Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 21

Pursuing Performance Excellence: Lessons Learned from Olympic Athletes and Coaches

Dan Gould, Christy Greenleaf, Diane Guinan, Kristen Dieffenbach and Sean McCann, USA

Dan Gould and Christy Greenleaf are with the Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro NC 27402-6169, [email protected] Diane Guinan is an exercise physiologist in private practice in Rockford, Illinois. Kristen Dieffenbach is a doctoral student at the University of North Carolina Greensboro. Sean McCann is the Director of Sport Psychology at the United States Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Abstract This manuscript reports lessons regarding performance excellence identified by U.S. Olympic athletes and coaches who took part in the 1996 Summer and 1998 Winter Olympic Games. These lessons were derived from in-depth interviews with 8 Atlanta and 7 Nagano athletes and from focus group interviews with 2 to 4 athletes from 8 Atlanta teams and 10 coaches from these teams. Surveys of 296 Atlanta Games athletes (46% of all U.S. competitors), 83 Nagano athletes (46%), 46 Atlanta Games coaches (46%) and 18 Nagano coaches (45%) were also conducted. The open-ended survey responses were combined with themes derived from transcripts of all interviews and content analyzed via a three person consensual validation procedure. Results revealed that 900 Olympic performance-related lessons were reported by Atlanta athletes and 335 lessons by Nagano athletes and were organized into 26 and 24 general categories respectively. Some of the larger categories included: mental preparation/training; achieving optimal physical conditioning while not overtraining; distraction preparation and awareness; plans and adhering to plans; and coaching. Relative to coaching lessons, 285 were identified by Atlanta coaches and 48 by Nagano coaches. Moreover, these individual lesson themes coalesced into 24 and 8 respective more general topical categories such as team cohesion/harmony; family/friend involvement; dealing with the media; and team selection; fun/enjoyment and trials. Results are discussed relative to peak performance research and an example of how to use these lessons in consulting is provided.

Pursuing Performance Excellence: Americans remember the unbelievable Lessons Learned from Olympic consistency of speed skater Bonnie Blair, Athletes and Coaches the artistry of diver Greg Luganis, the “miracle on ice” Lake Placid U.S. ice When most individuals think of the Olym- hockey team, or magnificent golden shoed pic Games, visions of the memorable per- sprinter Michael Johnson. It is ironic, then, formances of great athletes come to mind. that while sport psychology researchers In the United States, for example, most

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 22 have extensively studied the psychological reported that prior to their all-time best characteristics of successful athletes performance they experienced positive ex- (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams pectancies, optimal arousal states, and & Krane, 1998 for reviews), only a few heightened effort and commitment. The efforts (e.g. Orlick & Partington, 1988; use of systematic mental preparation Gould, Eklund, and Jackson, 1992a, strategies, including preparation routines, 1992b) have been made to study Olympic tactical strategies focus, and motivational competitors. strategies aided in the achievement of those optimal thought and emotional pat- Most notable is the work of Orlick and terns. In contrast, the wrestlers described Partington (1988) who examined the their all-time worst Olympic performance mental readiness and skills of 1984 Cana- as having negative feeling states, negative, dian Olympic athletes. Both interview and irrelevant, or irregular patterns of thought, survey methods were used in the study. and a nonadherence to preparation rou- Results revealed that mental readiness was tines. These results are consistent with the a significant factor influencing final research of Orlick and Partington (1988) Olympic ranking. Attentional focus and and suggest that mental skills play a cru- the use of performance imagery were cial role in Olympic athletic performance. associated with successful performance. Total commitment to the pursuit of excel- Although examining the psychological lence, quality training including goal set- skills and characteristics of Olympians is ting, competition simulation and imagery, important and has added to the sport psy- mental preparation for competition in- chology knowledge base, there may be cluding a detailed competition plan and a utility to looking beyond psychological plan for dealing with distractions were characteristics and attributes and focusing common factors found with the successful more broadly on recording the lessons athletes. Those Olympians that did not these competitors have learned from their perform up to their potential reported not Olympic experience. In essence, debrief- being prepared to deal with the distrac- ing athletes relative to the lessons they tions that they faced. Factors that inter- learned from their Olympic experience. fered with performance included changing things that previously worked, late team Experience is defined by Webster (1989) selection, and the inability to focus after as “the knowledge or feeling obtained distractions. It was concluded that the through direct impressions” or “the skill or mental aspect of performance is essential judgement gained by practice.” What for high achievement in important events knowledge and mental skill lessons are such as the Olympic Games. gained from preparing for and competing in the Olympic Games? This is the focus Following up on the Orlick and Partington of the present study. Our purpose was to (1988) study, Gould and colleagues record the lessons learned from Olympic (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a; 1992b) athletes and coaches in their quest for ath- conducted a series of studies examining letic excellence. the mental factors and preparation tech- niques associated with Olympic wrestling Interestingly, the development of a lessons excellence. All 20 members of the 1988 learned system is not without precedent in U.S. Olympic team were interviewed and the United States. The armed forces of the

