of Sokolov, V. 1985. The ;ystcm of biosphere reserves in the Species. B nce 3 . USSR. Parks 10(3):6-8. species. Biocence 39(2):67. Sondaar, P.Y. 1977. Insularity and its effect on mammal Stenseth, N.C. 1979. Where have all the species gone? On evolution. Pp. 671-707 in: M.K. Hecht, R.C. Goody, and the nature of extinction and the red queen hypothesis. Oikos B.M. Hecht (eds.), Major Patterns in Vertebrate Evohtion. 33(1): 196-227. Plenum, New York. Stevens, Joe B. 1969. Measurement of economic values in Soul6, M.E. 1985. What is conservation biology? BioScience sport fishing: An economist's views on validity, usefulness, 35(1 I):727-734. and propriety. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 98(2):352-357. *Sould, M.E (ed.). 1986. Cmiservation Biology: lhe Science Stocking, M. and N. Abel. 1981. Ecological and en of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, vironmental indicaors for the rapid appraisal of natural Massachusetts. 584 pp. resources. Agricultural Administration 8(6):473-484. 180 BIBLIOGRAPI Y Stoll, J.R. and L.A. Johnson. 1984. Concepts of value, non- Terborgh, J. and B. Winter. 1983. A method for citing parks market values, and the case of the Whooping Crane. Trans. and reserves with special reference to Colonbia and Ecuador. North Am. Wi/l/l. Nat. Resour. Conj: 49:382-393. Biological Conservation 27:45-58. Stone, C. 1972. Should trees have standing? Towards legal T:1ibodcau1. F.R. 1983. Endangered species: Deciding which rights 1br natural objects. Southern California!Law Review species to save. En vironmental Managetneni 7(2):101-107. 45:450-501. Thomas. W. L. (Cd.). 1956. Man sRole in Changingtie'Face Stott, P. 1981. Historical Plant Geograpihy: An introdhction, of'the Earth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Allen and Unwin, London. Thorpe, H. 1978. T[he man-land relationship through time. Strain, Boyd R. 1987. Direct effects of increasing at- hi: J.G. Hawkes (ed.), Agriculture and Conservation. mospheric carbon dioxide on plants and ecosystems. Trends Duckworth. London. in Ecology and Evoltion 2(1): 18-21. Thorsell, J.W. 1984. Manaaging Protected Areas in EF'isternc Stuart, Simon. 1987. Why we need action plans. Species Africa: A Training Manual. College of African Wildlife 8:11-12. Management, Mweka. Tanzania. Sullivan. A.L. and M.L. Shalter. 1975. Biogeography of Thorsell, J.W. 1986. Parks on the borderline. IU.N Bulletin the megazoo. Science 189:!3-17. 16:128-130. Sumner, F.B. 192 1. The responsibility of*the biologist in Thorsell, J.W. 1989. Directing researchl prograinnes in pro the matter of preserving natural conditions. Science 54:39-43. tected alreas: Some suggested gui(elines. IUCN. Gland. 11 Sutton, S.L., T.C. Whitmor, and A.C. Chadwick (eds.). PP. 1984. Tropical Rain Forests: Ecology and Management. Thresher, P. 1981. The present value of an Anboseli lion. Blackwell, Oxford. World Aninial Review 40:30-33. Tarrant, James, E. Barbier, R. Greenberg, M. Higgins, S. The Times. 1988 (seventh edition). The Times Atlas of the Lintncr, C. Mackie, L. Murphy, and H. van Veldhuisen World. Times Books, New York. 1987. Natural Resources anul Environmental Management Tisdell, C.A. 1972. Provision of parks and the preservation in Iuonesia: An Overview. USAID. Jakarta. 58 pp. of nature: Some economic flctors. Australian Economic Taylor. P.W. 1986. Respect fkr Nature: A Theor , of En- Papers 11:154-162. vironnental Ethics. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Tisdell, C.A. 1982. Wil Pigs: Economic Resource or En- NJ. 329 pp. vironnental Pest? Pergamon Press, Sydney, Australia. Temple, S.A. 1981. Applied island biogeography and the Tisdell, C.A. 1983. Conserving living resources in Third conservation of endangered island birds in the Indian Ocean. World countries: Economic and social issues. J.Environuen- Biological Conservation 20:147-161. tal Studies 22(l): 11-24. Tepedmno, V.J. and N.L. Stanton. 1976. Cushion plants as TPU (Threatened Plants Unit). 1988. IUCN Plant hiforma islands. Oeco!,!!ia 25:243-56. lion Ph. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. lcrborgh, J. 1974a. F:junal equilibria and the design of Tsun-Shen, Y. and Z. Zhi-Song. 1984. Endenism in the wildlife preserves. Pp. 369-3,'9 in: F.B. Golley and E. flora of China: studies on the endemic genera. Acta Phvtomr- Medina (eds.), Tropical Ecological Systems. Springer- onomica Sinica 22:259-268. Verlag. New York. Tubbs, C.R. and J.W. Blackwood. 1971. Ecological evalua- Terborgh, J. 1974b. Preservation of' natural diversity: The tion of land :,r planning purposes. Biological Conservation problem of'extinction prone species. BioScience 24:715-722. 3(3): 169-172. Terborgh, J. 1983. Five New World Primates: A Stud' in Udvardy, Miklos. 1969. Dynamic ZoogeographVy. Van ComparativeEcology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 445 pp. N.J. Ulph, A.M. and 1.K. Reynolds. 1981. An Economic Evalua- Terborgh. J. 1986. Keystone plan! resources in the tropical lion ofNational Parks. Centre Fbr Rc ource and Environmen lbrest. Pp. 330-344 in: M.E. SoL6 (ed.), Conservation tal Studie:,, /,ustralian National University, Canberra. 221 Biology: 7he Science of Scarcit'v and Diversity. Sinauer pp. Associates. Sunderland, MA. UNDP/ESCAP and SEAMP-BIOTROP (South East Asian Terborgh. J. and B. Winter. 1980. Some causes of' extinc- Regional Centre for Tropical Biology). 