The Study of the Influence of Ancient Greek Rituals and Sports and the Formation of the Architecture of Its Sports Spaces

Home , Altar of the Twelve Gods, Ancient Olympic Games, Hoplitodromos, Isthmian Games, Milo of Croton, Mount Olympus (Euboea)

DOI: 10.18468/estcien.2019v9n2.p33-44 Review article The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces

Nima Deimary1* Mahsa Azizi2 Mohammad Mohammadi3

1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Civil and Architecture, Malayer University ,Malayer, Iran. (*) Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7998-0395

2 MA Student of Architecture Technology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7998-0568

3 Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran. E-mail: [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4180-3921

ABSTRACT: To get a better understanding of why variety of sports buildings are this massive in ancient Greece, a proper understanding of the history of sports as well as Greece itself must start at the beginning. Greece is a country that is enclosed with hills and mountains alongside short riv- ers and fertile va lleys. Even though Greek people were living in separate city-states, they were unit- ed under national pride, common temples, same rituals and games like Olympic. Sports were the most important parts of most Greek men. Gym and music alongside each other, fed the body and the soul of the athletes. They admired the beauty of well-trained men. They believed in multiple gods who were living in Holy mount of Olympus under the reign of greater god, Zeus and they held many rituals to satisfy them and Olympic was the most famous rituals amongst others. A ceremony in honor of Zeus was held in Olympia. Keywords: Ancient Greece. Sports. Stadium. Gymnasium. Palaestra. Olympic

INTRODUCTION obey the rules before the statue of Zeus. Olympic Games originally treated sporting To begin talking about sports in Greece, competitions as a form of religious ritual. we need to start with Aegean sea civilizations Greek people used the games to communicate such as Crete. We can trace sports and games with their gods. to about 2500 years B.C. in Crete, where there Olympia was well known to the ancient is a picture of three acrobats playing with a world for its sanctuary of Zeus. According to large cow, who might be a symbol of Zeus in tradition, Iphitus, king of Elis, wishing to end Knossos. Also in Acroteria, we saw a wall the calamities that had befallen his kingdom, painting of two young boxers wearing gloves. asked the Oracle at Delphi for advice. The Regretfully we do not know much about prophetess Pythia commanded Iphitus and Aegean civilizations, so we need to continue the people of Elis to establish the Olympic with the most famous sports event in Greece, Games. In 776 BCE, the ancient Greeks be- the Olympic Games. The Olympic Games gan travelling to Olympia every four years to were held every four years since 776 B.C in take part in sporting competitions. According honor of Zeus. This is the official date that to the poet Pindar, Heracles ran a race here in the Olympic Games was founded, but its un- celebration of one of his labors, and decreed official beginning dates back farther. Sacrifices that it should be repeated every four years. and gifts were offered, and athletes swear to The games were announced by heralds