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 23

United States have developed lessons Method learned systems for its various branches Both studies used a two-phase question- (McCarthy, 1994; Santala, 1994). These naire and interview data collection proce- systems grew out of concern that U.S. ser- dure and these are summarized below. vice men and women would repeatedly make the same wartime mistakes. Such Atlanta Study mistakes resulted because there was no In the questionnaire phase, surveys were system in place to record what went right developed and administered to all U.S. and wrong on the battlefield, organize athletes (N = 643) and coaches (N = 100) those lessons, and disseminate them to with known addresses who participated at other service men and women in the same the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games. The positions. A computer-based communica- survey items were based on: (1) interviews tion system was developed where raw ob- conducted with nine USOC staff members servations are collected and integrated into who had attended numerous previous meaningful lessons that are communicated Games (e.g., sport psychologists, an ath- throughout the military system to all those letic trainer, games preparation adminis- working at the same rank. Hence, the U.S. trators, etc.), (2) National Sport Governing military has developed a system of organ- Body high performance plan evaluations, izational memory. Sport psychology spe- and (3) USOC Atlanta Games coaches cialists may do well to consider such a summit debriefing notes. Topical areas "lessons learned" approach to record, or- included in the survey were: participant ganize and document mental lessons ath- background; Olympic expectations and letes and coaches learn about achieving readiness; the importance of mental skills performance excellence through their in Olympic performance; factors influ- Olympic experiences. Interestingly, such encing performance in the year leading up an approach is consistent with one of the to the Games and at the Games (e.g., ath- major functions of the field outlined by the lete preparation, media, team influences, father of North American sport psychol- coaching, family, sponsors, staffing, and ogy, Coleman Griffith (1925). Griffith environmental). Two hundred ninety-six said sport psychologists should study the athletes (46%) and 46 coach (46%) sur- best athletes and coaches in the field, re- veys were completed and returned. cord the psychological principles they employ, and disseminate those principles In addition to the surveys, the interview to less experienced and less successful phase of the project involved interviews athletes and coaches. with individual athletes, coaches, and teams. Specifically, in-person focus group This article presents lessons learned from interviews (involving 2 to 4 athletes) were U.S. Olympic athletes and coaches. These conducted with 4 highly successful teams lessons were assessed in two U.S. Olym- that equaled or exceeded NGB perform- pic Committee sponsored studies designed ance expectations at the Games and 4 to identify and examine factors that posi- teams that performed below NGB expec- tively and/or negatively affected the prepa- tations. The 10 coaches of these teams ration and performance of U.S. Olympic were also interviewed individually. Phone athletes and coaches prior to and during interviews with 8 athletes (4 that met or the 1996 Atlanta Summer and the 1998 exceeded expectations and 4 that did not Nagano Winter Olympic Games. meet expectations) were also conducted.

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Participants for all interviews, whether for coaches), written open-ended re- teams or individual athletes were selected sponses from the surveys and themes based on two criteria. First, based on pre- identified from the transcripts of all inter- vious performances at World champion- views were combined and content ana- ships they were projected to be potential lyzed. Procedures recommended by Miles medal contenders at the Games. Second, and Huberman (1994), and used in previ- USOC staff felt these individuals would be ous qualitative studies (e.g., Gould, Ek- good sources of information for the study. lund, and Jackson, 1993) were followed The interviews lasted between 30 and 90 for the data analysis. Specifically, each of minutes and focused on the same types of three investigators studied written tran- questions asked in the surveys. The goal scripts and organized “like” responses into of the interviews, however, was to try to more general categories. The three inves- obtain a feel for each team or athlete’s in- tigators then met as a group and consensus dividual Olympic experience and detailed was reached on each category and a sum- explanations of the factors that affected mary label for the category was deter- performance. mined. The responses regarding lessons learned are the focus of this manuscript. Nagano Study The Nagano study was a follow-up to the Results Atlanta investigation and with a few minor Lessons learned reported by the Atlanta exceptions (e.g., examined factors such as and Nagano participants focused on sug- jet lag, snow/ice conditions not applicable gestions for future Olympians and sugges- to the summer Games) used identical tions for future Olympic coaches. First, measures and procedures. Specifically, all lessons suggested by Olympic athletes are 1998 U.S. Nagano Olympians (N = 180) presented. Second, lessons learned from and coaches (N = 42) with known ad- Olympic coaches are forwarded. dresses were mailed surveys in the year after the Nagano Games. Eighty-three Athlete Lessons athletes (46%) and 19 coaches (45%) re- Based on the athlete surveys, focus group turned completed questionnaires. Individ- team interviews, and individual athlete in- ual phone interviews were also conducted terviews, Atlanta participants reported 900 with 7 athletes (4 that met or exceeded Olympic performance-related lessons and expectations and 3 that did not meet ex- Nagano participants reported 335 lessons. pectations), and focused on the same types The content analysis of these 900 individ- of questions asked in the surveys. Unlike ual lessons from Atlanta participants re- the Atlanta study, no team focus-group sulted in 26 more general categories. The interviews were conducted. content analysis of responses from Nagano participants resulted in 22 categories of Data Analysis lessons. Both Atlanta and Nagano partici- In both the survey and interview portions pants reported many of the same catego- of the studies the athletes and coaches ries of lessons learned (see Table 1). were asked what advice they would give to While space limitations prevent a detailed future Olympic coaches and athletes to description of all categories, some of the enhance their chances of peak perform- more frequently reported and psychologi- ance during Olympic competition. Within cally significant lessons will be discussed each area (advice for athletes and advice in more detail below.