1985. Remote Sells tion. Pp. 119-133 tit: M.E. Soul6 and B.A. Wilcox (eds.), ing int Vegetation Studies: Report ofthe ESCAP-BIOTROP Con.ervation Biology: An Evolttionar*v-E cologicac 2'erspec- Training Course oil Remote Sensing Techniques Applied to tive. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland. MA. Vegetation Studies. Bangkok, Thailand. 339 pp. 181 C(ONSERVIN6 'Till1:\'ORI.I)' YS It.(A)CI(.I' . I)IVEtRStITY UNEP/FAO. 1982. 7he Globd As.es.sment o" Tropical Munro (eds.), Contseitvwion Vith E_-quity: Strategies.f/ir Sus- Forest Resources. GEMS PAC Information series No.3, taitmable Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 466 pp. Nairobi. Warfo'd. J. 1987c. Natural resources and economic policy 4 Unesco. 1972. Con v'ntion C()olcerning)di Prot'ctionof/'l in"developing countries. -Imals / Regional Scie'lle World Cultmral and Natural Heritage. Paris. 10 pp. 2 1(3):3-17. Unesco. 1985. Action plan for hiosphere reserves. En1- Warner. R.E. 1968. l'he role of introduced diseases in the iiromtnc,, (d C.onse'ri-tiot 12(1):17-27. extinction of the endemic Hawaiian aViifotuna. (cntfin Unkel, W.C. 1985. Natural diversity and national forest plan- 70:101-120. ning. Natural Areais Journal 5(4):8-13. Warren. 1).M.. L.J. Slikkerveer. and S. ).Titilola. 1989. USAID. 1987. AliD Manual.firProject l:conomic Analysis. hitli.ou).' Anowilc'dge S.stems: iniplicatis fir Acr'ilutcr USAID Bureau for Program and Policy Coordination. and hiieratziolu Developmtent. Studies in Technology and Washington, D.C. 207 pp. Social Change 11, lowa State University. Amtes. 10. 186 Usher, M. 13. 1973. Biological Mat,'emct (nld Conselva'- PP. lion: IEcologiccl ieo*v, Applicationt aml Phlming. Chap- Warrick. R.A.. P.D. Jones. and J.E. Russell. 1988. The man and Hall, London. 394 pp. greenhouse effect, climatic change and sea level: Al over- Usher, M.B13. 1985. Implications ofspecies-area relationships view. Paper prepared for Commonwealth Expert Group on horwildlie conser.a13.Ipition .1. iroei-l Mareen Climatic Chance and Sea Level Rise. London. Mav' 1988. 21(2):181-191. V ,.P.C. and S. Brechin (eds.). In press. Residtnt Ppala *Ushler, NB 198. i l , Ctins aind National Parks in I)eveloping Nations: hiter- Chiapnman an Ifall, f Conservatnon E394tpp.disciplinart' Perspectives anI Policyv hIinlicatimm. Uni\ er Press. Ticson. AZ. van Lavieren. L 1. 1983. 3ildfi'Managenen in t/e hlp sity of Arizona wit/hvanl.51hivieren Spe'cial l:nphausis ItIs193. ono South-E:astinle Mlls:,-14 Asia."/A GuidebookGi th 7f)'eis fir Western. 1). 1984. Aimboseli National Park: Hun values the Warden. Handbook prepared lor School of Environlen- and the conservation of' a savanna ecosy stem. Pp. 93-100 svt.ndonesia. in: J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller (eds.), National Parks, Cot.ser'ctiot,and Developmient: lie Role o 'ProtectedAreas van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 1958. Vegetation Map o['Malaysia, in Sustaining Societv. Smithsonian Institution Press. I Inesco Humid Tropics Research Project. Paris. Washington. D.C. Vedder. Amy. 1989. In the hall ol the mountain king. Animal Western. D. and W. Henry. 1979. Economics and cons,-r- Kingtom 92(3):31-43. vation in Third World national parks. BioScience Vcrmeij. G.J. 1978. Biogeogrtphy anl Adt)tation:Patterns 29(7):414-418. ,,"Marine Lifi'. Harvard Unive ity Press. Cambridge. MA. Western, D. and M. Pearl (eds.). 1989. ConservationBiology Vida, G. 1978. Genetic diversity and environmental future. fin- the Net Cetury. Oxford University Press, New York. Environmental Conservation 5(2):127-132. Westman. Walter E. 1977. How nuch ar, nature's services Vietmeycr. N.D. 1986. Lesser-known plants of'potential use worth? Science 197: 960-964. in agriculture and Forestry. Science 232:1379-1384 Wcttcrberg, G.B. 1976. An Analysis of Nature Conserva- Vitousek. P.M., P.R. Ehrlich, A. H. Ehrlich. and P.A. Mat- lion Priorities in the Atinzon. Brazilian Institute for Forestry son. 1986. Human appropriation ot the products of'photosyn- Development, Brasilia. Brazil. thesis. BioS .:ence 36:368-373. Wetterberg. G.B.. G.T. Prance. and T. Lovejoy. 1981. Con- Volk, Tyler. 1989. Sensitivity of cliiniate and atmospheric servation progress in Anazonia: A structural review. Parks carbon dioxide to deep-ocean and shallow-ocean carbonate 6(2):5-10 burial. Nature 337:637-640. Wharton. Charles H. 1968. Man, fire, and wild cattle in voi Droste. B. and W.P. Gregg. Jr. 1985. Biosphere southeast Asia. Proc. Ann. Till Timbers Fire Lcol. conf. reserves: demonstrating the value of conservation in sustain- 8:107-167. ing society. Parks 10(3):2-5. Whitcomb. R.F.. J.F. Lynch. P.A. Opler. and C.S. Rob- Walsh, Richard G.. J.13. Loomis. and R.A. Gillman. 1984. bins. 1976. Island biogcography and conservation: strategies Valuing option. existence, and bequest demands for and linitations. Scieu'e 193:1030-1032. wilderness. Lnd Ecommuics 60l): 14-19. White. F. 1983. 7he Vegetation ofAffrica: A Descriptive Warfjrd, .1.1987a. E.nvironmet, Growth andlDevehqemnt. Memoir to Acconmny the Unesto//IETl:A 7UNSO Vegeta- Economic )evelopment Committee, World Bank. tion Malp of'Africa. Unesco. Paris. Washington. D.C. White, P.S. and S.P. Bratton. 