Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual and Media Literacy Danilo M

Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual and Media Literacy Danilo M. Baylen • Adriana D’Alba Editors

Essentials of Teaching and Integrating Visual and Media Literacy

Visualizing Learning

1 3 Editors Danilo M. Baylen Adriana D’Alba Educational Technology and Foundations Educational Technology and Foundations University of West Georgia University of West Georgia Carrollton, Georgia Carrollton, Georgia USA USA

ISBN 978-3-319-05836-8 ISBN 978-3-319-05837-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05837-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930552

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Springer is a brand of Springer International Publishing Springer International Publishing is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword

“The question is not what you look at, but what you see.” —Henry David Thoreau, Journals, Vol. 1, November 16, 1830 Visual and media literacy have been a part of my life and my educational interests for, well, forever it seems. I am honored to have been asked to introduce this book, and am hopeful that the many interesting chapters shared here will make a difference to educators at all levels of teaching, administration, and design of curricula or professional development. The topics are multidisciplinary and involve multiple aspects of media and visual literacy. One of the editors, Danilo M. Baylen, has grown from a young doctoral student at Northern Illinois University, sharing his home country culture through a display of native textiles in my visual literacy course years ago, to an experienced, respect- ed member of academia with a strong interest in visual and media literacy as part of his work in literacy and technology, as well as having an enviable career in higher education both as a professor and an administrator. As his former professor, I am proud of his having co-proposed and completed the editing of this text.

Becoming an Advocate for Media and Visual Literacy

With all the attention focused on media and visual literacy in the twenty-first century, it might be helpful to look at the interest as it developed over time. My own history mirrors the growth of visual and media literacy in education, and the experiences of many of the experts in these areas who have been active in promoting and researching these topics over the past 40 or more years. How do educators become advocates for visual and media literacy? As a baby boomer, I grew up loving the movies. Early TV was nothing like it is today, but it was still a cultural influence not to be ignored. After all, the Beatles first appeared on TV when we boomers were in high school! And since my father was a photographer, I spent hours in our home darkroom learning from those emerging images, like many others did in the “Kodak” era of the 1950s.

v vi Foreword

In the 1970s, with media and visual literacy concepts emerging from communication scholars like McLuhan and visual communications experts such as Donis Dondis, Jack Debes, and others, we had a great deal of freedom to explore current events and media as part of our language arts curriculum. In 1972, along with many of those still working to promote and improve these literacies, I was teaching language arts to middle school students (in Illinois, USA). We showed educational films as part of our instruction, and used literature to film translations such as The Diary of Anne Frank to help motivate students. We taught media literacy, using public media such as billboards, newspapers and magazines, and television news, and had students create their own publications. We developed a unit on television and studied narrative structures, character development, genre, stereotyping, advertising, humor, and suspense. Students wrote, recorded, and edited news and comedy programs with original commercials as a culminating activity. After school hours, I started a film club to both study and create movies with students, and sponsored the school newspaper. We knew that our activities were motivating and that they helped develop literacy and language skills and critical thinking abilities. But I do not recall ever having heard the terms visual literacy or media literacy until, after 5 years of teaching, I started to study educational technology and communications in graduate school. At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, I focused my attention on visual communications media and critical analysis skills for students of all ages. Many of us in our doctoral studies were interested in critical analysis and images. Our student cohort included David Considine, now considered one of the pioneers in media literacy, and his colleague Robert Muffoletto, and so discussions about film, photography, affective learning, and the impact of images were a regular part of my education. My first published article presented ideas for teachers wanting to add critical viewing of video to their curriculum activities, based upon my earlier experiences. And my doctoral dissertation investigated 8th graders’ understanding of narrative elements of short fiction from film and video. This represented a change in education, since previous research in technology-related topics was quasi-exper- imental and rarely involved real classrooms of students. During and after graduate school, my early articles included “You’ve Ruined TV for Me,” an article titled after a comment from an 8th grader after our long television unit was over. He was complaining that he now saw all the misplaced micro- phones and bad shadows in TV programs; he had developed critical viewing skills along with our language arts activities. It was through other members of that Madi- son cohort that I learned of the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA), in which I have been very active since 1982. This organization was one of the first to offer a definition of visual literacy and a place for scholars, educators, artists, videographers, and so on to debate ideas and share strategies, projects, educational research, and materials. IVLA has annual conferences where research and projects from around the world in multiple disciplines have been presented and shared since 1969, with published Selected Readings from the conferences each year. It is one of the groups helping to promote the importance of media and visual literacy today. Foreword vii

Through IVLA, I met the international scholar Rune Pettersson, who has con- tinually added to the scholarship in information design and message design along with other aspects of visual literacy. Recently, he wrote about early visual literacy (Pettersson 2013): A historical view shows that discussions about the use of images have a long history. Sev- eral definitions reveal that visual literacy is an ability, a competency, or a skill. Visual literacy is an interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional area of knowledge. Different kinds of visuals may be applied in almost all subject matter areas and in different media. From a theoretical view, visual literacy includes visual language, visual thinking, visual perception, visual communication, and visual learning. Seen from a communications view, presentation of an intended message involves a wide range of professional interest groups concerned with its design, production, distribution, and use. (n.p.) To me, this brief discussion captures the essence of both visual and media literacy. The many foundational theory areas, the multidisciplinary nature of the issues, and the importance of helping to develop the skills for improved communication have always been the foundation of these literacies in my opinion. The two terms have often seemed competitive, overlapping, and not necessarily disparate in their meaning and approach. One difference often noted has been that visual literacy is less connected to any particular medium, and therefore, more universal. I often told students in my visual literacy graduate class that visual literacy was the overarching term, and media literacy fit within it. Media literacy may seem more fluid because it must respond to and change with the media and technology available, such as newer digital tools and global access to Web-based social media imagery. But that could make visual literacy the more static term. So with this shared background, it should not be surprising that visual and media literacies have been woven into my teaching and scholarship throughout my career at Northern Illinois University. I have been active in promoting these literacies to teachers, administrators, library media specialists, and researchers for over 30 years. Like many other academic programs around the country and the globe, we routinely have offered our graduate level visual literacy course for education and museum studies students, and I have been very pleased to see the increased attention to these concepts in the standards and professional expectations of K-20 educators. Profes- sors across the USA shared syllabi and curricular ideas for courses like this at our conferences, so we learned from one another. We all saw the positive impact of our efforts to add media and visual literacy activities in educational settings.