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Most Frequently Reported Lessons ticipants reported 165 individual lessons Mental preparation and training. One (18.3% of total) and Nagano participants of the categories of advice most frequently reported 37 specific suggestions (11.0% of cited by both Atlanta and Nagano partici- total). In essence, this category reflected pants was “mental preparation/training.” the need to train hard and be very well Atlanta participants provided 173 specific prepared for the Olympics while not over- lessons (19.2% of total lessons) and Na- training. As one participant indicated: gano participants provided 73 specific “Sometimes you go a little overboard on lessons (21.8% of total lessons) related to [training]…I think the last weeks that we mental preparation and training. Specific did. What I needed was a mental break.” lessons contained in this category ranged Furthermore, another athlete advised: “Be from numerous suggestions to work with careful in trying to ‘get the edge’ that you sport psychology consultants to the im- don’t overdo it and ‘lose the edge’.” Thus, portance of engaging in long-term psy- such specific advice as training smart, chological preparation to the need to be taking breaks, resting as the competition mentally ready, confident, and focused. In approaches, individualizing training and addition, other more specific suggestions recognizing overtraining signs were often were offered. These included such things mentioned. as balancing the need to focus on one’s performance with enjoying the Olympic The story of one unsuccessful team re- experience (suggesting that focusing only flects this category of lessons well. Fa- on performance or being so caught up in vored for a medal going into the Games the Olympic excitement that one’s focus (as a result of their World champion waned was destructive); talking to others status), the team focused so much on and learning what to expect at the Games; training hard and gaining an edge over concentrating on oneself and finding time their opponents, that they physically over- to focus; staying confident and positive; trained. This also resulted from the inabil- having and implementing mental plans; ity of the athletes and coaches to recognize using stress management strategies; re- signs of overtraining, and their failure to laxing; and not putting extra pressure on communicate. The result was a mediocre oneself. Several quotes from the athletes Olympic campaign and the failure to earn reflect the importance of these lessons. any medal. For example, one Atlanta athlete said, “just as physical training is a process, so Coaching. As one might expect, an im- is mental training, and you can’t expect to portant category of lessons focused on have an expert come in and do a quick “coaching” issues. Atlanta participants fix.” Another athlete suggested, “work on cited 84 specific lessons (9.3% of total) mental and psychological skills so that and Nagano participants cited 37 specific they don’t get caught up in the hype.” lessons (11.0% of total) related to coach- ing issues. A variety of specific issues fell Optimal physical training while within this category, including such things avoiding overtraining. The second most as coaching credibility and trust, sugges- frequently cited category of lessons tions for athletes to deal with their coach learned across both Atlanta and Nagano (e.g., don’t be pressured), and the impor- participants was “optimal physical training tance of achieving good communication while avoiding overtraining.” Atlanta par- by avoiding sarcasm, emphasizing honesty

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 26 and being very clear in one’s remarks to a team with high performance expectations athletes. Especially salient lessons fo- going into Atlanta reported that they did cused on the need to incorporate personal not meet their expectations because many coaches by getting them access to venues of their athletes and coaches got so caught and coordinating their presence and inter- up in the Olympic village atmosphere that actions with official team coaches. Lastly, they failed to achieve the focus needed for it was also suggested that coaches not be- optimal performance. For example, one come distracted by the hoopla of the athlete from a less successful team said, Games. “they’re (other athletes) playing laser tag two hours before the game, they have no Distraction preparation and awareness. clue who we’ll play, what the line-up is or “Distraction preparation and awareness” what’s going on.” was an important category of lessons re- ported by the Atlanta participants (44 les- Other Lessons of Interest sons, 4.9% of total) and Nagano partici- Olympic village. A number of lessons pants (20 lessons, 6.0% of total). As one were identified relative to the “Olympic athlete indicated: “So I think all of us village” and related matters. Atlanta par- didn’t really realize the extent of those ticipants reported 43 specific lessons outside distractions and the pressure that (4.8% of total) related to the Olympic vil- continued to mount.” This category of lage. For example, athletes and coaches lessons included such specific advice as both made comments related to the deci- being ready to deal with all the distractions sion to stay in or out of the village and the and hoopla that come from the Olympics, advantages of each approach (i.e., draw an event the athletes repeatedly reported as energy from the village excitement versus very different from other major competi- losing focus due to all the Village distrac- tions. It was also emphasized that athletes tions). One athlete expressed that she need to minimize nonessential meetings wished she had stayed outside of the vil- and simplify their lives, learn to say no lage, “You do all these things that you and be selfish, not focus on small nones- work so hard at and then you get into a sential things, focus on what they can per- situation where there’s just too many peo- sonally control, and be ready to balance ple around all the time.” Spending too the Olympic “hoopla” with one’s perform- much time in the village, taking advantage ance mission and focus. of the many village amenities and diffi- culty finding privacy were also discussed Several interesting ways athletes and in numerous comments. teams dealt with distractions were given as examples of implementing this category of Team cohesion and harmony. “Team advice. One gold medal winning team, for cohesion and harmony” was an important instance, reported having a psychological category of responses compiled from “in” and “out” box in the month leading athletes and coaches comments espousing up to their performance. The entire team the need of team support, unity, and agreed that issues that directly effected bonding. Atlanta participants reported 33 performance went into the “in” box and specific lessons (3.7% of total). As one were immediately addressed, while non- athlete said, “We had respect for one performance issues (e.g., shoe contracts) another and we made each other live up to went into the out box, and were not ad- a higher standard.” Similarly one dressed until after the Games. In contrast,