1980. After preservation: Warford, J. 1987b. Nature resource management and philosophical and practical problciis of change. Biological economic development. Pp. 71-85 in: P. Jacobs and 1). Conservation 18(3):241-255. 182 Whitmore. T.C. 1984. Trlpical Rainfi,'ests 'the Far East. Wirth. C. 1.. 1980. Parks. Plitic.,s and ih l'eople. Univer Oxfiord University Press. Lomdon. sity of Oklaluma Press. Norman ()kalitma. 397 pp. Whitmore, T.C.. R. Peralha. and K. Brown. 1985. Total Wolf. Liward C. 1987. On the Brink ofl'tin'tion: Con species count in a Costa Rican tropical rain forest. J. 7)'opit'il ser'Vin.g ili Diver.vitm of Lif. World watch Institute. L'Colo\, 1:375-378. \Vashinton. D.('. Whittaker. R.H. I972. Evolution and the measurement of Wood. I). 1988. Introduced crops in devcloping c.,liniries: species diversit\. "iixon 21(2):213-5 I. a sustainable ariculture? Food Policv Mav: 167- 177. Whittaker. R.H. and G.E. likens. 1975. The hiospherc and Woodw\ell. G.M.. H.E.Flob. R.A. Houghtton. J N. man. in: H. Lieth and R. H. Whittaker (eds.). P1rimnarx P'o- Melillo, B. Moore. B.J. Peterson. aid (.R. Shaver. 1983. ducti'it' of'the Bio.h ere. Springer-Vcrlg. New York. GIhbal deforestation: contrihution to atniospheric carhn Whitlen. A.J. 1987. Indtnesia's transmigratitm program and dioxide. Scien'e 222: 1(81-1086. its role in the loss of t'opical rain forests. Consr't'uion World Bank. 1981. LCononic leveopment and Trilml Biology I(3):239. Peoles: Huumn b.'i lgic'al Considerations. International Whitten. A.J.. K.I). Bishop, S.V. Nash. and L. Clayton. Bank for Reconstruction and Developnent (World Bank). 1987. One ori more extinctions fron Sulawesi. Indonesia? Washington. I).C. ('onseryt'ion Bioloy 1(1):42-48. 'World Bank. 198',. I'ildlands: lheir Protection and Whitten. A.J.. N. Niustala and G.S. Henderson. 1987. the Manag,'ennelt in Elionomic Developnent. World Bank. li olo of'S'utiw.si. Gadjah University Press, Indonesia. Washington. ).C. 278 pp. 777 pp. World ConIi ission on Environment and Development Wiess. F.B. 1984. The planetary trust: Conservation and (WCED). 1987. Our Coninion Future. Oxlord University intergeneratiOnal eq uity. E'ogo y Law Quarterlv Press. Oxford. UK. 11(4):495-582. Worster. Donald. 1985. Nature'. Economy. Canibridge Wilcove. ).S. and R.M. May. 1986. National park boun- University Press. Canibridge. UK. daries and ecological realities. Nature 324:206-207. WRI (XVorld Resources Institute). 1989a. NGO Consulia Wilcox. B.A. 1980. Insular ecology and conservation. Pp. lion on the Inlementation of Ihe l'Troical Forestry Action 95-117 in: M. -. Souh5 and B.A. Wilcox (eds.). Conserva- Plan. Summary Report. Washington. D.C. tion Bitlogy: An Evolutionar' -Ecolog'ictal Perspclive. WRI (World Resources Institute). 1989h. The International Siniauer Associates. Sunderland, Mass. Conservation Financitni Project. Working Paper. Final Wilcox. B.A. and D.D. Murphy, 1985. Conservation Draft. June 30. 1989. World Resources Institute. Washing strategy: The effects of fragmentation on extinction. tol. D.C. American Naturalist. 125:879-887. WRI/IIED. 1986. World Resources 1986. Basic Books. N.Y. Wil;ard. L.I). 1980. Oi preserving nature's aesthetic WRI/lIE). 1987. Wor/d Resources 1987. Basic Book. N.Y. features. lEnvironmental L'thic. 2(4):293-310. *WRI/lIIED. 1988. W'l Resources 1988-1989. Basic Will iams. S.B. 1984. Protection of plant varieties and parts B/oks. N.Y. as intellectual property. Science 225:18-23. Wilson. C.C. aid W.L. Wilson. 1975. The influence of Wright. D.F. 1977. A site evaluation scheme for use in the selective logging on primates and sonie other aninals itl East assessment ofpotential nature reserves. Bio.ogical conse' Kalimantan. lF'dia Primaiol. 23:245-274. ation 1 (3):293-305. Wilstn. E.O. 1985. The biological diversity crisis. Bio- Wright, S.J. and S.P. Hubbell. 1983. Stochastic extinction scieme 35:700-706. and reserve size: a focal species approach. Oik(,s 41:466-76. *Wilson, E.O. and Francis M. Peter (eds.). 1988. Biodiversi- WWF. 1986. Conservation Yearbook. WWF. Cland. 587 pp. iv. National Acadlemy Press. Washington. D.C. 521 pp. WWF-US. 1988. Debt-for-nature swaps: A new conserva Wilson. E.O. 1988a. The current state of biological diversi- tion tool. World Wildlife Fund Letter 1:1-9. ty. Pp. 3-18 in: E.O. Wilson and Francis M. Peter (eds.). *Ycatnman, C.W.. D. Krafton. and G. W'Vikes (eds.). 1984. Biodiversit\v. National Academy Press. Washington, I).C. P/ant Genetic Resources: A C'o,:servaitio, hIwrative. 521 pp. Westview Press, Boulder. Coloradoe. Wilson. E.O. 1988b. The diversity oflife. Pp. 68-81 in: H.J. Zimmerman, B.L. and P.O. Bierregaard. 1986. Relevance de 13lij (ed.). L'arth '88: Changing Geographic Perswtiives. of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography and species National Geographic Society, Washington. D.C. 392 pp. area relations to conservation with a case from Amazonia. Wilson. E.O. and E.O. Willis. 1975. Applied biogeography. J. Biogeog. 13:133-43. Pp. 522-536 in: M.IL. Cody and J.M. l)ianiond (edls.). Zuhe. E.H. 1986. Local and extra-local perceptions of na Ecology and Evolution of Comniunities. Cambridgc Mass. tional parks and protected areas. latmtlsape and Urhan Phn Harvard Univcrsity Press. sing 13(): 11-18. 183 INDEX Action plans Bali Action Plan biodiversity-promoting strategies and, 14, 109-15 funding and implementation of, 115 cross-scctoral. 