Learning from Each Other Through Publications

This is not the first collected and edited text on visual or media literacies. Since the 1970s, media studies have been promoted for public education K-20. Teachers like me were involved in helping their students become critical viewers, analyze historical events through archived images, and share learning through student productions. Books published from a variety of perspectives helped inform educators of this viii Foreword fairly new area of study. For example, members of the IVLA contributed to an introduction to visual literacy text edited by Moore and Dwyer in 1994. These editors sought to introduce a “spectrum of visual learning” including the definitions, the terms within the definitions, and a wide array of basic explanations and discussions around the terms. Historical and theoretical foundations, visual language, nonver- bal communication, visual design, use of visuals, and social, political, and cultural aspects of visual literacy in teaching and learning were all included. Other texts preceded that one and others have followed, from a variety of perspectives. Authors such as Arnheim, Eisner, Baker, Monoco, Considine and Haley, Curtiss, Fleming and Levie, Tufte, Potter, and Hobbs all provided key texts in their areas of special- ization that were popular and well received by educators. They provided strong arguments from backgrounds in the arts and art education, communication media (film and television), media and culture, visual communication and manipulation, perception, psychology, and teacher education (see reference list for sample titles). More recent texts have looked at the “visual” in particular fields of education, such as one edited which focuses on the impact of visual literacy on art history. Along with texts providing a wide spectrum of information, organizations and entities such as Edutopia and EDUCAUSE, the Center for Media Literacy (CML), the National Association of Media Literacy Education (NAMLE), the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), the International Reading Association (IRA), along with the ven- erable IVLA have all devoted themselves to understanding and promoting the vital aspects of these literacies. In the past 15–20 years, most have developed definitions, set standards, made recommendations to professionals, and shared strategies and materials for the promotion of these concepts and skills in educational settings. Filmmakers like Lucas and Scorsese have gotten involved (edutopia.org), promoting the importance of media literacy in education. National standards for teaching and learning, such as the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), adopted in all but a few states, have recognized the importance of improving all students’ understanding and abilities in a wide range of concepts related to media and visual literacy, often linking to critical thinking and creative expression. The CCSS, while controver- sial at this point, have included many standards for language arts and mathematics that require visual and media literacy activities and assessments. The vision statement for the language arts standards states: “Students Who are College and Career Ready in Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening, & Language… use technology and digital media strategically and capably” (CCSS, 2010). Those standards in language arts involve reading multimedia, getting information from Web sites, understanding from video, and using primary documents, including images, to understand science and history. For example, the Center for Media Literacy (http://www.medialit.org) promotes media literacy as a way of encouraging global awareness, critical thinking, and self- expression. Media, they report, has an “unquestionable” impact on the “way we understand, interpret and act on our world.” They consider media literacy to be vital in this twenty-first century, where many mediated messages need to be “navigated” Foreword ix through developing these skills. They include five core concepts of media literacy (Media Literacy Kit 2003). To restate the obvious, there have been, for decades, a plethora of resources created by multiple disciplines and experts to help define, justify, and promote the importance and value of media and visual literacy. But during these 50 years or more, while popular media such as film, television, magazines, record or CD cov- ers, digital games, and the Web all grew in global influence and audience, media education and visual literacy education have not been universally adopted. Texts, curriculum materials, YouTube videos, Web sites, easily available and free tools for productions, all have been produced and marketed. Our question should be: What is the reluctance of education to embrace the importance of visual/media literacy as vital concepts for the twenty-first century?

Introduction to This Book

While historically (as Pettersson reviewed) visual literacy has been defined by skills, we realize now that both literacies involve theory, cultural knowledge, perception, and of course the newer tools which abound in society and in education. Many suggestions for organizing the aspects of visual and media literacy have been posited. This text uses three areas: framing, integrating, and teaching. Others have approached the topics by considering more specific media: arts literacy, film literacy, digital literacy. Information literacy, knowledge mapping, and graphical design have been included. The professional organizations most linked to this text include similar but distinct definitions of visual and/or media literacy: ACRL, NAMLE, and IVLA. All have been promoting similar foundational issues and providing support for those trying to teach the related skills. Whether or not these concepts and skills have been achieved by learners is another issue, however. Scharrer (2002) suggested that there has been little, if any, research reporting on the outcomes of visual or media literacy education. She adds that the positive impact of such programs has certainly been students’ cognitive growth in understanding terms and issues, and the development of the ability to carefully decode and analyze media messages and thus practice critical thinking and viewing. But it is possible, in this era of accountability, that this perceived lack of “proof” that visual or media literacy educational efforts have been successful has had a negative impact on the growth of all such educational programs. This text, with its collection of excellent chapters, details foundational issues, describes tools and strategies that have been implemented to evoke learning, and includes case study reports of different ways that have been designed, developed, implemented, and assessed to encourage learning in aspects of visual and media literacy. These efforts should assist readers in adopting new or revised practices and guide their consideration of increased efforts for learners to engage with these important topics and skills. x Foreword

In the Preface, the editors of this text have introduced the topic and definitions important to understanding teaching and integrating visual and media literacy. They provide a review of the definitions and the debates surrounding the terms visual and media literacy, and highlight the history of the development of the concepts. Their chapter also presents the concerns surrounding these important concepts, and traces the involvement of some of the professional organizations which have sought to encourage growth in research, teaching, and the development of more literate learners. Visual Literacy and Media Literacy. These terms have been used synonymously, in contrast to one another, and individually in literature and research throughout the last 60 years. Without suggesting a solution to this dispute the editors, in the Preface, help frame the need for visual and media education. They created this collection to provide a wide-ranging selection of distinctive essays selected to guide readers in understanding these literacies, help them develop strategies to expand their teaching and learning, and suggest ways to support these critically important and often underrepresented ideas in educational settings. This text is designed for educators: teachers, teacher educators, administrators, professional developers, and researchers. We all need to utilize the ideas shared here to involve ourselves in the field of visual/media literacy to continue its growth, explore the research questions raised by our digital culture, and improve learning in K-20 classrooms (real or virtual). Experts in my generation, as I have tried to describe, have done their best to define, explain, promote, and guide others in the many aspects of visual and media literacy. The authors of these chapters represent the next generation of teachers and designers who will help direct us to improved literacy and a more visually educated and critically aware society.*****

