Bacterial Motility: How Do Pili Pull? Dale Kaiser

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE

provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector

Dispatch R777

Bacterial motility: How do pili pull? Dale Kaiser

Forceful retraction of a bacterial pilus has been pili per uninfected cell to 0.1 pili per cell after infection directly observed for the first time. As retraction with high concentrations of phage. Bradley also found that clarifies the basic mechanochemistry of single cell anti-serum specific to pili resulted in a 10-fold increase in twitching and gliding movements, so cell-to-cell the number of pili per cell, suggesting that antibodies signalling by contact clarifies the coordination of attached along the pilus fiber are blocking retraction. multicellular gliding movements. Bradley found two classes of phage-resistant pilus mutants. Address: Departments of Biochemistry and Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California One class lacked pili altogether. The other class was 94305-5329, USA. hyperpiliated, with more than 100 pili at some poles, and this mutation was later shown to be in the pilT gene [7]. Current Biology 2000, 10:R777–R780 This class was able to adsorb phage to its pili as well as 0960-9822/00/$ – see front matter wild type, but unlike the wild type, phage were rarely © 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. found attached to a cell pole, suggesting that the phage was unable to gain access to the cell body. There was Many species of bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, also no change in the number of pili per pole when the Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Myxoccocus xanthus, move their mutant cells were exposed to phage or to anti-pilus antibodies, not by rotating screw-like flagella to swim, but by bodies. Bradley concluded that these mutants only appear pulling on a solid surface with their polar type IV pili. hyperpiliated because their pili never retract. He believed Type IV pili fibers are helical assemblies of elongated that wild-type pili are often arrested in their retracted pilin subunits [1]. The resulting fibers are thin, no more state. Bradley also observed that both the nonpiliated and than 6 nm in diameter, often several microns long, and the hyperpiliated mutants lacked the twitching motility of very strong in tension due to the hydrophobic and ionic wild-type cells. He concluded, “No doubt fully functional bonds between subunits. Type IV pilus-dependent cell retractile pili are the mechanical basis for twitching motil- movement is limited to surfaces, and is characterized as ity” [8]. Although direct proof that pilus retraction powers ‘twitching’ in N. gonorrhoeae and P. aeruginosa or as ‘gliding’ twitching was lacking, investigators tended to accept in M. xanthus. M. xanthus has two gliding patterns, called Bradley’s proposal, possibly faute de mieux. A-gliding and S-(for social) gliding, but only the latter depends on type IV pili. Twitching and social gliding share The evidence for retraction received surprising support a common set of 10 or more ‘Pil’ proteins that are close from an unexpected phenotype of pilT mutants in N. gonor- sequence homologs between species and perform similar rhoeae. As in P. aeruginosa and M. xanthus, pilT mutants of functions [2]. Gliding cells move in the direction of their N. gonorrhoeae are piliated but nonmotile. The unexpected long axis, which is also the axis of the pilus at the end of property involves pilC, thought to encode a pilus-related the cell. The pilus has been suggested to act as a linear adhesin for human epithelial cells which happens also to motor that pulls the cell, and two recent studies [3,4] have be required for piliation of N. gonorrhoeae. Wolfgang et al. now provided experimental support for this view. [9] observed that several different pilC mutants actually became piliated when the cells also lost pilT function as a Retraction is proposed result of an in-frame deletion. Koomey explained this sur- Pilus retraction was originally proposed by David Bradley prising result with the hypothesis that PilT is not neces- [5,6] to account for infection of bacteria by phage which ini- sary for pilus extension, only for retraction. He supposed tially attach themselves to a type IV pilus and later appear that the pilC mutants always have pili, but they are at the cell surface. Retraction in response to phage attach- retracted. Thus, preventing retraction with a pilT deletion ment was inferred from an apparent decrease in the average would expose the pili. The PilT protein has the sequence pilus length. For example, phage PP7 initially binds to pili. of an AAA motor protein [10,11], including a ‘Walker box’ Later the phage particles are found on the cell surface, but for the binding of ATP. always near a site of pilus insertion in the cell envelope at one of the cell poles. Pilus retraction, pulling the attached Pilus mechanics phage down to the cell was one possible explanation for Any lingering doubts about the retraction hypothesis have this result. The 6 nm diameter of type IV pili renders them just been dispelled. Using laser tweezers, Merz et al. [3] visible only by electron microscopy; it is thus very difficult directly measured a retractile force on pili. They positioned to observe retraction directly. Bradley recorded a 70-fold isolated cells one to two pilus lengths away from micro- decrease in the average number of pili per cell, from seven colonies of N. gonorrhoeae attached to a coverslip. They R778 Current Biology Vol 10 No 21