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 27 individual sport athlete indicated that: “It Games and limiting contact with them was a team that came together like I’ve during the Games. never seen before and we just all bonded and it didn’t seem like anyone had…but Plans and adhering to plans. Related to this team did it and I mean the best feeling the category of distraction preparation and that I had was when I was up on the blocks awareness was “plans and adhering to or I was on the award podium and I saw plans.” Atlanta participants reported 29 my teammates there that are just going specific lessons (3.0% of total) and Na- crazy. I mean that was definitely, that gano participants reported 9 lessons (2.7% definitely helped… just to know that I of total) related to plans and adhering to wasn’t out there by myself. I had them and plans. Interviews emphasized that athletes they were there with me too.” and coaches should have psychological Interestingly, a number of participants also and physical preparation and competition suggested that teams engage in numerous routines developed (based on past success- team building exercises. Finally, increased ful performances). In addition, participants team cohesion and harmony advice was noted that coaches and athletes must ad- gleaned from both coaches and athletes of here to those routines and avoid making team, as well as individual sports. last minute changes—no easy task in the unique Olympic environment that offers a International competition. Atlanta par- host of distractions and changes from ticipants cited 32 specific lessons (3.6% of one’s normal practice and competitive total) related to international competition. schedules. Illustrating this point, one Specific lessons ranged from numerous athlete said, “more than anything athletes suggestions to gain as much international need to have already a routine established experience as possible prior to the Games and they need to stick with that routine to suggestions to limit international com- and take refuge in that routine because at petition the year prior to the Olympics. the Games, everything changes.” One athlete summed up the advice, saying “international tournaments are great and Support personnel. Relative to “support it’s great practice, but don’t overdo it.” personnel” (24 lessons, 2.7%; 16 lessons, 4.8%), it was recommended that athletes Family and friend involvement. Atlanta get support personnel (e.g., hairstylist for participants cited 31 lessons (3.4% of to- skaters, cook if living out of the village, tal) and Nagano participants reported 9 sport psychology consultant) organized for lessons (2.7% of total) related to family the Games. It was also emphasized that and friend involvement. Lessons in the athletes surround themselves with support ‘family and friend’ category varied and people they know and trust. One gold included suggests such as setting up a medallist said “you need to make sure you system for getting family and friends tick- surround yourself with people you trust, ets, having a plan to deal with family and people that are really good at what they friend communication during the Games, do and what you need them to do …so on and educating family and friends about the your end you can be kind of carefree and demands on athletes in preparation for and relax.” during the Olympics. Other advice in- cluded not having family or friends at the Team selection and trials. The “team se- lection and trials” category focused on the

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 28 timing of the trials with most respondents reported 11 suggestions (1.2% of total) recommending that they be held earlier. and Nagano participants reported 3 Atlanta participants cited 18 specific suggestions (0.9% of total) related to this lessons (2.0% of total) and Nagano par- category. Advice in this category was ticipants reported 11 lessons (3.3% of varied. On one hand, it was recommended total) related to team selection and trials. that athletes and coaches attend Opening One athlete from a less successful team Ceremonies because of the personal expressed that her team’s trials were too satisfaction evoked, the feelings of U.S. close to the Olympics and said, “we never team unity (beyond one’s sport) derived, had a chance to celebrate…we had one and their emotional/uplifting nature. In night…and then it was back to Atlanta and contrast, other recommendations focused we were in the grind.” Other recommen- on the physically and psychologically dations focused on how teams were se- draining nature of the experience (e.g., lected and included such suggestions as being on one’s feet for so long, lack of utilizing more athlete input and not basing sleep from late completion – 3:00 am selections on one single performance. return to housing at Atlanta Games). These varied responses might best be Dealing with media. Nagano participants explained by a lesson conveyed by the recommended 14 specific lessons (4.2% of following coach. “It was wonderfully total) related to media. Specifically, teams exhilarating for the athletes, and I think it and athletes should have a media plan in really brought home the Olympic place prior to the Games and a competent experience and kind of launched them a media liaison in place. It was also empha- bit. But, when we went to our third sized that to ensure good performance ath- game…and had to travel again, then I saw letes must not schedule too many media some of the fatigue from that travel from obligations, as one athlete said, “you know the Opening Ceremonies kind of set in.” sometimes you need to be selfish and say I Another coach had very specific can’t do something because it’s not gonna recommendations for future coaches: (a) be the best preparation for me.” do not go if Opening Ceremonies are one day away from your performance; (b) go Travel. One condition that differed be- to Opening Ceremonies if your tween the Atlanta and Nagano participants competition is three days away; and (c) if was travel. Nagano participants reported your competition is two days away from 10 specific lessons (3.0% of total) related Opening Ceremonies – you have a tough to travel. Advice relating to traveling to decision and will need to gain as much Japan included such issues as making sure information as possible about the pros and transportation issues were addressed be- cons of attending and make a decision fore practice and competition begins. A early. number of lessons also focused on the optimal arrival time and the importance of Coaching Lessons not arriving too early or too late at the Based on the findings of the individual Olympic venue and host country. coach surveys and the coach interviews as- sociated with the focus groups, Atlanta Opening ceremonies. A less frequently participants cited 285 specific coaching cited category of advice was related to lessons and Nagano participants cited 48 Opening Ceremonies. Atlanta participants lessons. The coaching lessons from the