Rhonda S. Robinson, PhD Distinguished Teaching Professor Emeritus Northern Illinois University, USA

References

Arnheim, R. (1954/1974). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative eye. Berkeley: University of California Press. Barry, A. S. (1997). Visual intelligence. Albany: State University of New York Press. Center for Media Literacy. (2001). Media kit. http://www.medialit.org/sites/default/ files/mlk/01_MLKorientation.pdf. Common Core State Standards. (2014). About the standards. http://www.corestan- dards.org/. Considine, D., & Haley, G. (1992). Visual messages: Integrating imagery into instruction. A teacher resource for media and visual literacy. Englewood: Teacher Ideas. Dwyer, F. (1978). Strategies for improving visual learning. State College: Learning Services. Foreword xi

Eisner, E. (1972). Educating artistic vision. New York: Macmillan. Messaris, P. (1994). Visual “literacy”: Image, mind and reality. Boulder: Westview. Moore, D. M., & Dwyer, F. (1994). Visual literacy a spectrum of learning. Engle- wood Cliffs: Educational Technology. Pettersson, R. (2013). Views on visual literacy. VASA Project. Journal on Images and Culture (1). http://vjic.org/vjic2/?page_id=214. Robinson, R. (1980). Video elements: Factors of critical analysis of commercial television. Media Message, 10(2). Robinson, R. (1984). Using television to teach visual literacy: “You’ve ruined TV for me.” In A. D. Walker, R. A. Braden, & L. H. Dunker (Eds.), Visual literacy- Enhancing human potential (pp. 330–336). Bloomington: International Visual Literacy Association. Scharrer, E. (2002/2003, December/January). Making a case for media literacy in the curriculum: Outcomes and assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(4), 354. http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index. asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/12–02_column/index.html. Preface

Since the earliest period of our civilization, images have been an essential part of our history and culture, and have become a fundamental aspect of our relationship with others and the world. From the earliest prehistoric paintings in Altamira and Lascaux to the Aztec codices in ancient America, and from the 3000–year-old Egyptian hieroglyphs to the magnificent Renaissance paintings, humans have attempted to capture and depict scenes of our daily lives, our traditions, celebrations, rituals, and other meaningful individual and global events. After the invention of photography in the 1830s, our society has had increased access to thousands, if not millions of images that have had a lasting impact. Pho- tographs such as the Tiananmen Square protest by Jeff Widener, the disturbing and shocking pictures of torture at Abu Ghraib prison, the high-resolution images of Mars, or the Checkpoint Girl by Chris Hondros have influenced the course of history and educated people while helping us to shape opinions, and informing us of what is occurring in the world. Life in the twenty-first century is inundated by still and moving images, produced for personal and professional gains, and motivated by social, economic, or political needs. Definitely, these images are, in one way or another, defining a generation’s identity, popularity, and power. The influence on human behavior may not be as overt initially, though its appeal lingers in the subconscious. However, the impact can be observed in cash registers, election results, and anonymous postings in media online, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, to name a few. The rapid ascension of visual technologies as tools for delivering content, fa- cilitating communication, developing critical thinking, and expressing creativity has become a game changer in encoding and decoding images. Young and old are bombarded daily with images without knowing what hit them. So it is important to teach them skills that will facilitate better understanding of what these images mean. Becoming visual- and media-literate must be part of one’s education.

xiii xiv Preface

What is Visual Literacy?

In 1968, John Debes coined the term “visual literacy.” The International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) adopted a more inclusive definition of visual literacy as “a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or manmade, that he encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to compre- hend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication.” (Fransecky and Debes 1972). However, with the introduction of technology in our society and the development of media and computer literacy, other scholars have offered their own definitions (Avgerinou and Ericson 1997; Horton 1983; Kress 2003; Rezabek 1999; Robinson 1984). The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) states that “Visual literacy is a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create images and visual media. Visual literacy skills equip a learner to understand and analyze the contextual, cultural, ethical, aesthetic, intellectual, and technical components involved in the production and use of visual materials. A visually literate individual is both a critical consumer of visual media and a competent contributor to a body of shared knowledge and culture” (Visual Literacy Standards Task Force, 2011). According to the ACRL, the abilities of a visually literate individual include the evaluation of images and their sources, the design and creation of meaningful images and visual media, the effective use of images of visual media, the understanding of ethical, legal, social, and economic issues surrounding the creation and use of images, and the effective localization of needed images and visual media, among others. We live immersed in a visual culture and images surround us, not only when we walk to school or drive our cars to work, but also when we navigate the internet or attend the latest movie premiere. We also contribute to that culture with our smartphones or cameras. According to a Pew Internet & American life reports, the percentage of adults who own a cell phone has reached 91 %, with 56 % of them owning a smartphone (Smith 2013). In 2010, it was reported that 83 % of teenag- ers take pictures with their cell phones (Lenhart et al. 2010). Sites such as Flickr, Instagram, Imgur, Panoramio, Photobucket, Picasa, and Pinterest offer the ability to share photos and to comment on them, creating an enormous repository of images. However, there is still a lack of understanding on how to read, use, and interpret these images. As Felten (2008) states, people can develop the ability to recognize, interpret, and use different visual forms. This learning process is a dynamic exercise that continues throughout our lives by acquiring more advanced ways to produce, analyze, and employ images. Preface xv

What is Media Literacy?

