Gabriel Biel

1 Life

Biel’s studies were pursued at , and . During the early 1460s, he became a preacher in the Cathedral of , of which he was vicar. It was while at the Cathedral of Mainz that he took to the de- fense of Adolf von Nassau, and wrote Defensorium obedi- ente apostolice. Later, he became a superior of the canons at Butzbach, and lived in the House of the Brethren on the Rheingau until 1468. He was invited by Duke Eberhard I to become the first provost of the new Brethren House at St. Mark’s, where he served for nine years, further- ing the Brethren movement by bringing about a General Chapter of the Brethren on the upper Rhine in Mainz and integrating Brethren piety into the curricula of the school there. In 1479 he was appointed provost of the canonry in Urach. At this period Biel cooperated with Duke Eberhard in the founding the University of Tübingen. Appointed in 1484 as the first professor of theology in the new , he continued to be one of the most celebrated members of its faculty until his death, even serving as Rector in 1484 and 1489. There, he opposed the appointment of the Realist Johann Heynlin to the faculty. Wendelin Stambach, Supplementum commentarii, 1574 Though he was almost sixty years of age when he began to teach, Biel’s work, both as professor and as writer, re- flected the highest honour on the young university. His Gabriel Biel, C.R.S.A. (1420 to 1425 – 7 Decem- work consists in the systematic development of the views ber 1495), was a German scholastic philosopher and of his master, William Ockham. In later years, he was member of the of the Congregation of known as the “last of the Scholastics”.[1] He retired to the Windesheim, who were the clerical counterpart to the Brethren House of St. Peter’s at Eisiedeln, in the Canton Brethren of the Common Life. of Schwyz, where he died. Biel was born in Speyer and died in Einsiedeln. In 1432 he was ordained to the priesthood and entered Heidelberg University to obtain a baccalaureate. He succeeded aca- demically and became an instructor in the faculty of the 2 Works arts for three years, until he pursued a higher degree at the University of Erfurt. His first stay was brief, lasting Biel’s first publication, on the of the Mass, is of only until he transferred to the University of Cologne. He permanent and value. His second and most im- did not complete his degree there either, and would re- portant work is a commentary on the Sentences of Peter turn to Erfurt in 1451 to finish. The curriculum at these Lombard, which would come to play a major influence two universities varied greatly, with Cologne stressing St. on during the coming . In this and overall scholastic curricula heav- he calls Occam his master, but the last three books show ily, and Erfurt emphasizing William Ockham. Because him more Scotist than Nominalist. Matthias Scheeben of his reliance on the scholastic tradition, as well as the describes him as “one of the best of the Nominalists, nominalist views of Ockham, he is often credited as be- clear, exact, and more positive as well as more loyal to ing an “articulate spokesman of the via moderna and … a the Church than any of the others” (Dogmatik, no. 1073). discerning user of the thought of via antiqua” (Oberman, The Janssen declares that he was one of the few 11). Nominalists who erected a theological system without in-