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Atlanta participants coalesced into 24 the importance of “detailed” planning as more general categories and the Nagano reflected in the following coach comment. coaching lessons grouped into 8 general “Planning is vital! You must plan the en- categories. Table 2 contains the frequen- tire approach. Consider: athlete selection, cies and percentages of lesson categories a long-term performance prognosis, pro- for both Atlanta and Nagano participants. gram objectives, a systematic, controlled training environment, anticipate changes Most Frequently Reported Lessons in food, housing, social factors, know Coaching. The “coaching” category con- competition, travel/jet lag, daily plans sisted of 41 specific lessons (14.4% of (especially recovery), at-games factors total) from Atlanta participants and one (climate, weather, transportation, media, lesson (2.1% of total) from a Nagano par- pressure), number of competitions, and ticipant. This category focused on such how you will filter communication from recommendations as the importance of home via team leader.” clarifying one’s coaching role with the National Sport Governing Body (NGB) Optimal physical training and avoiding and being as committed as one’s athletes, over training. Relative to the “optimal being sure to make fair coaching deci- physical preparation/avoid over training” sions, not over-coaching, and being aware lessons category, Atlanta participants re- that like their athletes, coaches are suscep- ported 31 lessons (10.9% of total) and Na- tible to fatigue. Reflecting the importance gano participants cited 3 lessons (6.3% of of commitment, one coach said, “believe total). The importance of coaches having in what you are doing, you have to spend athletes and teams well prepared, both the hours training, studying, and compet- physically and psychologically, was em- ing – know you can and believe in your- phasized. It was further recommended that self, team, and staff.” while coaches must help teams to be in top physical condition it is vital that they pre- General preparation. The “general vent over training by using appropriate ta- preparation” category consisted of 33 pering strategies and taking breaks. An es- specific suggestions (11.6% of total) from pecially interesting lesson featured with Atlanta participants and 6 lessons (12.5%) the “fragility” of athletes when they were from Nagano participants. Lessons in this in top physical condition and the impor- category emphasized the importance of tance of coaches being alter to signs of this long-term planning, having a clear vision to prevent over training and illness. for one’s athletes, and being realistic in one’s plans. Relative to the need for, and Mental preparation. Atlanta participants difficulty of, planning, one coach said “To cited 28 specific lessons (9.8% of total) organize this amount of effort in one year, and Nagano participants reported 7 lessons taking into consideration the availability (14.6% of total) related to “mental prepa- of the athletes of their time in the context ration/training.” This category included of their social integration, school, job, suggestions to prepare athletes and teams family, etc., it’s a challenge.” The impor- for the physical and psychological stress tance of anticipating potential distractions, encountered at an Olympic Games, and and taking them into consideration when implementation of a mental training pro- forming a plan was also recommended. gram. Numerous recommendations urged Lastly, respondents repeatedly emphasized the utilization of sport psychology/mental

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 30 training consultants. As one coach of a was negative and we could never get out team that under-performed said, “we need of that negative spin with the media, so a strong base of sport psychology for our consequently it was just always going elite athletes, to help them perform and downhill… most of what I was reading in deal with coping issues.” the media was very negative … that could have all been avoided or at least a good Other Lessons of Interest portion of it, or diffused. And the fact that Support personnel. Atlanta participants it wasn’t diffused, it affected our perform- reported 12 lessons (4.2% of total) and ance… you’ve got to be prepared for the Nagano participants reported 2 lessons media and not just, for the media to be (4.2% of total) that were related to support good. You’ve got to be prepared for when personnel. The “support personnel” cate- it’s not good.” Participants also empha- gory emphasized the need to create a sized the importance of having a media or support staff and include various special- sports information person to act as a buffer ists (e.g., sport psychology specialist, between the coach/team and media. skilled team manager). One coach aptly reflected this need when he said: “Pre- International competitions. Concerning paring for the Olympics is not just a re- “international competitions,” Atlanta par- sponsibility of the athlete and his coach. ticipants provided 9 specific lessons (3.2% … I believe we need to enrich this with a of total) that fit into two dominant themes. team of specialists who are preparing our First, it was suggested that coaches should athletes for the Olympics. … We need a schedule high levels of international com- team. And that team is extending more petition the year before the Games. Sec- and more from the coaching, medical per- ond, it was recommended that these com- sons, scientists, athletes, family, commu- petitions occur frequently. One coach nity support, sponsors, NGB membership. said, “it is very important for the coach They all have a contribution in that ath- and the athlete to experience high level lete’s preparation.” Securing highly quali- (international) competition before the fied support staff was recommended, as Games – the level of expectation will be well as holding them accountable by re- more realistic.” leasing them when they do not perform. Team cohesion and harmony. Atlanta Dealing with media. Atlanta participants participants cited 9 specific lessons (3.2% reported 10 specific lessons (3.5% of total) of total) and Nagano participants reported related to dealing with the media. In terms 1 lesson (2.1% of total) related to team of the “dealing with the media” category it cohesion and harmony. The “team har- was suggested that coaches set specific mony/cohesion” category emphasized the rules related to working with the media, to importance of coaches recognizing the im- be ready to respond to both positive and portance of team dynamics. Establishing negative events that could occur, and trust between staff and players was seen as realize that television (up close and per- essential in this regard, as was the utiliza- sonal type human interest type coverage) tion of team building exercises. As one often takes longer than usually planned coach said, “develop a high level of trust for. Relative to the lesson pertaining to and respect with your athletes. This being ready to respond to both positive should go both ways. Team is inclusive of and negative events one coach said: “It

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 31 all staff and athletes. Team unity is num- Specifically, the first layer of the system ber one.” involved the selection of two mothers that acted as communication liaisons in case of Family and friend involvement. Eight problems or questions. That is, only these specific lessons (2.8% of total) related to mothers would bring concerns to the family and friend involvement were re- coaching staff. The second layer involved ported by Atlanta participants. The “fam- two NGB administrators who knew the ily/friend involvement” category empha- families and would answer their questions sized the importance of having a plan for without involving the coaches or would interacting with athlete and staff families pass important issues on to the coaches and friends at the Games. Critical to this themselves. This system helped athletes objective was the need to educate family enjoy being with their families without and friends regarding the demands of an having to worry about meeting their needs Olympic Games environment. As one (i.e., getting them tickets, answering ques- coach indicated: “... Family and friends tions). It also allowed the families to pro- need to be very well educated because we vide optimal support to their athletes. had a couple of instances where families wanted, obviously wanted to be with their Distraction preparation. Atlanta partici- athletes and we would have a schedule pants provided 8 lessons (2.8% of total) change and things that we had no control and Nagano participants reported 3 lessons over ...disappointments on the part of the (6.3% of total) related to distraction prepa- athletes, disappointments on the part of ration. Specific lessons included not al- the families, and I think we need to do a lowing athletes to have beepers, being real good job of educating the families prepared for the enormous amount of pa- about just why the athletes are there and per work required of coaches, and being how they as families can give support.” ready to deal with unexpected events. Additionally, assigning someone on the staff to serve as a staff liaison for fam- Plans and adherence to plans. Nagano ily/friend interactions was suggested sev- participants reported 8 specific lessons eral times. (16.7% of total) related to plans and adher- ence to plans. Lessons in this category fo- An excellent example of an effective fam- cused on developing a coaching plan for ily and friend education program was the achieving success and then sticking with one implemented by a gold medal winning the plan. One coach said “make a plan team. Specifically, the coach met with the and follow it.” families and explained how they could be great resources for the athletes. For ex- Closure. Although not frequently re- ample, the coaches explained that there ported (2 lessons from Atlanta partici- would be times at the Games when their pants, 0.7% of total), the importance of athlete will need “space” and will not be closure was suggested by several coaches. able to be with loved ones, and that nega- As one coach indicated “I think one of the tive comments from significant others can problems at the end is for individuals and influence player confidence. A system teams who succeed or exceed the elation, was also initiated in an effort to keep it must be unbelievable. And they just families informed at the Games, and to want to go let it all out. Where the teams address any concerns they may have. that may not achieve, the disappointment