The way we receive and assimilate information has been a transformative process, accelerated in the past few decades by the inclusion of the personal computer and the Internet. From the invention of the printed press to the ubiquitous presence of the smartphone in our daily lives, technology has made information more accessible; however, it also has caused an overflow of information which has sometimes proven challenging to interpret, classify, and understand. Our ability to create, process, dissect, and distribute information has been forever changed. There is a need to rationalize and understand the impact of media in our lives; thus, the need for co- hesive strategies and regulations is imperative, especially in the educational setting. As Considine, Jorton, and Moorman argue (2009), students live in an environment in which reading and writing through digital media is pervasive. Students bring to school a different set of literacy practices and tools that are often unrecognized or underused by educators. Thus it becomes the teacher’s responsibility to connect the dots between what students already know, and what they need to learn. Same as with visual literacy, there is a need for evidence-based research strategies to help people to analyze and evaluate this continuous stream of information. The National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) defines media literacy as “the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate information in a variety of forms—is interdisciplinary by nature. Media literacy represents a necessary, inevitable, and realistic response to the complex, ever-changing electronic environment and communication cornucopia that surround us.” The association argues that in order to become prosperous citizens, “individuals need to develop expertise with the increasingly sophisticated information and entertainment media that address us on a multisensory level, affecting the way we think, feel, and behave” (National Association for Media Literacy Education 2007). The core principles of media literacy education, according to NAMLE, include active inquiry and critical thinking, must include all forms of media, build and re- inforce skills for learners of all ages, and develop informed, reflective, and engaged participants, among others. The Center for Media Literacy argues that there is a need for a more robust definition of media literacy. Their definition reads as follows: Media literacy is a twenty-first century approach to education which provides a framework to “access, analyze, evaluate, and create messages in a variety of forms—from print to video to the internet. Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society, as well as essential skills to inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy” (Center for Media Literacy 2011). xvi Preface

From Dream to Reality

This edited book was an idea that became a dream, and finally a reality. It was an idea nurtured by the first editor, Danilo M. Baylen, as a graduate student enrolled in a visual literacy course more than 20 years ago. It became a dream when the first editor and his colleague, Cristine Goldberg, co-presented a session at the Interna- tional Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) 2009 conference in Chicago. Two years ago, it became a reality when Adriana D’Alba, the second editor, joined the faculty at the University of West Georgia, and both editors found common and complemen- tary interests in areas of instructional technology, instructional design, technology integration practices, and multimedia development. What makes this edited book different? As editors, we believe that the 14 chapters provide an opportunity to showcase practice and evidence that supports curricular integration efforts of visual and media literacy in K-12 and higher education contexts. The chapters describe and discuss various models of integrating visual and media-based tools and resources, as well as provide ideas and advice from a wide range of experts and practitioners. Using the definitions from national and international groups of educators, researchers, and practitioners—NAMLE, ACRL, and IVLA—this book not only provides theoretical background but also step-by- step guidelines, expert advice, and practitioner experience to those interested, with a wide range of perspectives and possibilities on how to use and integrate visual and media-based tools and resources to promote literacy at all levels with various levels of guidance.

Finding Common Ground

The book was developed over a period of 9 months, during which potential authors went through a rigorous and extensive peer review process. After submit- ting the chapter proposals, potential authors received suggestions for manuscript development by an editorial team including the book editors. Authors were asked to identify their targeted audience and format (e.g., literature review/theoretical, evidence-based/data-driven, or case study), to align their topics to the adapted definition of visual and media literacy and outline potential implications. The subsequent blind peer review process included the participation of over 78 scholars, including potential authors. It also included practitioners from different professional backgrounds, such as higher education faculty (e.g., arts, sciences, education, library and information science), K-12 educators, and library media specialists. Reviewers were asked to provide extensive comments on the adequacy of literature, analysis of issues, and legitimacy of conclusions, while examining weaknesses and strengths of the submissions. Reviewers were also encouraged to include recommendations and constructive comments to improve the manuscripts. This exercise resulted in authors receiving feedback from four, or even five, different perspectives. Feedback Preface xvii received from the majority of authors indicated that they were pleased with the review process and suggestions. Comments made mention that the review process had contributed to stronger manuscripts. After the second review, authors resubmitted their final work. The editors made the final selection from those chapters that were better aligned with the scope of the book.

Framing, Learning, and Teaching

The 14 book chapters are categorized into three sections: Framing, Learning, and Teaching. The first section on framing laid the groundwork for the conversation on visual and media literacy with connections to graphic design, multiliteracies, visual thinking, and culture (i.e., Chaps. 1–4). The second section focuses on learning specific content and illustrated how the use, application, or integration of visual or media literacy into the curriculum can be helpful (i.e., Chaps. 5–10). The last section focuses on teaching visual and media literacy. The chapters illustrate how visual or media literacy can be taught across disciplines. Each chapter in this edited book includes a unique perspective and a critical analysis about the usefulness of visual and media literacy within different settings in the educational arena. It offers different strategies to include these inquiry-based, process-oriented concepts to improve the way we learn and teach. Chapter 1, “Graphic Design as a Learning Process,” written by Kristina Lamour Sansone, contends that graphic design’s combined language of pictures and text is an essential literacy for teaching and learning. The author analyzes the value of using images and written words to construct meaning by using picture–text integrated projects in the classroom and presents a review of literature focused on the definition and history of graphic design, while discussing the relationship between this discipline and visual and media literacy. She provides definitions for the terms pictures and texts and how they integrate with each other, and delivers examples of these integrations. The chapter includes an analysis of picture-text integration in early childhood, and describes research associated with picture–text integrated literacies, based on Mayer’s multimedia learning and Paivio’s dual-channel theories. Sansone presents the learning phases of graphic design, and offers diverse strategies to construct meaning. She also describes several useful examples on how her K-12 students use pictures and words in classroom activities, and enlists tools and resources for teachers and practitioners. Chapter 2, “Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities” presents an array of instructional strategies to develop the skills necessary to engage and process the extensive variety of information that students encounter in their daily lives. The author, Tonia Dousay, argues that educators must address curriculum that pre- pares visual literate citizens, and contends that this process can start with preservice teachers, but must include teacher educators and professional development person- nel currently in service. Within the chapter, the reader encounters the definitions of visual and media literacy from different scholars and institutions. xviii Preface