112-115 objectives, activities, and priority projects of, 59, 140-46 see also Strategies Bali Declaration, 58 Africa Bangladesh, national data information center in, 76 biodiversity maintenance habitats in, 99-100 Biological resources biodiversity rich areas in, 90 contribution to "non-conservation" sectors by, 129-31 consumptive use values in, 28 dimensions of lack of data concerning, 39-47, 103-4 elephant protection in. 80 direct values of, 28-31 forest products' economic value to, 30 economic factors caiising overexploitation of, 38-39, 47-49 forest status in. 79 economic solution to conserving global, 38, 39 germplasm exchange by, 57 ex situ mechan;sms to conserve, 62-66 habitat changes impact on sub-Saharan, 44-46 factor- 'watening, 12, 37-52 land area protected in (by percentage), 104 formulating responses to problems facing ti.." conserva national data information center in, 76 tion of, 115 trophy hunting in, 122 global strateg) for conservation of, 113-15 see also individual countries in indirect values of. 31-34 Afrotropical Action Plan (IUCN/UNEP), 112 international conventions on further conservation of, 68-69 Afrotropical biodiversity strategy, 110, 11I, 112-13 linkages among sectors affecting, 113-15 Agency for International Development, U.S. (USAID) local knowledge on conservation of, 73-74 biodiversity programs backed by, 95 maintenance of biodiversity in marine, 88 investment in conservation through greater use of local cur- major obstacles to greater progress in conserving, 51-52 rencies, 125 management to ensure sustainable development, 18-19, 20, utilitarian value assessments by, 27 28-29, 31, 32, 132 Agriculture non-sustainable management and use of, 19, 31, 32, 33, biodiversity rich sites of plants whose germplasm may be 38-39, 47-49 necessary to, 100-3 policy shifts to encourage conservation of, 55-56 faod security and genetic variety. 29-30 profit return from exploitation of, 121-22 IUCN's category VI and, 60 property rights and, 118 protecting traditional forms, 60 scientific knowledge on conservation of, 71-73, 114 seed banks maintained to protect, 65-66 social factors threatening, 49-50 traditional strategies for maximum conservation of Biosphere Reserve Action Plan (Unesco), funding and im biodiversity. 50 plementation of, 115 Amazon. See countries within Biosphere Reserve network, 72 American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria Biosphere Reserves Program, 58 (AAZPA), 63, 110 Birds, habitat sites of threatened African, 99-100 Antarctica, ozone depletion over, 66 Botanic Gardens Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. conservation role of, 64-65, 109-10 estimate of non-consumptive benefits from conserving Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat (BGCS) - IUCN, wetlands, 32 62, 65, 109 Asia Botswana biodiversity of countries in, 88, 89-90 consumptive use values in, 28 forest products economic value to, 30 Research needs in, 75 germplasm exchange by, 57 Brazil habitat changes' impact on tropical, 44, 45, 47 biodiversity richness in, 92 land area protected in (by percentage), 104 Germplasm exchange by, 57 see also individual countries in processes leading to Brazil nut production in, 32-33 Asian Development Bank removing subsidies for forest clearing in, 55 global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22 Brazilian Space Research Institute Australia deforestation estimates by, 44 biodiversity in, 46, 91 British Petroleum (BP), 104 major human caused extinctions by, 20 Prvo11pS aeM 185 California, biodiversity in. 46 ex situ conservation contributions by, 62 Canada germplasm conservation by, 118 consumptive use values in, 28 Convention fbr the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 66 National park features in. 59 Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Cape Floristic Kingdom, species diversity within, 87 Animals, 56 Captive Breeding Specialist Group (IUCN), 63-64 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural Center for Marine Conservation, 110 and Natural Heritage, 57-58, 137-39 Central America Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species germiplasn exchange by, 57 of Wild Fauna and Flora, 56 long-term sustainable land use developed by native peo- Convention on the Internatlonal Trade in Endangered Species pie in, 50 (CITES), 80 national CDC in, 76 Convention on the Preservation of Marine Pollution by see ('lso Latin America; South America; individual coun- Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 66 tries in Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 57 Chicago Zoological Society, 110 Colombia, botanic gardens in, 65 China Cooperation, international national conservation database in, 76, 77 for elimination of biodiversity loss, 56-62, 68-69 Climate change of ex situ germplasm by, 62 biodiversity maintenance and, 38 managing biological resources, 132 management action in response to, 66-68 Costa Rica Colombia, biodiversity richness in, 93 Conservation Data Center in, 76 Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas species diversity in, 44 (CNPPA), 112 taxes on biological resources in, 120 Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology, 86 Costs need for trained help by, 18 benefit of natural areas consideration in deve!opments', 48 research priorities available from, 71 of forest assessments and deforestation rates in the tropics, systematists estimate by, 72 44 Conservation see also Economics; Funding; Market price biodiversity-promoting approaches to, 12-13, 55-69 C6te d' Ivoire, deforestation estimates for, 44 data required for biodiversity, 13-14, 71-81 Cross-sectoral strategies, action plans and, 112-15 economics of biodiversity, 14-15, 117-26 importance of biodiversity, 1!, 17-22 Data major obstacles to biodiversity. 