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 34 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi travelling to the Greek cities, and hostilities Fig 1. Bull leaping in Knossos were banned during the period around the games to safeguard those travelling to Olym- pia. In the spring of an Olympic year, three sacred heralds would set out from Olympia to visit every corner of the Greek world and an- nounce the forthcoming games. Each Greek city-state sent its best men to Olympia, determined by local elimination tri- als. The games lasted three days, and nude athletes started the competitions. The winner would be awarded with a branch of wild olive, but the rewards were great in other ways. The THE GAMES crowds idolized the great athletes, poets wrote odes to their triumphs, and sculptors immor- Pentathlon talized them in bronze and marble. From the fifth century onward, monetary rewards also The most important Greek Olympic games became associated with an Olympic champi- was called Pentathlon or Five Races. The onship. Greek pentathlon featured discus, javelin, The Olympic Games ended when the jumping, running and wrestling and the indi- games were banned by Emperor Theodosius vidual who would win these five games be- 1st in 393-4 A.D. And finally, the town of came a super hero. Olympia disappeared soon after it was de- The pentathlon was held during the after- stroyed by the Goths. noon of the second Olympic day. The athletes There were many more games like Olympic had to participate in five events. All events which would gather athletes from across all except the final event, wrestling, were held in Greece. Games such as Isthmian, Pythian and the stadium, while the wrestling took place in Nemean –alongside Olympic, were called an open area near the altar of Zeus. Panhellenic Games. According to Burns, the Program of Isthmian games were held every two years, Events in Olympic are as follows: and athletes, horse riders and musicians would Day One: Morning: Swearing-in ceremo- participate in them. These games were held in ny. Contests for heralds and trumpeters. Boys’ honor of Poseidon –the god of seas- in Isth- running, wrestling and boxing contests. Pray- mia, Sicyon. Yachting was an important part ers and sacrifices in the sanctuary of Zeus; of Isthmian games because of Poseidon. The consultation of oracles. very first record of Isthmian games was back Afternoon: Speeches by philosophers, po- in 581 B.C. ets and historians. Tours of the sanctuary of Pythian games were held every four years Zeus. Reunions with old friends. and included chariot race, horse race and mu- Day Two: Morning: Procession in the sic and lasted for 15 days. Pythian games were hippodrome of competitors in the equestrian held in honor of python goddess who was events. Chariot and horse-races. killed by Apollo in the sacred city of Delphi Afternoon: The pentathlon. Evening: Fu- way back in 582 B.C. neral rites in honor of the hero, Pelops. Pa- rade of visitors around the sanctuary of Zeus. Singing of victory hymns. Feasting and revel-

Running

Running was the dominant discipline in the games. The official history of the Olympic During training, they wore large soft pads Games started with a race at a distance of one called sphairai (spheres) to allow vigorous “stadium” (192.27 m). It was called the stadion combat but avoid damage. To this end, they race - a sprint of one stade (roughly 192 m). also wore ear-guards which Plutarch consid-

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 36 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi Other races varied from 2-24 stades, and the turning post some 400 m away. The trumo- hoplitodromos race featured athletes running in eters would signal the start, and the chariots weighty armour demonstrating military prow- would make 12 laps, more than nine kilome- ess (the 400 m race in armor.) ters, around the turning posts. Besides this equivalent of our ‘two- Chariot races were very dangerous and re- hundred meter’ event, there was a race along quired the most skillful drivers. The most two lengths of the track, and a long-distance dangerous place was at the turning post where race of twenty or twenty-four lengths. There chariot wheels could lock together and there was no ‘marathon’ – this was the invention of were many crashes. Collisions were common Baron de Coubertin who revived the Olympic on the narrow course, and it was not uncom- Games in 1896. The long distance race ("Dol- mon for only one chariot to complete the ichos") is 4800 m. race. In all these races, the runners made a In ancient Greece, only the wealthy could standing start, from a row of stone slabs set in afford to maintain a chariot and horses. Char- the track that had grooves cut in them to pro- iots had been used to carry warriors into bat- vide a grip for the toes. tle, and chariot races, along with other sports The historical accounts of the longer runs events were originally held at the funeral have left us with some unanswered questions. games of heroes, as described in Homer’s Ili- Was there one turning pole for runners, or ad. Wealthy citizens and Greek statesmen separate turning poles for each athlete? There were anxious to win such a prestigious event. were rules against tripping and bumping, but They sometimes drove their own chariot, but ancient writers suggest that such tricks were usually employed a charioteer. The races took frequent. place in an arena called the hippodrome. Since they were run on the same day, only After the dangers and excitement of the a true extraordinary athlete could win all three chariot race came the horse racing. This was sprinting events at the same games. Such an hazardous because the track was already individual would be called a tripler. churned up, and the jockeys rode without stir- rups or saddles, which were not yet invented. Chariot Race The winning horse and its owner were given an enthusiastic reception, and riderless horses At Olympia, the chariot race was the open- that came first and past the post were also ing event, but only after a previous day of honored. preparation and worship. The two-wheeled chariots, each drawn by four horses abreast, Wrestling entered the stadium in a ceremonial procession led by judges dressed in purple robes, a Wrestling was a sport of great skill which herald, and a trumpeter. As each chariot used many of the throws still seen today. It is passed in front of the judges' stand, the herald also featured as part of the pentathlon. would call out the names of the owner, his The procedure was simple. Names were father, and his city. Then he would proclaim drawn from a silver urn setting up initial that the games were officially open. matches and creating the "pairing" of matches The number of chariots varied up to 41 at that would lead to the final or championship the Pythian games in 462 B.C. A large field bouts. All three sports were brutal, with few made an exciting contest because they all rules, no time limits and no ring. There were would start together and rush toward the also no weight classes, so the competition was