The chapter provides a careful selection of design activities based on digital stories and comic books, and offers an analysis of their essential components, steps, processes, and digital applications used in their creation. The author presents suf- ficient literature background that supports the design of these activities, and delivers successful examples used in the classroom, along with standards and assessment procedures. Dousay contends that, while design activities present outstanding benefits, there are challenges and considerations that must be addressed. Ethical dilemmas related to image manipulation, race, religion, and socioeconomic classes can influence the outcomes of these activities. In addition, the author presents an exploration of the availability of activities that promote multiliteracy for learners with disabilities. Dabney Hailey, Alexa Miller, and Philip Yenawine, authors of Chapter 3, “Un- derstanding and Teaching Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Ap- proach,” present a comprehensive review of literature on the definition of visual literacy, and discuss in detail the Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) method, developed by Abigail Housen and Philip Yenawine. The authors analyze Housen’s work and research process that ultimately resulted in the development of VTS, and provide an elaborated account of her first two of five proposed aesthetic stages: accountive and constructive viewers. The authors argue that previsually literate individuals reach basic visual literacy at the end of stage two. Readers of this chapter can examine the VTS protocol and its implications for teaching, while reviewing research-based evidence on the impact of VTS in elementary and healthcare education. Hailey, Miller, and Yenawine indicate that visually literate people “have the dis- position to sustain the act of observation, recognizing that taking time to look is an essential part of the inquiry process and remaining confident that such looking will reveal new information and possibilities,” and contend that visual literacy can be cultivated through VTS. The authors discuss the need for further research on the impact of visual thinking strategies in the development of visual literacy, and identify possible future research on the impact of VTS in areas such as critical thinking, attention and metacognition, standardized test performance in K-12 education, and diagnosis accuracy and patient satisfaction. Brooke Scherer, author of Chapter 4, “Visual Communication and Culture: De- sign Education for a Globalized World,” offers a unique perspective on cultural awareness and visual communication among audiences of varying backgrounds. The author’s job experience working for a global advertising agency provides a valuable and candid account of successes and failures when trying to communicate an idea by thinking locally, but acting globally. She contends that current design pedagogy teaches students how to visually communicate with their peers, but does not account for culturally diverse audiences who do not share the same backgrounds and beliefs. Scherer argues that there is still a lack of educational awareness regarding audience backgrounds, and hints at the need for the incorporation of these cultural issues into higher education curriculum using graphic design as a “discipline that both adapts, and advances through modern-day visually communicative needs.” In this chapter, readers can encounter foundational components that help to create effec- Preface xix tive designed visual communications. Those elements—dimensions, environmental context, symbolism, and consumer behavior—are included in a component matrix designed by Scherer, along with an example of how to use this tool. In addition, this chapter describes and analyzes the stages of a practical project developed by Scherer’s students, where they were required to create global cam- paigns for American companies. Students were expected to conduct background research in the audience assigned by the instructor, formulated their findings in a for- mal presentation, and created the campaign utilizing Scherer’s component matrix. Chapter 5, “Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential,” written by Jeff Share, introduces cameras as an ideal tool to be used in classrooms to support the teaching of different content through photography. The author discusses the power and limitations of photography and its ability to convey messages that no other medium can do in the same way. Photographic images, Share argues, can start or end wars, send people to jail, inspire political dissent, and have caused people to fall in love. The author presents documented examples and citations from multiple authors and scholars regarding this medium, and contends that “everyone today is a photographer.” He describes advances in technology as the perfect way to engage our society in picture taking. This engagement can benefit teachers and students alike, as the prohibitive expenses related to the purchase of photographic equipment and film development have been diminished by the introduction of digital cameras and smartphones. The author presents a critical media literacy pedagogy used in the teacher education program at the University of California, Los Angeles, and analyzes five conceptual understandings of media education derived from this pedagogy. Share discusses a detailed account of his experiences using photography in both the elementary school and higher education settings, and concludes that photography and media are youth’s tools of choice for engaging with others and expressing themselves; thus, it is imperative for educators to prepare students to critically analyze visual images and printed texts. Mary Christel examines image creation as a medium of communication in Chapter 6, “Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World: Visual Composition for Better Representation.” She argues that, although students have become instant creators of images aided by technological tools, they still lack advanced levels of digital, media, and visual literacies in order to access, analyze, interpret, evaluate, use, and create visual messages. The author contends that understanding the principles of visual composition allows novice and experienced image curators and creators to expand their insight and ability of image analysis for their emotional and narrative potential. The chapter presents a series of specific activities designed to prepare image producers to use these principles, resulting in producers using available technology in a manner that demonstrates their ability to interpret and select the essential tools to communicate their views, while examining and understanding existing media messages. Each of these activities, tied to the NAMLE standards, promote the use of a variety of social media channels to share visual and verbal messages. Christel contends that students need to construct a set of digital citizenship competencies to support their emerging digital competencies, provides suggestions xx Preface for their development, and concludes with the idea that Common Core presents a unique opportunity for teachers and students to construct learning relationships to perfect their visual and media literacy awareness and image production skills. Chapter 7, “Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education: From Consumers to Producers,” written by Jill E. Flynn and William Lewis, presents student project examples and multimodal assignments used in their undergraduate methods courses offered for English language arts teachers at the University of Delaware. The authors utilize digital tools such as iMovie, Windows MovieMaker, and VoiceThread to help students produce digital content directed to English language arts, while engaging in creative and reflective tasks. In this chapter, Flynn and Lewis discuss the concept of “metaphorical construct,” introduced in the early 1990s as a method for group problem solving and innova- tion. They present several student examples and explain the process of using this approach: students select an element of the text they consider of high importance; then, identify a physical or cultural object related to the text and deconstruct it to its constituent parts; and finally, present their creative metaphor to their peers. The authors also create a connection between the “metaphorical construct” and digital tools, as they “provide an opportunity for students to not only read, but also practice composing multimedia texts, and to efficiently share their work with their peers.” The authors examine digital stories and their relationship with identity and teaching within the course “Literacy and Technology.” Students brainstorm ideas about the story they want to tell, use mind mapping digital tools, create storyboards using online resources, develop a script, and produce an artifact that describes their own stories. Chapter 8, “Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects,” written by Chareen Snelson, presents the social media platform YouTube as one of the largest depositories of online video, and defines its potential for the development of visual and media literacy competencies. The author describes the creation of a graduate-level course named “YouTube for Educators,” and accounts how visual and media literacies were infused in the curriculum. The chapter explains in detail the curricular, technological, and societal factors involved in the decision- making process to produce the course. It also identifies challenges encountered in the development and implementation phases, and provides advisement and solu- tions to those issues. Snelson introduces an overview of visual and media literacy competencies and their embedment in the YouTube course. She describes in detail a series of projects divided in two broad categories: video curation and video creation. These projects include a video blog, a PowerPoint movie, a remix video, and interactive YouTube videos. The author concludes that although the course will most likely evolve as continuous evolution of social media and student experiences occurs, “visual and media literacy and educational technology competencies will remain central to future iterations of the ‘YouTube for Educators’ course.” Taralynn Hartsell argues that graphic organizers help students and instructors organize information visually, and permits learners to examine patterns and relationships in Chaper 9, “Mapping Concepts for Learning.” She provides literature Preface xxi background on visual learning theories such as dual coding, schema, and cognitive load, and discusses how these theories explain the basis which graphic organizers are built upon. Hartsell contends that concept maps serve as the foundation of les- son plan and module content, as they are graphical representations of ideas, relationships, and connections. The chapter documents a case study where the author created concept maps to organize the content of a graduate-level course. Hartsell had previously used this strategy in her undergraduate courses; however, in those, students were the ones required to create concept maps regarding a subject area of their choice. She explains the content creation process and procedures implemented, paying special attention to the description of instructional materials and tools used during this exercise. The author also points out challenges and outcomes encountered during and after the course ended, and provides directions and recommendations for future research. Chapter 10, “Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learn- ing of Core Concepts,” introduces the readers to the concept of scientific visualization as a new type of literacy, which requires appropriate scaffolding for learners, while using static and dynamic visual and graphical media. The team of S. Raj Chaudhury, Lynn Mandeltort, Amy B. Mulnix, Eleanor V. H. Vandergrift, and Jen- nifer R. Yates, as authors, discuss the importance of incorporating graphical elements and activities that foster visual literacy, specifically in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses, which are often viewed as abstract, uninspiring, and rigid. The chapter also illustrates how college-level faculty in STEM effectively uses media literacy skills to enhance their courses. The authors argue that introducing scaffolding and opportunities for students to interpret, analyze, predict, and construct representations of phenomena with static and dynamic visual and graphical media in their courses, provided their pupils with a deeper understanding of the course content through visual interpretation. The authors present several vignettes and discuss their application in physics, chemistry, biology, and neuroscience courses, while introducing teaching takeaways for practitioners interested in each of these subject areas. In Chapter 11, “Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy to Promote Visual Literacy,” Darryl C. Draper presents a detailed account of an ex- ploratory case study focused on the effectiveness of concept mapping and graphic organizers to promote visual literacy. The case study was conducted in an 8-week online graduate-level course named “Special Topics: Digital Knowledge Mapping/ Management,” in which digital knowledge maps and graphic organizers were used both for course design and course activities. The research attempted to explain how these tools promote visual literacy and learning outcomes. Draper provides literature-based definitions of Bloom’s taxonomy (revised), CmapTools, knowledge visualization, graphic organizers, knowledge vee diagrams, communities of practice, and ties the concepts and tools to visual and media literacy practices. The author also provides an explanation on how those tools supported the instructional activities, along with the design and development of the course. After the conclusion of the course, Draper analyzed students’ knowledge maps and their correspondent written justification and encountered four emergent themes: xxii Preface