51-52 exchange among national CDCs, 76 modern approaches to biodiversity, 20-21 lack of biodiversity conservation, 39-47, 103-4 national approaches to, 88-98 needs at international level for sustainable policzy develop "non-conservation" partners for biodiversity, 15, 129-32 ment, 77-80, 115 priority establishment for biodiversity, 14, 83-106 needs at national and local levels for sustainable policy priority guidelines for action on, 104-6 development, 74-77 regional approach to, 88 required to conserve biodiversity, 13-14, 71-81 strategies and action plans promoting biodiversity, 14, Debt, external 109-15 negotiating swaps of protected areas in return for reduc Conservation concessions, 125 tion c.., 124-25 Conservation data centers (CDCs) option values and, 35 establishment of national, 76, 77 Debt-for-nature swaps, arranging, 124-25 Conservation International (CI) Developing countries Brazilian data publications work by, 104 exchanges of genetic material among, 30 CDC development aid by, 76 funding conservation in, 119-20, 121-23 debt-for-nature swap involvement by, 124, 125 "hotspots", 87 global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22 see also individual countries linkage approach to Ecosystem Conservation by, 124 Development Species Action Plans backing by, 110 biodiversity and 19-20 Con-ultative Group on International Agriculture Research effects of non-sustainable, 19, 31, 32, 33, 34-35, 47-49 (CGIAR) projects funding biodiversity conservation, 120-21 sustainable, on a global scale, 113-14 186 Ecologically sensitive areas (ESAs), 83 Funding criteria for designating and managing, 85-86 global approach to biodiversity conservation, 68-69. 123 identifying, 84-85 implementing coordinated conservation activities and, 115 Economics international biodiversity conservation, 117, 123-26 of biodiversity maintenance, 14-15. 25-27, 30-31, 32, 34, methods for biodiversity conservation at local and national 47-49, 117-26 levels, 118-23 of bioreserve management, 104 protected areas through NGO foundations, 122-23 conserving global biodiversity through appropriate use of, zoological community, 64 38, 39 see also Costs; Economics; Market price of ex sitit conservation, 62 methods for assigning values to natural biological resources Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 73 using, 27-35 Ghana, consumptive use values in, 28 of a regional action plan, 113 Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) - UNEP, of remote sensing technology, 73 81, 105 of various uses/managements of forest.s, 30-31 Global Resource Information Database (GRID), 81 see also Costs; Funding; Market price Global Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity Ecosystems major issues of emphasis in development of, 113-15 biologically diverse types of, 46-47 planning to ensure wise use of investments in, 115 maintaining marine, 88, 110 Greenhouse effect. See Climate change Ecuador, debt-fur-nature swap involving, 124-25 Greenland National Park, 58 Education "Green parties", increased public support for, il, 21 i' situ conservation programs used for public, 62, 64, 65 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), consumptive use value in of' parataxonomists for collecting and documenting new clusion into, 28, 30-32 specimens, 72 Guidelines, conservation action priority, 104-6 Environmental Impact Assessments, 56 Environmental Law Centre (ELC) - IUCN, 80 Habitats Ethics, biodiversity and, 25-26, 27 action plans for conserving, 111-12 Ethiopia. germplasm e'.change by, 57 African sites of threatened bird, 99-100 Europe biodiversity maintenance and alteration of, 38 forest die off in, 38 causes anl extent of lost, 43-47 see also individual countries in integrated approach to protecting, 56-62 European Economic Community (EEC), Action Plan fund- pre-industrial alteration of "natural", 51 ing by, 113 WCMC data on protected, 78-79 Extinction Heritage Species Centers, 124 causes and rates of species, 39-47 Honduras, non-consumptive benefits from conservation in, climate change and, 67 32 Er situ, contributions to biodiversity, 62-66 Hotspots, tropical forest area, 87 Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S., 110 Incentives Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) - U.N. to encourage global biodiversity conservation, 113-14, 115 biodiversity plant data collected by, 104 to ensure sustainable use of resources, 35 deforestation estimates by, 44 to local people to respect protected areas, 117-18, 121-22 ex situ conservation contributions by, 62 see also Subsidies global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22, 46 India, economics of forest use in, 30-31 world reliance on tropical forest data coverage by, 72-73 Indomalayan Action Plan (IUCN/UNEP), 112 Forests Indonesia biodiverse sites of tropical, 92, 103-4 biodiversity richness in, 94 conservation of temperate region, 87 non-consumptive benefits from consei /ation in, 32 critical areas in, 86-87 Indonesian Wildlife Fund, 122 containing largest varieties of threatened birds, 99-100 Industrial countries developing countries dependence on economic value of, existence value of species and habitats to populations in, 34 30-31 hotspot areas in, 87 estimates of remaining tropical moist, 44 see also individual countries FAO estimate of the extent of tropical, 72-73 Instituto Brasileiro de Recursos Naturais Renovaveis e Meio government overexploitation of tropical, 49 Ambiente (IBAMA). 