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces 37 limited to big, tough, and well-muscled men. which was believed to be the home of the The objective in wrestling was to score gods. It was situated close to the river Klade- three falls, a fall being defined as touching the os, which in the fourth century CE changed ground with the knees. its course, destroying part of the gymnasium. Milo of Croton was one of the most fa- Eventually, floods and tsunamis destroyed mous of the legendary strong men who won most of the sanctuary and covered the re- this popular event. Milo won the boys' wres- mains with several meters of silt. tling in 540 B.C. and the senior event at five In the early days, the games were held near successive games. Zeus statue and the running game started Presumably, biting or gouging was prohib- right at Zeus statue`s feet. Some years after, a ited A fifth century B.C. wrestler named Le- stadium was built there. onticus from Messina in Sicily tried to break his opponent's fingers as quickly as possible. Agora He was remembered as one of the first wrestlers to develop new "holds". The agora of a Greek city-state was the center where political, religious, social, and Fig 3. The Wrestlers on a pottery plate commercial activities took place. In addition to the agora serving as the "gathering place" for these necessary functions, there is evidence which suggests that athletic activities took place here. It was not until after Solon's time, in the early sixth century B.C. that the Athenian Ag- ora became the market place and civic center of the city. Prior to that time, the area was conspicuously lacking public buildings as Ath- ens had no physical trace of a city center or market place. Soon after Solon, however, the character of the area changed, and buildings whose main functions were political in nature Two men wrestling were watched by a began to appear. During the pre-Agora days, trainer from the University of Pennsylvania as early as the eighth century B.C., the area Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. may have been a regular location for athletic Music education and gymnastic training contests. It seems that the site that eventually were carried out in “Gymnasiums” and “Pa- became Athens' commercial and civic center lestrae” which were built and controlled by was intimately linked with athletic activities. the state; running areas were called “Dramos”, This coupled with the prominence of chariot and chariot race areas were termed “Hippo- race scenes on the late Geometric vases from dromes” (AYTAC, 1980). Athenian graves, reinforces the belief that chariot races were part of the funeral games in Olympia early Athens. As the athletic activities and interests of the Olympia was not a formal settlement; it Athenians grew, the need for a larger area to was a small sacred area surrounded by a wall accommodate spectators developed; hence, in containing the important sanctuary. It was the late fourth century B.C., the construction named after the revered Mount Olympus