research, construction process, organization, and behavior. The author concludes that digital knowledge maps are a viable tool in promoting visual literacy and learning effectiveness, and can also be relevant evaluation instruments for instructors and students alike. Lindsay K. Mattock documents a case study developed in a higher education setting in Chapter 12, “Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills in Media Produc- tion Technology.” This chapter is mainly directed to archivists, librarians, and those charged with training informational professionals at the graduate level; however, as the author indicates, the approach presented within the chapter can be used in other academic disciplines where students are not required to create, but rather analyze and interpret specific media products and images. Mattock discusses the need for visual and media literacy in the library and information science graduate curriculum, while providing a detailed literature review of visual and media literacy definitions. She includes well-documented research-based practices used by archivists and librarians, and offers a rationale for a visual and media literacy approach in an elective course named “Moving Image Archives” that addresses visual materials in the archival context. The author exhibits strategies and procedures followed in the design and revisions of the 12-week graduate course and discusses in detail the activities, outcomes, and feedback provided by students at the end of the term. Chapter 13, “Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects in Digital Environments,” presents a unique perspective on the use of visual and media literacy strategies for teaching art history at the undergraduate level. The author, Julia Finch, states that with the introduction of the Internet to the educational arena, professors and students can access digital image collections and virtual spaces without the financial burden or time restrictions that real spaces often present. The author cites that “students born into a digitally literate culture have a set of skills that is not only conductive to the study of art and architecture, but that can be honed through art history as a life skill that will serve them well beyond the classroom in our image -and media- saturated world.” The chapter provides an art historical perspective on visual literacy and offers a particular view on digital imagery and applications for the classroom. It also analyzes how visual media literacy can be used to recreate material objects and digital environments where instructor and students can meet and have meaningful inter- actions while working on assignments and exercises that are easily accessible on their own media devices, such as smartphones, computers, and tablets. Finch also discusses the usefulness of visual thinking strategies (explained in deep detail in Chapter 3 of this book) as successful and necessary foundations for visual analysis assignments. The author provides the reader a detailed explanation of four activities and assessments for visual literacy in digital environments, which include social media image sharing, understanding the digitized object, understanding digital spaces, and digital curating. These activities exhibit the opportunity for students and teachers to meet and interact, using digital environments and tools. Finally, Chapter 14, “Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design and Implemen- tation, Tools and Techniques,” written by Elizabeth K. Anderson, Rhonda S. Robinson, Preface xxiii and Kristin Brynteson, presents a case study which includes a detailed account of strategies applied to a newly redesigned graduate-level, interdisciplinary course in visual literacy offered through The Department of Educational Technology, Re- search, and Assessment at Northern Illinois University. In this chapter, the authors explain the reasoning for the redesign, present detailed steps of the process, and offer an elaborated account of materials, tools, and strategies used for the redesign. These include a themed blended approach, reflective writing, online portfolios, and collaborative projects in Weebly, interactive online discussions in Blackboard, and several low-stakes production assignments using diverse technological tools such as Animoto, Pixton, and GoAnimate. The authors provide several screen captures related to the course, which allow the reader to visualize its content and structure and introduce strategies for instruction and assessment. The chapter enlists several student quotes taken from the end-of-course survey, which illustrate the successfulness of the modified class, and provide a detailed insight about student opinions and deep reflections regarding this blended course. The authors also offer implications across educational settings and provide recommendations for the delivery, design, instruction, and assessment of courses focused on, and beyond, visual literacy.