observed the movement of isolated cells toward the micro- to a polystyrene surface (Figure 2). To demonstrate that colonies at speeds around 1 µm per second, the normal attachment was due to pili, they used some of the muta- rate for twitching on a coverslip. PilT mutants did not tions in 15 different pilus structural genes [2,12]. They move, although static tethers to the microcolonies could showed the failure of attachment in a pilA mutant, which be detected. lacks pilin, the subunit of the helical pilus fiber. Attach- ment also failed in wild-type cells from which pili had In a different experiment, the microcolonies were replaced been mechanically removed [13], and occurred more fre- by latex beads that had been coated with antibodies to quently in a pilin hyperproducer. Viewed from above, type IV pili. When a cell, marked with its own attached attached cells descended towards the polystyrene surface bead, was placed near a bead coated with antibodies to (Figure 2). Some then lay down flat on the surface, and the pilus, the two beads were repeatedly pulled toward finally moved over the surface, apparently by gliding, each other, presumably by pili that had bound to antibod- away from their initial positions. PilT mutants became ies on the bead. The retraction events were sporadic, sep- tethered, but did not go down to the surface or move from arated by 1–20 seconds from each other. Retraction forces their initial tethered position. in excess of 80 pN were measured in the laser trap [3]. That force was not shown to be associated with a single Gliding M. xanthus cells periodically reverse their direction, pilus, however; cells typically have a cluster of several pili and the frequency of reversal is governed by a group of at their pole. Retraction usually terminated with release, frizzy (frz) genes. These genes encode constituents of a or breakage, of the pilus tether. Assuming that pilus phospho-relay signalling pathway [14–16]. In P. aeruginosa, retraction involves disassembly of the helical array of sub- similar genes are required for pilus biosynthesis [17], and units, the observed rate of 1.2 µm per second would in Escherichia coli they are required for differentiation of imply removal of about 1500 pilin subunits per second swarm cells [18]. Sun et al. [4] correlated the average time from the base of the fiber. These experiments demon- a cell remained attached end-on to polystyrene with the strate that the pilus is a powerful retraction machine average reversal time for cells gliding on agar. Correlations (Figure 1). were observed for wild-type cells, where both times are 8 minutes, for a hypo-reversing frz mutant (more than Retraction and gliding 60 minutes), and for a hyper-reversing frz mutant (less A remarkably close connection between retraction and than 2 minutes). They concluded that reversal of gliding gliding movement has been revealed by Sun et al. [4]. direction is caused by pilus retraction, the periodicity of Restricting their attention to social gliding in M. xanthus, which is controlled by the frz phospho-relay. For future by using an A-motility-defective strain (see above), the experiments, their work offers a quantifiable retraction authors observed cells with pili attaching themselves end-on assay that does not require watching individual pili.

Figure 1

Cartoon interpretation of type IV pilus retraction, as observed in the experiment of Load Merz et al. [3], and proposed by G. Oster. The force pilin monomer is embedded in the inner membrane bilayer with its hydrophilic head in Pilus PilT monomer the periplasm. A pre-pilin peptidase, PilD, powerstroke cleaves the pilin signal sequence. With the PilQ Outer membrane help of other assembly proteins, the pilus is Peptidoglycan ATP extended. After extension is completed, and possibly following a signal from the pilus tip, Retraction retraction commences, driven by PilT. The PilT force PilT hexamer motor is drawn as a hexameric ATPase, a member of the AAA family of motor proteins [10]. PilT is extracted in the membrane Inner membrane fraction [23], and is shown extending into the periplasmic space between the inner and PrePilin outer membrane. There it is shown embedded Signal in the rigid peptidoglycan layer that envelops sequence PilD and others the cell and that provides its mechanical Current Biology support. Because of its hexameric geometry and the location and structure of its magnitude of the retraction force measured by PilT, derived from the rotary power stroke of β nucleotide binding site, PilT may be Merz, et al. [3], which is comparable to the the F1 subunit by a modification of the top β homologous to the subunit of F1 ATPase force generated by F1 [26–28]. The inset half of the protein. [24,25]. This possibility is reinforced by the illustrates the possible axial power stroke of Dispatch R779