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 32 is so huge because everyone sees you, that Dieffenbach, Chung, & Peterson, 1999). I’m not sure athletes or coaches are really That is, based on the multiple sources of prepared to close the situation in an ap- information collected, it is evident that propriate fashion so that you can always successful Olympic performances in At- deal with the disappointment of defeat. lanta and Nagano were complex, multifac- But the disappointment of defeat at the eted, delicate, and long-term processes that Olympics I think is such a different ani- required extensive planning and painstak- mal. And how do you deal with it? I mean ing implementation of plans. Success sel- I’m not prepared.” Hence, providing sup- dom happened by chance and was easily port for coaches and athletes after the disrupted by numerous distractions. While Olympics, conducting debriefing sessions, close attention to details and plans is criti- and having some form of closure experi- cal, flexibility to adjust to the many unex- ence were recommended. pected events is also important. Hence, the specific lessons identified in this manu- Coach mental preparation. A much less script, while important, only form part of a frequently cited category (6 lessons from complex matrix of factors that influence Atlanta participants, 2.1% of total) was peak performance. The whole, then, may “coach mental preparation’ which empha- be more than the sum of its parts and sim- sized the importance of, for example, the ple solutions for achieving peak perform- coach staying relaxed while coaching at ance were not derived. the Games. Keeping the Olympic experi- The lessons identified are also consistent ence in perspective and believing in one- with much of the sport psychology litera- self as a coach were also urged. As one ture. For example, numerous lessons were athlete said, “the coaches could do with identified about the importance of mental some psychological counseling as training, achieving optimal physical condi- well…the coaches need to take advantage tioning while not overtraining, enhancing of the sport psychologist and the resources team cohesion, and adhering to perform- that we have available themselves to deal ance plans and routines. Sport psycholo- with the stress, because there’s a lot of gists have also advocated importance of stress placed on them…their jobs are on these topics: mental training (Orlick & the line…the coaches need to learn to deal Partington, 1988); prevention of over- with those added pressures of the Games training (Murphy, Fleck, Dudley & Clais- and they need to keep things in perspective ter, 1990); team cohesion (Carron, Spink, as well.” & Prapavessis, 1997); and performance routines (Boutcher, 1990; Gould, Eklund and Jackson, 1992a; Orlick & Partington, Discussion and Conclusions 1988). The large number of diverse categories of Olympic lessons identified in this article Although not designed to test it, the find- reflects the complexity of preparation and ings also lend support to Orlick’s (1992) performance considerations. Similar wheel model of human excellence. In factors were found to be important in the particular, based on his extensive research larger studies from which the results were and consulting experience, Orlick has taken (See Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, found that performance excellence results Medbery, Strickland, Lauer, Chung, & from seven basic elements. These ele- Peterson, K., 1998; Gould, Greenleaf, ments include commitment, belief, full

 2001 Zone of Excellence - http://www.zoneofexcellence.com Journal of Excellence – Issue No. 4 Gould, Greenleaf et al. 33 focus, positive images, mental readiness, better prepared in their own pursuit of distraction control, and constructive Olympic excellence. evaluation. Lessons in this investigation addressed these critical elements. Recognizing the value of disseminating lessons learned from previous Olympians Lastly, the lessons reflect several perform- to future Olympic athletes and coaches, ance considerations that have not received the USOC has produced a videotape titled much attention in the sport psychology lit- “Achieving the dream: Performing your erature (e.g., elite athlete family support best at the Olympic Games.” This 35 versus distractions, support personnel minute video is hosted by legendary integration into a high performance team). Olympic medal winning speed skater Greater efforts ought to be made to under- Bonnie Blair and swimmer Jon Naber. In stand these issues. it, Olympic athletes discuss the results of this investigation with special emphasis The ultimate value in the lessons gleamed placed on conveying the lessons learned. here from previous Olympians and Olym- The videotape is also supplemented by an pic coaches is to disseminate the informa- Olympic performance preparation check- tion to future Olympic athletes and list that can be completed by athletes and coaches. An illustration of how this may coaches. Lastly, an administrators check- be achieved was a presentation by Gould list for planning Olympic success, a family (1998) who summarized many of the and friend support brochure (that identifies lessons and presented them to U.S. free- ways family and friends can support but style mogul skiing hopefuls 160 days prior not distract athletes), and a brochure that to the Nagano Games. Selected lessons explains how volunteers can assist but not were presented to the skiers in a presenta- interfere with athletes have been pub- tion and accompanying handout. In a 90 lished. minute session the lessons were over- viewed and the athletes and coaches dis- In conclusion, it is important to recognize cussed their relevance (a discussion which that, as someone once said, “Great corpo- was enhanced by having two previous rations don’t do one thing right, they do Olympic medallists present and a two time 1000 little things right every day.” This Olympic coach). In addition, to gain a quote reflects what was learned from the better appreciation of the demands of the athletes and coaches in this study. Suc- Olympic Games, individual athletes then cessful Olympic performance does not considered those lessons most appropriate require that an athlete, coach or team do a to their personal situation and developed single thing right. The key is to do many strategies accordingly. For instance, one things right, on a consistent basis, and in high profile team member developed a an integrated fashion. Hence, a central plan for effectively dealing with family recommendation based on these results is and friend expectations in the Olympic to develop a plan that integrates and incor- season, while another religiously practiced porates these lessons into an effective pro- thought stopping/restructuring to maintain gram, that when implemented does not focus in the face of potential Olympic dis- necessarily guarantee Olympic success, tractions. By being aware of the lessons of but provides the greatest probability of previous Olympians these Olympians were Olympic success.