104 187 International Board on Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) -- Madagascar (CGIAR) biodiversity richness in. 95 t" situ plant conservation by, 62 germplasm exchange by, 57 location and conservation of wild relatives encouraged by. ma'jor hiu ma ii -caused extinctions on, 20 29 National Action Plan of". 110, 112 International Conservation Financing Program (WRI), 117 Malawi. consumptive use values in. 28 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, 56 Malawi Lake. biodiversity in. 46 International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) Malaysia Afrotropical biodiversity strategy work by. 112 consumptive use values in. 28 priority site location hunting by, 100 non-consumptive benefits from conservation in, 32 International Fur Trade Federation. 110 Management International Species Inventory System (ISIS). 63 of conservation data. 75-81 International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). 80 01' Ecological Sensitive Areas. 85-86 International Trust for Nature Conservation (Nepal). 122 economics of priority area. 104 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural to ensure survival of existing species. 18-19. 20 Resources (IUCN). 77. 112 local information. 75-76 ethical foundation fiOr conservation produced by. 25-26. 27 national conservation. 76 global conservation strategy involvement by. 21-22. 68-69. necessity in "natural' habitats of. 51 113. 117 new approaches for sustainable biological resource. 132 location and conservation of wild crop relatives encouraged objectives and categories of protected areas. 59-62 by, 29 of protected areas that exclude people. 51 mini-reserves project supported by, 61 responses to pollution and climate change. 66-68 plant diversity sites in book prepared by. 102-3 requirements for a global conservation strategy. 114-15 protected areas review by. 103 traditional strategies of in situ crop, 50 protected categories of'. 91, 97. 105 Marine ecosystems. 88. 110 Species Action Plans of. I10-I1 Market price, as an accurate representation of the value of International Union of Directors of Zoological Parks, 63 natural resources, 31. 48 Mauritius, 61 Java. botanic gardens in. 65 Media, natuie's abstract importance communicated by, 25-26 Megadiversity. country concept. 88-99 Kenya. prof-its from resource exploitations of protected areas Megadiversity countries returned to local people in. 121 concept and workings of. 88-90 Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge, 66 profiles of important, 91-97 Kouprey Action Plan, 63 Mexico biodiversity richness in, 96 Land tenure, sustainable investment encouragement through germplasm exchange by. 57 giving rural people, 55, 131 Military. promoting conservation interests in, 131 Land use, policy shifts promoting biodivcrsity of. 55-56, 60 Models Latin America lack of attention given to non-monetary values in standard land area protected in (by percentage). 104 biological resource conservation. 25, 47-49 see also South America: individual countries in for sustainable land use in tropical forests, 50 Legislation Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone biodivcrsity protection. 56, 66, 80. 137-39 Layer. 66 pollution control, 66. 130-31 Myers. Norman, 87, 91 species and habitat protecting. 56-57 see also individual statutes National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 56 Linkages National Nature Reserves network (U.IE.). 103 between development and conservation funding, 120-21 National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S.. 31 between international systems on status of biological National Parks. See Protected Areas resources, 75 Nepal between various policy sectors' effect on biodiversity, consumptive use values in. 28 55-56, 112-15 non-consumptive benIt',1S from conservation in. 32 biodiversity-threatening economic, 37-39, 47-49 Netherlands Antilles. national CDC center in, 76 see also Cooperation. International New Zealand. major human-caised Lxtinctions in, 20 188 Nigeria, consumptive use values in. 28 returning profits to local people Ifromi exploitation of, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 121-22 Conservation Strategy input from, 56. 80-81 WCMC data on, 77-80 global strategy input of. 113-15 where they are and where they -re needed. 58 incentives for conservation provided by, 122 Puerto Rico. National CDC in. 76 North America major humain-caUsed extinctions in, 20 Rain Forest Inperative Campaign (Cl) see also individual countries in megadiversity concept's use in, 90 Red Data Books (IUCN), 41-42, 43, 77-78. 