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 38 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi of the Panathenaic Stadium was begun. Upon from Priene, an Ionic city in Asia Minor, con- its completion, the athletic events of the Ago- firms the use of individual bases as a starting ra were shifted to the new facility. In spite of line even though the arrangement is situated the transfer of events to the new structure, the in a stadium rather than an Agora and is of a Agora was still regarded as an important loca- later date. tion for the erection of statues by victorious The Corinthian Agora offered a peculiar athletes in honor of their success in the athlet- arrangement related to athletic competition, ic games. especially when one considers the fact that a Athenian Agora remained the site of ath- combined running track and hippodrome may letic happenings until the late fourth century have existed in the center of the city. There is B.C. when the new stadium displaced the Ag- clear evidence of wheel ruts in the surface of ora as the location for athletic activities. the race course. Additionally, these ruts are Athens' leading festival was closely associ- significantly close to the starting line of the ated with the Agora and the Acropolis. A pro- track used by runners. Also, there are indica- cessional road known as the Panathenaic Way tions that a retaining wall of a grandstand passed diagonally through the Agora and con- used by spectators to view wrestling, boxing, tinued to the entrance to the Acropolis. Ac- and pankration events, was cut back in order cording to Aristophanes, torch races started at to prevent the crowding of chariots which the outer Kerameikos, passed through the attempted to negotiate a turn at this critical Agora, and finished at the Acropolis. point. Although the combination of a running Further physical proof of athletics in the track and hippodrome in the center of a city Athenian Agora came to light when in the may seem unusual, the arrangement at Cor- northwest sector of the area a row of five inth was by no means a prototype. According square limestone bases were found stretching to Pausanias, a configuration of this kind ex- across the width of the street. The bases were isted in the Agora at Elis, the training site for placed so that their tops were slightly elevated the ancient Olympic Games. above the surface of the road. At the west end The bowl-shaped platform that was located of the row of bases is a circular pit in which a south of the starting line has been interpreted round base originally existed. These bases by Williams and Russell as an area where the appear to have been spaced with relation to contact sports of wrestling, boxing, and the the adjacent altar of the Twelve Gods and pankration occurred. Their hypothesis differs there is room for five additional bases be- from Broneer who suggests that semicircular tween the altar and the pit. areas served as the support structure for a The arrangement of bases which extended grandstand area used by spectators to view the approximately 20 m across the Panathenaic events that occurred on the race course or a Way resembles the starting line of a running judges' area. track. The sockets were used to insert light The evolution of athletic activities in the wooden posts that served as a starting gate for Agoras of two of Greece's leading city-states running events. The starting gate was appar- appears to have been linked to the cult of the ently controlled from the circular pit. Shear dead. For at Athens, as well as Corinth, the suggests that in the second half of the fifth areas that eventually became designated as century B.C., running contests of the Panath- each city's market place originally functioned enaea with room to accommodate ten runners as cemeteries. As the respective Agoras be- began at this line and proceeded across the came more formalized, the funerary link was center of the Agora. Furthermore, a discovery retained; but emphasis shifted to more com-

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces 39 mercial and civic-oriented activities and this grooves, stretching the width of each block shift also occurred in the area of athletics. with sockets for individual turning posts as at Each city dealt with the expanded athletic Olympia, Nemea, Delphi, and Epidaurus. activity in their own way. At Athens, it was This design would have required a close foot evident that by the latter part of the fourth position at the start. At Corinth, however, the century B.C., the Agora was no longer capable starting line nearly resembles a modern day of meeting the athletic demands of its citizens. starting line like those dug in the ground by Therefore, a large stadium was built to ease sprinters before the introduction of starting the burden of the combined commercial and blocks used in present day track events. civic activities and athletic functions of the The earlier racecourse had a rise of ground Athenian Agora. south of the track that provided a good view for spectators and judges. The later track ran Stadium (Stadion) parallel with a building called the South Stoa which was built under the direction of Philip Today, the word “Stadium” is very familiar of Macedon's leadership. The South Stoa had to us, but it used to be a place for sport activi- many functions, however, the steps in front of ties such as running, and national and ritual the building were approximately three and activities such as circus. Nowadays, we know one-half meters above the running track and little about ancient Stadiums. Probably, it is a provided an excellent area to watch the races. rectangular area with circular ends, containing a small column near each end which runners Stadium at Athenes would turn around them and get back to the starting point. There were no seats in the early During the peace time, Athenian men Stadiums for those who watch the games but spent most of their time in Stadiums which later some embank added to provide fans and usually were built outside the city and had too judges with a place to sit during the game. many facilities. Today only one of Athenian Running race was probably the most im- stadiums called Panathenaic or Kallimarmaro portant sport in ancient Greece which was that was built about 329 B.C. still remains in held at one Stad, which is about 182 m and existence. Panathenaic Stadium was expanded the name “stadium” comes after Stad. later in 140 A.D. and provided room for Only a small number of books have ap- 50000 people. Later in 1896, it was rebuilt to peared on the Greek stadium. One by Roma- contain the beginning ceremony for the first no examines the origins of this type, with par- modern Olympic. ticular focus on the Peloponnesos. He had Parthenon frieze is a record of different previously studied stadia in the region for his aspects of Athen’s large stand most important dissertation. A book by Miller discusses the athletic festival, the panathenaic games. Hellenistic stadium uncovered by his excavation team at Nemea. Results of the affiliated Stadium at Aphrodisias excavations at Nemea which were revived by the University of California (UC) at Berkeley, A combination of stylistic and historical ev- show an early Hellenistic stadium. idence suggests that the Stadium was part of In many Greek stadiums, the starting lines the monumental building program undertaken are made up of several blocks extending in the city in the first century A.D. The Stadi- across the width of the running track. Typical- um has a peculiar form in that it has two ly, each individual block has two parallel sphendonai (curved ends) rather than one. It