A Million Thanks

We, the editors, appreciate the chapter authors for their quality work. Though we divided the edited book into three sections, we believe that some of the book chapters can be placed in more than one section. The topics that each chapter addresses can apply to multiple sections. Furthermore, we believe that these chapters can serve as excellent materials for those interested in visual and media literacy—as a new teacher, faculty member, researcher, or practitioner. It may not give an imme- diate answer to one’s question, but it will at least provide an idea that may inspire an act of courage and a sense of adventure given the rapidly changing educational contexts. This edited book has become a reality due to numerous individuals, from those who initially proposed, authored manuscripts, and acted as peer reviewers, and their multiple contributions. The editors would like to thank them all for what has been accomplished. At a personal level, the editors acknowledge a good friend, Cristine Goldberg, who cheered and provided sage advice “when things got tough,” while making this dream a reality, and three research assistants; Kristen Grabowski, Ken- dal Lucas, and Michelle Michael, who did more than their share of proofreading. Adriana expresses her appreciation to her husband, Lee Brown, for his support and understanding. Finally, we hope that you will enjoy reading the book chapters as we did, and will be inspired to do more teaching, learning, and research related to visual and media literacy in the near future.

Danilo M. Baylen and Adriana D’Alba University of West Georgia, USA xxiv Preface

References

Visual Literacy Standards Task Force. (2011). ACRL Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education. Association of College & Research Libraries. http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visual literacy. Avgerinou, M., & Ericson, J. (1997). A review of the concept of visual literacy. Brit- ish Journal of Educational Technology, 28(4), 280–291. Considine, D., Horton, J., & Moorman, G. (2009). Teaching and reading the millen- nial generation through media literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(6), 471–481. doi:10.1598/JAAL.52.6.2. Fransecky, R. B., & Debes, J. L. (1972). Visual literacy: A way to learn, a way to teach. Washington, DC: AECT Publications. Felten, P. (2008). Visual literacy. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 40(4), 60–64. Harris, B. R. (2005). ‘Big Picture’ pedagogy: The convergence of word and image information literacy instruction. Currents and convergence: Navigating the rivers of change: Proceedings of the ACRL 12th National Conference. ALA, Chicago. Horton, J. (1983). Visual literacy and visual thinking. In L. Burbank & D. Pett (Eds.), Contributions to the study of visual literacy (pp. 92–106). Bloomington: International Visual Literacy Association. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. New York: Routledge. Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell S., & Purcell K. (2010). Teens and mobile phones. Pew Internet & American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org. National Association for Media Literacy Education. (November 2007). Core principles of media literacy education in the United States. http://namle.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/CorePrinciples.pdf. Rezabek, L. (1999). Importance of visual literacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Houston, Texas. Robinson, R. S. (1984). Learning to see: Developing visual literacy through film. Top of the News, 40(3), 267–275. Smith, A. (2013). Smartphone ownership. Pew Internet & American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org. Contents

Part I Framing Using Strategies from Graphic Design to Improve Teaching and Learning ...... 3 Kristina Lamour Sansone Reinforcing Multiliteracies Through Design Activities ...... 27 Tonia A. Dousay Understanding Visual Literacy: The Visual Thinking Strategies Approach ...... 49 Dabney Hailey, Alexa Miller and Philip Yenawine Visual Communication and Culture: Design Education for a Globalized World ...... 75 Brooke N. Scherer Part II Integrating Cameras in Classrooms: Photography’s Pedagogical Potential . . . . . 97 Jeff Share Presenting My Selfie to the Digital World: Visual Composition for Better Representation Mary T. Christel Multimodal Composition in Teacher Education: From Consumers to Producers ...... 147 Jill Ewing Flynn and William Lewis Integrating Visual and Media Literacy in YouTube Video Projects . . . 165 Chareen Snelson Using Scientific Visualization to Enhance the Teaching and Learning of Core Concepts ...... 185 S. Raj Chaudhury, Lynn Mandeltort, Amy B. Mulnix, Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift and Jennifer R. Yates

xxv xxvi Contents

Mapping Concepts for Learning ...... 203 Taralynn Hartsell Part III Teaching Digital Knowledge Mapping as an Instructional Strategy to Promote Visual Literacy: A Case Study ...... 219 Darryl C. Draper Teaching Visual and Media Literacy Skills Through Media Production Technology ...... 237 Lindsay Kistler Mattock Visual Literacy and Art History: Teaching Images and Objects in Digital Environments ...... 251 Julia A. Finch Teaching Visual Literacy: Pedagogy, Design and Implementation, Tools, and Techniques ...... 265 Elizabeth K. Anderson, Rhonda S. Robinson and Kristin Brynteson Index ...... 291 About the Editors

Danilo M. Baylen is a professor of media and instructional technology at the University of West Georgia. Prior to his faculty role, he worked as an instructional designer at Florida Gulf Coast University, director of instructional technology services at the University of Akron, and coordinator of the Center for Instructional Design and Development at the Ohio State University at Mansfield. He also worked as a teacher of English as a second language, and social worker in Southeast Asian refugee camps. His academic credentials include graduate degrees in instructional technology, library and information studies, elementary education, and counseling, and an undergraduate degree in economics. Currently, Dr. Baylen is the president of the International Division of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). He has published articles, book chapters, and conference proceeding papers and presentations on technology integration practices, online teaching and learning, and faculty development. He has been involved in several advisory boards including the International Visual Literacy Association; Southern Regional Faculty and Instructional Development Consortium; and the Technology, Colleges and Community Online Conference. He serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of International Students, Quarterly Review of Distance Education, Social Studies Research and Practice, TechTrends, and To Improve the Academy.