97, 99-100 Oceania Regional Seas Programs, 58 Action Plan. 112 Royal Botanic Gardens, 104 major hunian-causcd extinctions in, 38, 40-41, 51 Rwanda, "gorilla tourism- in,119 Oceans .Sec Marine ecosystems Ovce rex plO itatei oysem Scientific knowledge, required to conserve biodiversity, economic factors causing biological resource, 38-39, 4749 71 I-73.114 of wildlife stimulated by consumptive use value, 28-29 Senegal, consumptive use values in, 28 Seed banks, wild relatives of ma or crops held in, 65-66 Peru. economics of forcst uses in.31 South Africa, biodiversity in. 46 Plants South America biodiverse sites of, 100-3 forest products economic value to, 30 cost of ensuring evolution of wild species of, 118 major human-caused extinctions in, 20 seC al(o Agriculture national data information center in.76 Policy see also individual countries in biodiversity maintenance through changes in non- Species biological. 19-20. 113-15 action plans of* UCN 110-11 biological resources investment. 125-26 biodiversity maintenaice and introdw-ed, 38 elfect on Action Plan success, 113 dimension of biodivers;ity loss among, 39-47 guidelines br conservation, 104-6 estimates on number oi global, 18 maintaining ex situ continuity needed in,62 integrated approacb to protecting, 56-62 new sum,nable production, 132 management to ensure biodiversity. 18-19 other resource management issues' impact on biodiversity strategies and action plans for conserving, 109-11 conservation, 38, 39, 47 WCMC data on. 77-78 shifts encouraging biodiversity. 19-20, 55-56 Species Survival Commission (SSC) - IUCN, action plans Pollution, chemical of'. 63. 110-1I biodiversity maintenance and, 38 Sri Lanka management action in response to. 66-68 botanic gardens in, 65 Population Strategies increase and biodiversity maintenance, 38-39 biodiversity-promoting action plans and, 14, 109-15 managing captive breeding anirmal, 63 cross-sectoral promotion, biodiversity enhancing, 55-56, Priorities 113-15 biodivcrsitv conservation. 14. 83-106 developing global biodiversity conservation, 21-22, 112-15 establishing national. 83-86 see also Action Plans: individual strategies international approaches to determining a system of, Subsidies 86-104 encouraging deforestation, 55 Property rights, for biological resources, 118 negative impacts on biodiversity from government, 117 Private sector. See Non-government organizations (NGOs) sIT also Incentives Protected areas Tanganyika. Lalke, biodiversity in, 46 abuse of areas su rrounding. 49 Tanzania Act ion Plans for, 112 consumptive use values in, 29 altitudinal range of global. 67-38 non-sustainable hunting results in, 33) categories and managemine tobjectives ofI.59-62 designed to conserve traditional land use, 50 Technologies entry ano other user fes to finance. 119 contributing to increased biodiversity, 56 funding IUCN strategies for. 115 data management, 72, 73 remote sensing, 73 189 Thailand Venezuela, National Action Plan of, 110, 112 forest products trade by, 44 Victoria, Lake, biodiversity in, 46 national data information center in, 76 non-consumptive benefits from conservation in, 32 Wetlands, species diversity within, 46 The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Wildlife, trade data involving, 79-80 debt-for-nature swaps involvement by, 124, 125 Wildlife Conservation International, 110 nationai data center establishment work by, 76 Wilson, Edward 0., 22 Tiger Mountain Group, 122 World Bank Tropical Forestry Action Plan, funding and implementation biodiversity considerations in projects of, 95, 112 120 of, 115 global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22, 46 Trade, wildlife, 79-80 loan justitied by non-consumptive benefits, 32 TRAFFIC Network, 80 policy on wildlands, 58, 120-21. 147-52 Training World Charter for Nature (U.N.), 25, 68, need for increased professional systematists, 18 ethical commitment for biodiversity conservation in, 27 see also Education principles, functions, and implementation of, 134-36 Tropical Forest Resource Atlases, preparation of, 104 societal changes called for by, 51 Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) - FAO, establish- Woodlands. see Fore. Is ment and workings of, 46, 111-12 World Commission on Environment and Development Tropical Wilderness Areas, national approach to managing (WCED) major remaining, 98 cross-sectoral policy shifts encouraging sustainable use of Tropics biological resources indicated by, 55-56 government-promoted overexploitation of forests in, 49 forest cover lois estimates by, 44 need for international help to conserve species in, 21 linkages and, 112-13 priority for basic inventory work in, 80-81 societal changes proposed by. 51 research centers to train personnel in, 72 sustainable development recognition by, 19 undescribed species in, 18, 39 World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) priority input by, 105 Unesco, global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22, protected '-bitat data of, 78-79 58 species data of, 77-78 United Kingdom wildlife trade data by, 79-80 Environmentally Sensitive Areas in, 83 World Conservation Strategy (WCS) - IUCN, 19, 35, 113 national park features in, 59 preparation and implementation of, 21-22 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), global societal changes called for by, 51 conservation strategy involvement by, 46 World Resources Institute (WRI) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 58, 81, global conservation strategy involvement by. 21-22, 46, 110 113, 117 biodiversity convention promoted by, 68-69 Warld Wildlife Fund (WWF), 110 conservation database aid by, 