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 40 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi is one of a small group of such stadia in the embankments were constructed on the north, Greek world that epigraphical evidence sug- west, and south sides. There was however as gests had a specific name: oGTd8tov in all the fourth-century B.C. stadiums, no dt4pt0F'atpov ("amphitheatral stadium"). The seating for the spectators. The stone elements unusually complete archaeological record at of the stadium were very limited: a platform Aphrodisias indicates that throughout the Im- that supported seats for the Hellanodikai perial period, the Stadium was used not only (judges), the balbis (the starting line of the for Greek athletic competitions, but also for races), and a drain running across the track to Roman spectacles such as gladiatorial games carry water away. After the Games officially and venationes. In Late Antiquity, a small ended in A.D 393, the site has suffered many stone amphitheater was built into its eastern natural disasters ever since, including earth- sphendone, obliterating part of the Stadium's quakes, fires, and floods. running track. The Stadium of Nemea Fig 4. Plan of an ancient Stadium in Greece The site of Nemea lies in an upland valley in the modern province of Corinthia. On the floor of the valley nestles a small village called Ancient Nemea or Herakleion. In ancient times, the site was famous for the Sanctuary of Zeus in which the temple to the god was dominant.

Fig 5. Aerial view of the Nemea stadium

The Stadium of Olympia

The archaeological site of Olympia lies on a grassy plain in the present-day Greek province of Elia. The site was famous for the sanctuary devoted to Zeus and the Panhellenic games that took place every four years in honor of the god. The stadium we now see

(Stadium III) was constructed towards the end of the fifth century B.C. The track was 600 Olympic feet long (192.28 m) and was of clay, levelled and thickly covered with sand; it had stone sills at each end which marked the start and finish of the races. The course was separated from the embankment by a ridge of stone blocks on the outside of which was a channel that ran round the stadium. The ground rises naturally to the east and artificial