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References

Boutcher, S. H. (1990). The role of preperformance routines in sport. In J.G. Jones & L. Hardy (Eds.). Stress and performance in sports. (pp. 231-245) Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Carron, A.V., Spink, K.S., & Prapavessis, H. (1997). Team building and cohesiveness in the sport and exercise setting: Use of indirect interventions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 61-72.

Gould, D. (1998, July 28). Sport psychology and the Nagano Olympic Games: The case of the U.S. Freestyle ski team. Invited keynote presentation made at the International Meeting of Psychology Applied to Sport and Exercise, Braga, Portugal.

Gould, D., Eklund, R.C., & Jackson, S.A. (1992a). 1988 U.S. Olympic wrestling excellence: I. Mental preparation, precompetitive cognition, and affect. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 358-382.

Gould, D., Eklund, R.C., & Jackson, S.A. (1992b). 1988 U.S. Olympic wrestling excellence: I I. Thoughts and affect occurring during competition. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 383-402.

Gould, D., Eklund, R.C., & Jackson, S.A. (1993). 1988 U.S. Coping strategies used by U.S. Olympic wrestlers. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 64, 83-93.

Gould, D., Greenleaf, C., Dieffenbach, K., Chung, Y., & Peterson, K. (1999). Positive and negative factors influencing U.S. Olympic athlete and coaches: Nagano Games assessment. US Olympic Committee Sport Science and Technology Final Grant Report. Colorado Springs, Colorado

Gould, D., Guinan, D., Greenleaf, C., Medbery, R., Strickland, M., Lauer, L., Chung, Y., & Peterson, K. (1998). Positive and negative factors influencing U.S. Olympic athlete and coaches: Atlanta Games assessment. US Olympic Committee Sport Science and Technology Final Grant Report. Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Griffith, C. R. (1925). Psychology and its relation to athletic competition. American Physical Education Review, 30, 193-199.

Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice of elite performers. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

McCarthy, G.J. (1994). The Marine Corp lessons learned system: An assessment. Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA.: U.S. Department of Commerce National Technical Information Service ADA-283560.

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Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, Ca. Sage.

Murphy, S.M., Fleck, S.J., Dudley, G., & Calister, R. (1990). Psychological and performance concomitants of increase volume training in elite athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 34-50.

Orlick, T. (1992). The psychology of personal performance excellence. Contemporary Thought on Performance Enhancement, 1(1), 109-122.

Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 105-130.

Santala, R.D. (1994). Fads and hobbies of the U.S. Army wartime lessons learned program. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: School of Advanced Military Studies.

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Williams, J. M., & Krane, V. (1998). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance, (3rd ed.), pp. 158-170. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

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Table 1 Olympic Lessons: Categories of Advice from Olympic Athletes

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Mental • Be mentally prepared and 173 73 preparation/training* confidence (19.2%) (21.8%) • Have a sole performance focus • Start mental preparation early

Optimal physical • Don’t overtrain 165 37 training/avoid • Train smart (18.3%) (11.0%) overtraining* • Work on technical skills

Coaching* • Be honest and straightforward 84 37 with coach (9.3%) (11.0%) • Have contact with your personal coach during Games • Develop coach-athlete communication

Distraction/Preparation • Try to block out meaningless 44 20 awareness* distractions (4.9%) (6.0%) • Don’t stress if things are not perfect • Focus on what you can control

Olympic village* • Stay outside the village 43 5 • Move out of village a few days (4.8%) (1.5%) before competition • Don’t try to do/see everything in village

Team cohesion/harmony* • Work on maintaining team 33 4 cohesiveness (3.7%) (1.2%) • Do team building exercises • Deal with team issues before Games start

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Table 1 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

International • International tournaments are 32 6 competition* great and it’s great practice, (3.6%) (1.8%) but don’t over do it • Get as much international experience as possible • Do more international competitions in the two years prior to the Games

Family/friend • Hold an athlete-family 31 9 involvement* meeting prior to Games (3.4%) (2.7%) • Have family plans taken care of ahead of time • Take time for family

Plans/adherence to plans* • Have a plan and stick to it 29 9 • Stick with what has worked in the (3.0%) (2.7%) past • Insist on staying with the normal pre-tournament routine

Support personnel* • Explain support staff roles to 24 16 team (2.7%) (4.8%) • Support staff needs to be familiar with athletes • Assemble your own personal ‘support crew’

Team selection and • Have trials earlier 8 11 trials* • Use Olympic trials as setting stone (2.0%) (3.3%) to real thing • Have a less stressful trials and have sufficient time off before Olympics