1 2 3 ECONOMIC THOUGHT

the role that scripture has on these. In it, he takes a po- sition similar to Bernard of Clairvaux's potentudo potes- tatis. As a matter of fact, he acknowledged the primacy and supreme power of the Roman Pontiff, but, in com- mon with many other theologians of his time, maintained the superiority of general Councils, at least to the ex- tent that they could compel the ’s resignation. And he displayed no more theological freedom than has been claimed and exercised by some of the strictest theolo- gians. Because of Biel’s insistence on maintaining the precarious balancing act between his scholastic and modern views of theology, it is often the case that “His philosophical thought is not straightforwardly innovative, but has more of a synthetic nature; his generally recognized clarity of expression if often achieved by contrasting diverse posi- tions with each other (Gracia, A Companion to in the ). Among the opinions defended by Biel concerning matters controversial in his day, the following are worthy of men- tion: (a) That all ecclesiastical jurisdiction, even that of , is derived either immediately or mediately from the pope. In this connection it is to be noted that his de- fence of the episcopal claims of Diether von Isenburg won Commentarii doctissimi in 4. Sententiarum libros, 1574 him the thanks of Pius II. (b) That the power of absolving is inherent in sacerdotal orders, and that only the matter, i.e., the persons to be absolved, can be conceded or with- curring the charge of unorthodoxy. (Cf. Geschichte des held by the ordinary. (c) That the minister of baptism deutschen Volkes, I, 127, 15th ed.) need have no more specific intention than that of doing Biel was neither narrow nor excessively speculative. what the faithful, that is, the Church, intends. (d) That the Though a Nominalist, he was tolerant of Realism, which State may not compel , or heathens, or their children also flourished at Tübingen under the leadership of to receive baptism. (e) And that the contractum trinius is Konrad Summenhart. A Scholastic, he was, to quote morally lawful. All of these opinions have since become Janssen, “free from empty speculations and ingenious in- the prevailing theological doctrine. tellectual juggling, being concerned with questions and Biel’s other works include: Sacri canonis Missae expositio needs of actual life” (ibid.), was interested in the social resolutissima literalis et mystica (Brixen, 1576); an abridg- movements of his time, and maintained friendly relations ment of this work, entitled Epitome expositionis canonis with the Humanists. One of the latter, Heinrich Bebel, Missae (Antwerp, 1565); Sermones (Brixen, 1585), on the gave him the title of “monarch among theologians”. His Sundays and festivals of the Christian year, with a disqui- theological writings were repeatedly brought into the dis- sition on the plague and a defence of the authority of the cussions of the . pope; Collectorium sive epitome in magistri sententiarum Living as he did in a transition period, Biel exhibits char- libros IV (Brixen, 1574); and Tractatus de potestate et util- acteristics of two intellectual eras. According to some, he itate monetarum. was a Scholastic who expounded rather than the Scriptures; according to others, he defended freer theo- logical teaching, and opposed the ancient constitution of the Church and the authority of the pope. 3 Economic thought In May 1459, a controversy arose when Diether von Isen- burg was elected as Archbishop of Mainz, yet failed to The subject on which Biel held the most progressive views pay the required , and so, Adolph von Nassau was is political economy. Wilhelm Roscher, who with Gustav given the position. When Deither began appealing to an- Schmoller introduced him to modern students of eco- tipapal sentiments present throughout the Holy Roman nomics, declares that Biel’s grasp of economics enabled Empire, escalading the conflict, Biel became involved. him not only to understand the work of his predecessors, He campaigned unequivocally for Adolph, and was forced but to advance beyond them. (Cf. Geschichte der Nation- to flee Mainz. While in hiding, he wrote the Defenso- alökonomik in Deutschland, 21 sqq.) According to Biel, rium obediente apostolice, an ecclesiastical treatise on the the just price of a commodity is determined chiefly by extent of papal authority (and the Church authority) and human needs, by its scarcity, and by the difficulty of pro- 3 ducing it. • This article incorporates text from a publication now Biel’s enumeration includes all the factors that govern in the public domain: Ryan, John Augustin (1907). market price, and is more complete and reasonable than "Gabriel Biel". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic any made by his predecessors. (Cf. Garnier, L'idée du Encyclopedia. 2. New York: Robert Appleton. just prix, 77.) The same author maintains that concerning • Thomas Aquinas and Gabriel Biel. Farthing, John the occupation of the merchant or trader, Biel is more ad- vanced than St. Thomas, since he attaches no stigma to it, • The Harvest of Medieval Theology: Gabriel Biel and but holds it to be good in itself, and the merchant entitled Late Medieval . Heiko, Oberman to remuneration because of his labour, risks, and expense. Biel’s discussion of these subjects is contained in Book IV • Fifty Key Medieval Thinkers. Evans, GR, (London of his commentary on the Sentences. He wrote a special and New York: Routledge, 2002) work on currency, Ein wahrhaft goldenes Buch, in which • The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy. he stigmatizes the debasing of coinage by princes as dis- Pasnau, Robert honest exploitation of the people. In the same work he severely condemns those rulers who curtailed the popular • A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Gra- of forest, meadow, and water, and who imposed ar- cia, Jorge and Noone, Timothy bitrary burdens of taxation, as well as the rich sportsmen who encroached upon the lands of the peasantry. 7 Works and translations 4 Legacy • Gabriel Biel, Sacri canonis Missae expositio resolutis- sima literalis et mystica, Brixen, 1576. In Biel’s Expositio Canonis Missae, he had an earlier ver- sion of “You get what you pay for": Pro tali numismate • Gabriel Biel, Epitome expositionis canonis Missae, tales merces.[2] Antwerp, 1565.