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces 41 Fig 6. Nemea stadium at the 1977 excavation more detail particularly for the Hellenistic period, in the proceedings of an international conference held in 2001. Individual gymnasia is found at Samos, Olympia, and Eretria. Such buildings may be located near or associated with others of related functions, including the palaestra at Olympia and a later (Roman) at Samos. Since 1964, excavations at Eretria have been conducted by the Swiss School of Ar- chaeology in Greece. Final reports are published in the Eretria series, which include a number of recent volumes on architecture. These cover topics range from houses to the The Nemean Games took place every two gymnasion, the theater, and Macedonian-type years in two basic locales, the stadium and the tombs. hippodrome. According to evidence, around The most proper sample of a Gymnasion is 415 B.C, the majority of the sanctuary of Zeus the one which was built in Sardis during Hel- was destroyed and lenistic era. consequently in the following years, the The Gymnasium of the ‘Lykeion’, that Games were held in Argos. In 330 B.C, the scholars were trying to locate as early as late Argeians decided to undertake a building pro- nineteenth century, was one of the three an- grammer in Nemea, including the reconstruc- cient Gymnasia of Athens which operated tion of the Temple of Zeus and the creation from the sixth century B.C. of the early Hellenistic Stadium. This stadium remained in use until 271 B.C, the year when Palaestra the Games returned to Argos. The remains of the stadium lie 450 m south-west of the tem- Palaestra in fact was a wrestling school and ple of Zeus. In a second natural depression arena, but sometimes mistaken with gymnasi- east of the stadium lies the remains of a single on. Some believe that the palaestra was a spe- rectangular building with a central portico, the cial building within ancient gymnasiums Apodyterion (locker-room). In order to enter where wrestling and physical training were the stadium, the athletes had to cross the practiced (SALTUK, 1990). Hidden Entrance, the 36.35 m long tunnel Greek towns of substantial size also had a which led to the western part of the track. palaestra or a gymnasium, the social center for The track of the stadium was 600 ancient feet male citizens. of hard-packed yellow clay (MILLER, 2005: Due to the nature of wrestling game in an- 205–07). At both ends of the track, a balbis or cient Greece, Palaestras were built near a riv- starting line was located. In addition to the er, usually outside of the city and were pro- stone starting line itself, the balbis included vided with facilities such as spectator areas, the hysplex, a starting mechanism allowing the baths, toilets and club rooms. athletes to have consistently fair starts to rac- Sand wrestling took place in the open court es. of the palaestra, and mud wrestling in some The architectural form of gymnasion and covered area where the mud would not dry as its function are discussed very generally in a fast as in the hot Mediterranean sun. Mud book on ancient athletics and are covered in

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 42 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi wrestling also took place in the central court V. 2008. Anadolu’da antik spor alanları. Anka- of the palaestra. ra: Ankara Üniversitesi, 1987. BARLETTA A. B. Greek architecture, Amer- Palaestra at Athens ican journal of archaeology 115, pp 611- 640, page 618, 2011. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.115.4. In 1996 on Rigillis street, in the center of 0611 Athens, rescue excavations conducted prior to BARLETTA A. B. Greek architecture, Amer- the erection of the Museum of Modern Art ican journal of archaeology 115, pp 611- uncovered archaeological remains of a large 640, page 624,625, 2011. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja. public building occupying an extended area of 115.4.0611 MASTERSO, D. W. The ancient Greek ori- more than 3000 m2. It had been seriously gins of sports medicine, Br J Sports Med, pp damaged by the military installations which 196-202, p. 198, 1976. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm. occupied the area from the nineteenth century 10.4.196 until 1966. Besides the poor state of preserva- DEMIREL D. YILDIRAN I. the philosophy tion, the ground plan of the building was re- of physical education and sport from ancient stored. The site has been identified as a pa- times to the enlightenmemnt. European laestra due to its size and the remarkably Journal of Educational Research Vol. 2, symmetrical arrangement of its rooms around No. 4, 191-202, page 191-193, 2016. https://doi. a large rectangular court is surrounded by sto- org/10.12973/eu-jer.2.4.191 as. Its original plan was preserved throughout DIMITRA-MARIA LALA. Contemporary its period of usage from the late fourth centu- Uses of Archaeological Sites: A Case Study of ry B.C until the end of the fourth century Ancient Stadiums in Modern Greece; conser- A.D, with repairs after every destruction. vation and mgmt of arch. sites, Vol. 16 No. 4, November 2014, 308–321, 2014. https://doi.org/ Palaestra at Olympia 10.1179/1350503315Z.000000000100 FARHADFAR, E. Physical Education and The Palaestra seen in the picture is built Sport, Third Edition, Tehran, Born 59,60 around a yard which is surrounded by col- Ramezaninezhad, R. 2008. Physical Education umns that hide dressing rooms and bath- and Sport Sciences, First Edition, North Uni- rooms behind. versity, North Station Publishing House, 56, 2011. REFERENCES THOMPSON, H.A. The Athenian Agora Guide (American School of Classical Studies AYTAÇ, K. Avrupa eğitim tarihi. Ankara: Dil at Athens) 1; and Noel Robertson, Festivals ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi, 1980. and Legends: The Formation of Greek Cities AZAD M, BARUA A, SULTANA SH. In- in the Light of Public Ritual (London, ternational journal of civil engineering, 1992):96, 1976. construction and estate management, HUGUENOT, C. La tombe aux Erotes et la Vol.3, no.2, pp 48-58, page 52, 2015. tombe d'Amarynthos: Architecture funeraire BAHMANESH, A. Olympic Games, Book et presence macedonienne en Grece centrale. Publishing Esmaeili, MR., 2009, Physical Ed- 2 vols. Eretria 19. Gollion, Switzerland: In- ucation and Sport, Tehran: Humanities Re- folio. Respectively, 2008. search and Development Organization of the ISLER, H.P. Das Theater: Grabungen 1997 Universities (position), Human Sciences Re- und 1998. Eretria 18. Lausanne and Gollion, search and Development Center, 134.BALCI, Switzweland: Ecole Suisse d'Archeologie en Grece and Infolio, 2007.