Figure 2

Sun et al [4] interpret the behavior of M. xanthus cells that have attached to a Tethering polystyrene surface in terms of pilus B retraction. Cells are shown attaching by the Descending tips of their pili (tethering). The cells descend to the surface by retracting their pili into end B A. Finally the cell lies down on the surface, extending pili from the other end, B. These pili make a new attachment to the surface, then A retract so that the cell glides toward the site of their attachment. Gliding A

AB New Current Biology attachment

Gliding cells are often seen to move on agar several cell keeps it moving in the direction of the nascent fruiting lengths in the same direction. Only occasionally do they body. This mechanism, which is distinct from that reverse, every eight minutes on average. For extended mediating aggregation in Dictyostelium discoideum, does not movement in the same direction, the correlation of retrac- require chemotaxis or other action at a distance. It depends tion time with reversal time raises a question. How can instead on a contact-induced change in movement behav- pilus attachment and retraction be organized so that a cell ior to direct the cell appropriately, a remarkable principle continues to move in the same direction without reversing? of movement coordination. The question, referring to Figure 2, is what happens after the B-end of the gliding cell has retracted to the (‘new’) References site of pilus attachment. Do pili re-extend from the B-end, 1. Parge HE, Forest KT, Hickey MJ, Christensen DA: Structure of the fibre-forming protein pilin at 2.6 Å resolution. Nature 1995, or from the A-end, and where is the next retraction? 378:32-38. 2. Wall D, Kaiser D: Type IV pili and cell motility. Mol Microbiol 1999, Cell patterns created by bacteria moving on a surface 32:1-10. 3. Merz AJ, So M, Sheetz MP: Pilus retraction powers bacterial How might cell movements be coordinated, and what twitching motility. Nature, 407:98-102. might serve as an input signal to the frizzy phospho-relay? 4. Sun H, Zusman DR, Shi W: Type IV pilus of Myxococcus xanthus is a motility apparatus controlled by the frz chemosensory system. In response to starvation, M. xanthus constructs a multicel- Curr Biol, 10:1143-1146. lular fruiting body. The cells actively build a species- 5. Bradley DE: Shortening of Pseudomonas pili after RNA-phage specific shape, apparently by modulating A-gliding and adsorption. J Gen Microbiol 1972, 72:303-319. 6. Bradley DE: The adsorption of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pilus- S-gliding movements. Jelsbak and Sogaard-Anderson [19] dependent bacteriophages to a host mutant with nonretractile have shown that the cell-surface-associated C-signal pili. Virology 1974, 58:149-163. 7. Whitchurch CB, Hobbs M, Livingston SP, Krishnapillai V: induces changes in certain parameters of cell movement. Characterisation of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa twitching motility They show that C-factor signals via the frz phospho-relay, gene and evidence for a specialised protein export system decreases the cell reversal frequency and decreases the widespread in eubacteria. Gene 1990, 101:33-44. 8. Bradley DE: A Function of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO pili: stopping time [20]. Qualitatively, these changes in motil- twitching motility. Can J Microbiol 1980, 126:146-154. ity control can lead to the accumulation of cells into a 9. Wolfgang M, Park H-S, Hayes SF, van Putten JPM, Koomey M: nascent fruiting body, as follows. Suppression of an absolute defect in Type IV pilus biogenesis by loss-of-function mutations in pilT, a twitching motility gene in Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, At the beginning of aggregation, M. xanthus cells assemble 95:14973-14978. 10. Vale RD: AAA proteins: lords of the ring. J Cell Biol 2000, into chain-like groups by forming end-to-end contacts 150:F13-F19. with each other and streaming into a nascent fruiting body 11. Frohlich K-U: AAA Web site. http://yeamob.pci.chemie.uni- from all directions [21]. The basis for maintaining end-to- tuebingen.de/AAA/ 1999. 12. Wu SS, Wu J, Kaiser D: The Myxococcus xanthus pilT locus is end contact is the continuous signaling by C-factor, a cell- required for social gliding motility although pili are still produced. pole associated morphogen that requires cell-cell contact Mol Microbiol 1997, 23:109-121. for signal transmission [22]. Thus, if a randomly moving 13. Rosenbluh A, Eisenbach M: The effect of mechanical removal of pili on gliding motility in Myxococcus xanthus. J Bacteriol 1992, cell happens to make end-to-end contact with the cell at 174:5406-5413. the end of a stream, it will be recruited and join the 14. McBride MJ, Weinberg RA, Zusman DR: Frizzy aggregation genes of the gliding bacterium Myxococcus xanthus show sequence stream. It will migrate into the aggregation center, similarities to the chemotaxis genes of enteric bacteria. Proc Natl because C-signaling between it and the upstream cell Acad Sci USA 1989, 86:424-428. R780 Current Biology Vol 10 No 21