• Gabriel Biel, Gabrielis Biel Canonis Misse Expositio, 5 See also edited by and William J. Courte- nay, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1965-1967.

• Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen • Gabriel Biel, Sermones, Brixen, 1585.

• Johann Eck • Gabriel Biel, Collectorium sive epitome in magistri sententiarum libros IV, Brixen, 1574. • Wessel Gansfort • • Johannes von Goch Gabriel Biel, Tractatvs varii atqve vtilis de monetis, carvmqve mvtatione ac falsitate in gratiam studioso- • Juan de Mariana rum ac practicorum collecti, Cologne: Theodorus Baumius, 1574. • • Gabriel Biel, Treatise on the power and utility of • Johann Ruchrat von Wesel moneys, translated by Robert Belle Burke, Philadel- • Paulus Scriptoris phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, and London: Oxford University Press, 1930.

• Gabriel Biel, Defensorium Obedientiae Apostolicae 6 References et Alia Documenta, edited and translated by Heiko Oberman, Daniel E. Zerfoss, and William J. Courte- [1] Chisholm 1911. nay, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard [2] James Rogers (1985), The Dictionary of Cliches, 1987 University Press, 1968. reprint, New York: Ballantine, “You get what you pay for.” p. 353. 8 Further reading Attribution • “Gabriel Biel”, in Theologische Realenzyklopädie • This article incorporates text from a publication now (1980), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11- in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). 008115-6, pp. 488 f. "Biel, Gabriel". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • "Jodocus Trutfetter" (in German) 4 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Hertling (1875), “Gabriel Biel”, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB), Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, Vol. 2, pp. 622 f.

• Wolfgang Leesch, Ernest Persoons, and Anton G. Weiler (1979), edd., Fratrum Vitae Communis Monasticon, Brussels: Archives et Bibliothèques de Belgique/Archief-en-Bibliotheekwesen in Bel- gie, Special Number 19. • John Pascal Mazzola (1939), The Writings of John Wessel Gansfort (1419-1489): Considered as a Cri- tique of the Theological and Ecclesiological Problems of the Fifteenth Century, PhD dissertation, Univer- sity of Pittsburgh.

• Detlef Metz (2001), Gabriel Biel und die Mystik, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. • Heiko Oberman (1963), The Harvest of Me- dieval Theology: Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Nominalism, Cambridge: Harvard University Press (revised edition, 2001, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic).

• Heiko Oberman (1986), Dawn of the Reformation: Essays in Late Medieval and Early Reformation Thought, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. • Elisabeth Reinhardt (2007), “La recuperación del equilibrio teológico en Gabriel Biel”, in Por las ru- tas medievales del saber, Pamplona: EUNSA, ISBN 978-84-313-2465-0.

9 External links

• Works by or about Gabriel Biel at Internet Archive

• Literature by and about Gabriel Biel in the German National Library catalogue

• “Gabriel Biel”. Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL) (in German). • Hendrik Mäkeler: Nicolas Oresme und Gabriel Biel. Zur Geldtheorie im späten Mittelalter, in Scripta Mercuraturae: Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte 37 (2003) 1, S. 56-94. 5

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Gabriel Biel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Biel?oldid=705503014 Contributors: JASpencer, Peter Damian (original ac- count), Charles Matthews, Dimadick, Icairns, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Rje, Polylerus, FeanorStar7, Bluemoose, BD2412, FlaBot, Welsh, KocjoBot~enwiki, Betacommand, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Symposiarch, ErikNorvelle, WeggeBot, Cy- debot, Astynax, .anacondabot, R'n'B, Master shepherd, S (usurped also), Meiskam, TXiKiBoT, Ontoraul, GirasoleDE, Stanning, Francvs, Alexbot, NuclearWarfare, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Omnipaedista, Green Cardamom, Full-date unlinking bot, Daniel the Monk, WikitanvirBot, Astatine211, Helpful Pixie Bot, Theol11111, VIAFbot, Federico Leva (BEIC), KasparBot and Anonymous: 12

10.2 Images

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10.3 Content license

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