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Table 1 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Dealing with media* • Hold media training earlier 14 14 • Block out the media (1.6%) (4.2%) • Have someone take care of media responsibilities for you

Travel* • Have better transportation to 13 10 and from venues (1.4%) (3.0%) • Have personal transportation • Don’t travel too much prior to Games

Opening Ceremonies • Expect chaos 11 3 • Go to Opening Ceremonies (1.2%) (0.9%) • Don’t go to Opening Ceremonies

General Preparation • Do your homework 27 20 • Attention to preparation is critical (3.0%) (6.0%) • Be prepared and ready

USOC/NGB Relations • Don’t blindly let NGB take 23 7 control (2.6%) (2.1%) • NGB needs to take care of details so athletes can focus • Have a level playing field – enforce drug testing

Funding/sponsorship • Try to get more funding so that 18 3 you can train more (2.0%) (0.9%) • Don’t worry too much about work and paying bills • Don’t rely on USOC or NGB for financial support

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Table 1 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Fun/Enjoyment • Enjoy the experience 17 5 • Relax, enjoy the people and the (1.9%) (1.5%) events • Set some time aside for fun

Food/nutrition • Eat more healthy food 16 6 • Properly time your pre-competition (1.8%) (1.5%) meal • Take control over food intake

Equipment • Make a commitment to 6 9 equipment early and don’t (0.7%) (2.7%) change • Wear the shoes you want to, not what your NGB wants • Have ski and wax testing at site prior to competition

Simulation • Practice performing under 5 -- pressure (0.6%) • Practice in Olympic uniform

Visit/practice at • Practice at venue ahead of 5 -- Olympic venue time (0.6%) • Visit venue prior to Olympics

Leadership • Take on leadership 4 2 • Have a positive team leader (0.4%) (0.6%) • Strong team leadership is important

Closure • Have team closure 4 -- • Debrief athletes and coaches (0.4%)

Team training/Residency • Live together as a team the 2 -- programs last few months before (0.2%) competition

Miscellaneous 59 29 (6.5%) (8.6%)

Total 900 335

* Discussed in text. 1

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Table 2 Olympic Lessons: Categories of Advice from Olympic Coaches

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Coaching* • Don’t over coach, keep it 41 1 simple (14.4%) (2.1%) • Take advantage of all the high performance summits and opportunities to meet and talk with other coaches

General preparation* • Don’t dream – prepare 33 6 • Preparation is truly the best way to (11.6%) (12.5%) be successful

Optimal physical • Give athletes more time off 31 3 training/avoid closer to Games (10.9%) (6.3%) overtraining* • Athletes are fragile when in top shape

Mental • Mental training needs to be 28 7 preparation/training* consistent (9.8%) (14.6%) • It is important to have a sport psychology consultant

Support Personnel* • Get rid of unproductive staff 12 2 • Need a team of sport scientists (4.2%) (4.2%)

Dealing with the media* • Need a good media person 10 -- • Set rules about media interviews (3.5%) and coordinate through one person

International • Important for coach and 9 -- competition* athlete to experience high (3.2%) level international competition before the Games • Put athletes in ‘pressure’ international settings

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Table 2 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency (%) frequency (%)

Team • Get team on the same page 9 1 cohesion/harmony* • Team building is important (3.2%) (2.1%)

Family/friend • Assign someone to deal with 8 -- involvement* family and friend ticket issues (2.8%) • Educate family and friends

Distraction preparation* • Develop a plan of action to 8 3 deal with spouses and (2.8%) (6.3%) personal coaches who get on an ego trip • Be prepared for the long paper trail and the media circus

Plans and adherence to • Stick with what has worked 3 8 plans* for you (1.0%) (16.7%) • Stick with the plan

Coach mental • Stay relaxed, don’t stress (at 6 -- preparation* least not in front of your (2.1%) athletes) • Believe in what you are doing

Closure* • Provide closure 2 -- • Athletes close to retirement may (0.7%) need help

USOC/NGB relations • Education NGB on athlete and 13 -- coach needs (4.6%) • Take advantage of high performance facilities

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Table 2 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Funding/sponsors • Increase athlete support 10 -- • Don’t discuss money with athletes (3.5%)

Team selection and trials • Make final cuts early 9 -- • Have a system where best athletes can (3.2%) still make team even if they falter during trials

Olympic village • Get away from village to focus 6 -- • Stay out of village night before (2.1%) competition

Simulation • Hold mock trials 4 -- • Use simulation trips to actual venue, (1.4%) housing, etc.

Leadership • Develop a team leader 4 -- • Make sure you choose a strong team (1.4%) leader

Team training / • Go into residency program 4 to 4 -- Residency Programs 5 months in advance (1.4%) • Schedule to get together at least 2 years prior to Games

Fun/enjoyment • Have fun – enjoy the Olympics 4 3 as a coach (1.4%) (6.3%) • Enjoy the total Olympic experience as long as it doesn’t interfere with your team’s preparation

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Table 2 cont.

Category Example Lessons Atlanta Nagano frequency frequency (%) (%)

Communication • Be honest and open with 3 1 athletes (1.0%) (2.1%) • Develop a good communication system

Opening ceremonies • Be prepared for Opening 3 -- ceremonies to be a zoo (1.0%) • • Opening ceremonies worth it if competed more than 2 days later

Visit / Practice at venue • Practice at venue 3 -- • Scout competition site before Games (1.0%)

Rules / Decisions • Make rules very specific 2 -- • Confront issues directly (0.7%)

Miscellaneous • Make rules very specific 20 13 • Make rules very specific (7.0%) (20.1%)

Total 285 48

* Discussed in text.

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