15. McBride M, Kohler T, Zusman D: Methylation of FrzCD, a methyl- accepting taxis protein of Myxococcus xanthus is correlated with factors affecting cell behavior. J Bacteriol 1992, 174:4246-4257. 16. McBride MJ, Hartzell P, Zusman DR: Motility and tactic behavior of Myxococcus xanthus. In Myxobacteria II. Edited by Dworkin M, Kaiser D. American Society for Microbiology: Washington DC; 1993:285-305. 17. Darzins A: Characterization of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa gene cluster involved in pilus biogenesis and twitching motility: sequence similarity to the chemotaxis genes of the gliding bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. Mol Microbiol 1994, 11:137-153. 18. Burkart M, Toguchi A, Harshey RM: The chemotaxis system, but not chemotaxis, is essential for swarming motility in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, 95:2568-2573. 19. Jelsbak L, Sogaard-Andersen L: The cell-surface associated C- signal induces behavioral changes in individual M. xanthus cells during fruiting body morphogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96:5031-5036. 20. Jelsbak L, Sogaard-Andersen L: Pattern formation: fruiting body morphogenesis in Myxococcus xanthus. Curr Opin Microbiol, in press. 21. Kuhlwein H, Reichenbach H: Schwarmentwicklung und Morphogenese bei Myxobacterien - Archangium, Myxococcus, Chondrococcus, Chondromyces. Film C893. In Encyclopedia Cinematographica. Edited by Heunert HH, Kuczka H. Göttingen: Institut Wissenschaftlichem Film; 1993. 22. Kim SK, Kaiser D: Cell alignment required in differentiation of Myxococcus xanthus. Science 1990, 249:926-928. 23. Brossay L, Paradis G, Fox R, Koomey M: Identification, localization, and distribution of the PilT protein in Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Infect Immun 1994, 62:2302-2308. 24. Abrahams J, Leslie A, Lutter R, Walker J: Structure at 2.8 Å resolution of F1-ATPase from bovine heart mitochondria. Nature 1994, 370:621-628. 25. Hanson P, Roth R, Morisaki H, Jahn R, Heuser JE: Structure and conformational changes in NSF and its membrane receptor complexes visualized by quick-freeze/deep-etch electron microscopy. Cell 1997, 90:523-535. 26. Wang H, Oster G: Energy transduction in the F1 motor of ATP synthase. Nature 1998, 396:279-282. 27. Yasuda R, Noji H, Kinosita K, Yoshida M: F1-ATPase is a highly efficient molecular motor that rotates with discrete 120° steps. Cell 1998, 93:1117-1124. 28. Oster G, Wang H: Reverse engineering a protein: the mechanochemistry of ATP synthase. Biochem Biophys Acta 2000, 1458:482-510.