76 biodiversity attention given to projects of, 90 deforestation estimates by, 44 conservation database aid by, 76, 77 funding and implementation of Regional Seas action plans debt-for-nature swaps involvement by, 124-25 of, 115 global conservation strategy involvement by, 21-22 Global Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity work location and conservation of wild relatives encouraged by, by, 21-22, 113, 117 29 United States (U.S.) mini-res,.. ves project supported by, 61 forest products economic value to, 30 germplasm exchange by, 57 Yellowstone National Park, 51, 58 non-consumptive benefits from conservation in, 32 profits from resource exploitation of protected areas re turned to local people in, 121 Values consumptive use, 28-29 Zaire of biological diversity, 11-12, 25-35 bivdiv' sity richness in, 97 existence, 34 consumptive use values in, 28 non-consumptive use, 31-33 Zambia option, 33-34 Wildlife Fund economics, used in 121, 122 prodr',tive use, 29-31 research needs in, 75 190 Zimbabwe profits from resource exploitation of protected areas re turned to local people in, 121 research needs in, 75 Wildlife Fund economics used in, 121 Zoological gardens contributions to biodiversity conservation by, 62-64, 124 191 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AAAS American Association for the Advancement IBPGR International Board for Plant Genetic of Sciences Resources AAZPA American Association of Zoological Parks IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and and Aquaria Development ADB Asian Development Bank ICBP International Council for Bird Preservation AfDB African Development Bank ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and BOST!D Board on Science and Technology for Inter- Sites national Development of National Research ICSU International Council of ScientilitL Unions Council IDA International Development Association BGCS P-)tanic Gardeis Conservation Secretariat of IDB InterAmerican Development Bank IUCN IGBP International Gcosphere Biosphere Project of CATIE Centro Agron6mico Tropical de Investigaci6n ICSU y Enseflanza (Tropical Agricultural Research lIED International Insitute for Environment and and Training Center, Costa Rica) Development CDC Conservation Data Center IMF International Monetary Fund CGIAR Consultative Group on International IPAL Integrated Projcct on Arid Lands (Kenya) Agricultural Research IRRI International Rice Research Institute CI Conservation International (Philippines) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency ISIS International Species Inventory "2ystem CITES Convention on International Trade in En- ITTO International Tropical Timber organization dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora IUDZG International Union of Directors of cm centimeter Zoological Parks CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance IUCN International Union for Conservation of' CNPPA Commission on National Parks and Protected Nature and Natural Resources Areas of' IUCN kg kilogram DANIDA Danish lnlernational Development Agency km kilometer EEC European Economic Community m meter EIA Environmental Impact Assessment MS Manuscript ELC Environmental Law Centre of IUCN nit metric ton E A Ecologically Sensitive Area NAS National Academy of' Sciences est. estimated NCS National Conservation Strategy FAO Food and Ag:iculture Organization of the NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and United Nations Information Service 'INNIDA Fir ish Internaional Development Agency NG New Guinea FRG Feder.,l Republic of Germany NGO Non-Governmental Organization GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade NOAA National Oceanic and AtmospheriL GDP Gross Domestic Product Administration GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System of NORAD Norwegian Agency for International UNEP Development GIS Geographic Information System ODA Overseas Development Agency of the United GNP Gross National Product Kingdom GRID Global Resource Information Database OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and G'rZ Deutsche Gselsc,:haft ftir Technische Development Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for OTA Office of Technology Assessment of' the US Technical Cooperation) Congress ha hectare PADU Protected Areas Data Unit of WCMC IBAMA Instituto Brasileiro de Rccrusos Naturais PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls Renovaveis e Mcio Ambiente (Brazilian Ii- PVO Private Voluntqi' Organization stitutc of Renewable NatUral Resources and RDB Red Data Book of IUCN Environment) 192 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference SFr Swiss franc SIDA Swedish International Development Authority sq km square kilometer SSC Species Survival Commission of IUCN TFAP Tropical Forestry Action Plan TNC The Nature Conservancy TPU Threatened Plants Unit UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UN United Nations UNDP UnitcJ Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service USNPS United States National Park Service WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre WCS World Conservation Strategy WHO World Health Organization WMA Wildland Management Area WRI World Resources Institute WWF World Wide Fund for Nature (previously World Wildlife Fund, and still World Wildlife Fund in the United States) yr year 193