Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering

WILEY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 WILEY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Editor Editorial Staff Benjamin W. Wah Vice President, STMS Books: Janet Bailey Sponsoring Editor: George J. Telecki Area Editors Farokh B. Bastani Associate Editor: Cassie Craig University of Texas at Dallas Michael W. Berry University of Tennessee Production Staff Joseph R. Cavallaro Director, Book Production and Manufacturing: Rice University Camille P. Carter John Franco Managing Editor: Shirley Thomas University of Cincinnati John Impagliazzo Production Editor: Kris Parrish Qatar University (Emeritus, Hofstra University) Illustration Manager: Dean Gonzalez Ten H. Lai Ohio State University Rynson W. H. Lau City University of Hong Kong Mubarek Shah University of Central Florida Jeffrey J. P. Tsai University of Illinois at Chicago Ning Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology WILEY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 Benjamin W. Wah Editor The Wiley Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering is available online at http://www.interscience.wiley.com/reference/ecse Copyright # 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. 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Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print, however, may not be available in electronic format. For information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Wiley encyclopedia of computer science and engineering / Benjamin Wah, editor. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-471-38393-2 (set) – ISBN 978-0-470-05012-5 (v. 1) – ISBN 978-0-470-05013-2 (v. 2) – ISBN 978-0-470-05014-9 (v. 3) – ISBN 978-0-470-05015-6 (v. 4) – ISBN 978-0-470-05016-3 (v. 5) 1. Computer science–Encyclopedias. 2. Computer engineering–Encyclopedias. I. Wah, Benjamin W. QA76.15.W545 2009 004.03–dc22 2008036267 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 PREFACE This encyclopedia was developed with two goals in mind: locate pertinent articles sorted by relevance. Because first, to provide a thorough treatment of the core know- computing is a rapidly evolving area, the online version ledge in this important discipline and, second, to offer a will be a growing project with new articles to be added and broad coverage on the latest advances in the area. A decade existing articles to be revised on a frequent basis. in the making, this comprehensive reference of 333 articles The topics in computer science and engineering are encompasses essentially every aspect of the fast-growing grouped into the following ten areas: field of computer science and engineering. As a reference and an educational tool, it is meant to reinforce current Subject Area Area Editor knowledge and to provide a foundation for further understanding. It is our hope that it will serve as a useful source Hardware and Architecture Joseph R. Cavallaro on the current state-of-the-art and guide readers in under- Parallel and Distributed Ten-Hwang (Steve) Lai standing classic concepts. Systems This compendium of information will serve readers Intelligent Systems Ning Zhong from diverse backgrounds and training—from practi- Software Farokh B. Bastani cing engineers to researchers, from designers to Data Jeffrey J. P. Tsai managers, and from government officials to university Foundations and Theory John Franco students—all who wish to keep abreast of knowledge Image Processing Mubarak Shah and techniques in this broad field. Each article was and Computer Vision written without assuming an advanced background on Visualization Rynson W. H. Lau computing, although a certain degree of sophistication Applications Michael Berry and experience may be necessary when reading the Computing Milieux John Impagliazzo articles. Casual readers will also be able to browse the high-level descriptions and illustrations to gain a more Drawing from various sources, including Webster’s Wiley general understanding of subjects covered. In addition, Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,an each article not only highlights the most salient and initial list of topics was identified. The list was then important aspects of a topic, but also it provides a enhanced by the area editors, who suggested authors and starting point for additional study through a compre- reviewers for the articles. We also solicited potential invitees hensive bibliography. from authors and reviewers themselves. Cassie Craig, The articles were authored by experts in their respective Associate Editor at John Wiley & Sons, coordinated the areas, who provide both historical perspectives as well as a actual invitations and reviews of the articles. Each article comprehensive treatment of up-to-date knowledge and was read by two to three reviewers, and authors were evolving ideas. Each is intended to provide an overview of generally asked to revise their articles to address the individual topic, from conceptual as well as practical reviewers’ comments. In many cases, the articles were re- points of view, summarizing the crucial developments and reviewed and revised a second time before they were standard practices of the past, along with new techniques formally accepted. and evolving ideas. The articles collectively cover broad I am deeply indebted to the many people who have concepts as well as fundamental theory, both generously contributed to bringing this encyclopedia to fruition. The illustrated with examples and diagrams. Although the project was started almost ten years ago with the articles eschew extensive development of theory and encouragement of Prof. C. V. Ramamoorthy, Professor proofs, they provide pointers and references to specialized Emeritus of the University of California, Berkeley, and concepts and models. George Telecki, Editor at John Wiley & Sons. I owe the An online version, complete with hyperlinks and color encyclopedia’s outstanding content to the hundreds of illustrations, complements the print edition, and with the authors who contributed their works and to the nume- inclusion of a powerful search engine, users can readily rous reviewers who helped refine the articles. I am grateful v vi PREFACE to the ten area editors, who were instrumental in focusing daughters, Catherine and Elaine, for their never-ending the coverage of the encyclopedia and in identifying experts support and encouragement. I am very fortunate to have to invite. Cassie Craig and all the support staff at Wiley had the support of my friends and family in realizing my helped me tremendously in managing the logistics and the goal of a comprehensive and authoritative resource on details of running the project. Cassie, in particular, computer science and engineering. communicated with the authors and reviewers to ensure a smooth submission process for their articles and reviews. BENJAMIN W. WAH My assistant, Meng-Fei Cheng, coordinated with students at my university to identify potential invitees. Lastly, I University of Illinois, would like to thank Christine, my wife, and our twin Urbana-Champaign CONTENTS Contributors ix Capability Maturity Models (CMM) 347 Carry Logic 356 Abstract Data Types 1 CD-ROMs and Computer Systems 362 Active Contours: Snakes 11 Cerebellar Model Arithmetic Computer 381 Active Database Systems 13 Choice Uncertainty Principle 393 Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks 24 Chomsky Hierarchy 396 Addressing: Direct and Indirect 32 Class and Object 403 Agent Technology 42 Clusters and Grids 409 Agent-Oriented Software Engineering 49 Cognitive Systems and Cognitive Architectures 420 Agile Software Development 60 Collaborative Virtual Environment: Applications 429 Aircraft Computers 69 Collaborative

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