Adriana D’Alba is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Tech- nology and Foundations at the University of West Georgia. She holds a PhD in educational computing and an MPhil in 2D/3D motion graphics. After finishing her bachelor’s degree in graphic design, she spent several years developing Web sites and managing Web services for diverse clients. She switched to academia in 2001 where she focused her research on digital multimedia, and taught classes in two universities in Mexico. Her research interests include multimedia applications and technology integration in the classroom, instructional design and assessment of 3D online environments for learning, virtual museums, online games for learning, and integration of emerging technologies in the STEM curriculum.

xxvii Contributors

Elizabeth K. Anderson College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, IL, USA

Kristin Brynteson Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

S. Raj Chaudhury Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Mary T. Christel Adlai E. Stevenson H.S. (emeritus), Wheeling, IL, USA

Tonia A. Dousay Department of Professional Studies, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA

Darryl C. Draper Department of STEM Education and Professional Studies, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA

Julia A. Finch Department of Art and Design, Morehead State University, More- head, KY, USA

Jill Ewing Flynn Department of English, University of Delaware, Newark, USA

Dabney Hailey Hailey Group, LLC, Cambridge, MA, USA

Taralynn Hartsell Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA

Kristina Lamour Sansone Lesley University, College of Art and Design, Cam- bridge, MA, USA

William Lewis School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, USA

Lynn Mandeltort Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA xxix xxx Contributors

Lindsay Kistler Mattock School of Library and Information Science, The Univer- sity of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA

Alexa Miller Arts Practica, LLC, Guilford, CT, USA

Amy B. Mulnix Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, PA, USA

Rhonda S. Robinson Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

Brooke N. Scherer Department of Art, The University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, USA

Jeff Share Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Chareen Snelson Department of Educational Technology, Boise State University, Boise, ID, USA

Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Jennifer R. Yates Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, OH, USA

Philip Yenawine Visual Understanding in Education, Wellfleet, MA, USA Acknowledgment

We, as editors, cannot express enough our gratitude to the reviewers for the detailed feedback they provided on assigned manuscripts. We appreciate the time they spent reading the submissions and crafting their reviews. The comments and suggestions received during this rigorous peer-review process contributed to the quality and success of this edited book.

Elizabeth Anderson, College of DuPage, IL Maria D. Avgerinou, American Community Schools of Athens, Greece Deborah Banker, Angelo State University, TX Anne Barnhart, University of West Georgia, GA Joan Beaudoin, Wayne State University, MI Joy Blackwell, University of North Texas, TX Kristin Brynteson, Northern Illinois University, IL S. Raj Chaudhury, Auburn University, AL Sonal Chawla, Panjab University, India Geri Chesner, National Louis University, IL Mary Christel, Adlai Stevenson High School, IL Lauren Cifuentes, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, TX O.P. Cooper, University of West Georgia, GA Ana Donaldson, Association for Educational Communications & Technology Tonia Dousay, University of Wyoming, WY Daryl Draper, Old Dominion University, VA Joan Dunlap, University of Colorado Denver, CO Charles Elfer, Clayton State University, GA Brian Fahey, South Forsyth High School, GA Julia Finch, Morehead State University, KY Jill Ewing Flynn, University of Delaware, DE Diane Fulkerson, University of South Florida, Sarasota-Manatee, FL xxxi xxxii Acknowledgment

Cristine Goldberg, University of Cumberlands, KY Jonathan Gratch, University of North Texas, TX Dabney Hailey, Hailey Consulting Group, LLC Taralynn Hartsell, University of Southern Mississippi, MS Linda Haynes, University of West Georgia, GA John Hedberg, Macquarie University, Australia Kate Highfield, Macquarie University, Australia Shannon Howrey, Kennesaw State University, GA Rebecca Hunt, Northern Illinois University, IL Mariko Izumi, Columbus State University, GA Erin Johnson, University of West Georgia, GA Jackie Kim, Armstrong State University, GA Jung Lee, Roger Stockton College of New Jersey, NJ Susan Levine, DeKalb Country School District, GA William Lewis, University of Delaware, DE Lijia Lin, East China Normal University, China Patrick Lowenthal, Boise State University, ID Christine Malinowski, Lewis & Clark College, OR Lynn Mandeltort, Auburn University, AL Caydee Manning, California State University Long Beach, CA Lindsay Kistler Mattock, The University of Iowa, IA Marilyn May, Georgia Gwinett College, GA Alexa Miller, ArtsPractica, LLC Bruce L. Mims, Excell Education Innovations, CA Amy B. Mulnix, Franklin and Marshall College, PA Stacey Nickson, Auburn University, AL Jerry Mobley, Fort Valley State University, GA Jen Mooney, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, VA Laura Ng, University of North Georgia, GA Titilola Obilade, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, VA Janice Odom, Georgia Gwinnett College, GA Annie Olson, Le Tourneau University, TX Angela Pashia, University of West Georgia, GA Caroline Perjessy, University of West Georgia, GA Dawn Putney, University of West Georgia, GA Karen Redding, University of North Georgia, GA Scott Roberts, Central Michigan University, MI Rhonda S. Robinson, Northern Illinois University, IL Kristina Lamour Sansone, Lesley University, MA Wilhelmina Savenye, Arizona State University, AZ Brooke Scherer, The University of Tampa, FL Molly Schoen, University of Michigan, MI Jeff Share, University of California Los Angeles, CA Carmen Skaggs, Columbus State University, GA Chareen Snelson, Boise State University, ID Acknowledgment xxxiii

Phyllis Snipes, University of West Georgia, GA Christine Sorensen, University of Hawaii at Manoa, HI Glovis South, Heard County Middle School, GA Michael Stevenson, Macquarie University, Australia Frank Stonier, University of West Georgia, GA Eleanor V.H. Vandegrift, University of Oregon, OR Don Walling, Association for Educational Communications & Technology Jennifer R. Yates, Ohio Wesleyan University, OH Philip Yenawine, Visual Understanding in Education, MA