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces 43 KAH, D., AND P. SCHOLZ, EDS. Das hel- by Ahmad Azad, Tehran: Organization for lenistische Gymnasion. Wissenskultur und the Study and Compilation of Human Scienc- gesellschaftlicher Wandel 8. Berlin: Akademie- es Books of Universities (position), Center for Verlag, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783050084077 Human Sciences Research and Development; KYLE, D. Directions in ancient sport history. National Olympic Committee of the Islamic Journal of sport history, Vol.10, No.1, pp. 7 Republic of Iran, 215, 2011. 34, p 9, 1983. REBER, K. Die klassischen und hellenis- LATTIPONGPUN, W. The origins of the tischen Wohnhauser im Westquartier. Eretria Olympic games’ opening and closing ceremo- 10. Lausanne: Editions Payot, 1998. nies: artistic creativity and communication, SABAGH LANGROUDI, M. Physical Edu- intercultural communication studies XIX:1, cation Date, Isfahan, Islamic Azad University, page 1031-2015. Ancient Olympic ks2, river Khorasgan Branch, Research Deputy, 161, and rowing museum, hanley-on-thames, 2010. 2008. LYGOURI-TOLIA, E. Excavating an An- SALTUK, S. Arkeoloji sözlüğü. İstan- cient Palaestra in Athens. In: M. Stamatopou- bul:İnkılâp Kitabevi.SAVIC, Z. 2007. The lou and 56-M. Geroulanou, eds. Excavating Olympic games as a cultural event. Acta Univ. Classical Culture: Recent Archaeological Dis- Palacki. Olomuc., Gymn., vol. 37, no. 3, pp 7- coveries in Greece. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 13, page 8,9, 1990. pp. 203–12, 2002. SEE DUCREY, P., I.R. METZGER, AND MANGO, E., P. GEX, P. ANDRE, AND M. K. REBER. Le quartier de la Masion aux mo- JACCARD. Das Gymnasion. Eretria 13. Gol- saiques. Eretria 8. Lausanne: Editions Payot, lion, Switzerland: Ecole Suisse d'Archeologie 1993. en Grece, 2003. SWADDLING, J. The Ancient Olympic MARTINI, W. Das Gymnasium von Samos. Games. London: British Museum Press, p 25, Samos 16. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt. miller 2001, 1980. 1984. VALAVANIS, P. Games and Sanctuaries in MILLER, S. Ancient Greek Athletics. Alber- Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, tina: Yale University Press, p108, 2004a. Nemea, Athens. Athens: Kapon, 156-159, MILLER, S. To Στάδιο της Νεμέας. In: Δ. 2004. Γαρουφαλής, M. Μικελάκης, and Στ. VUKOVIĆ, R. Forerunners, organizers, con- Mασουρίδη, eds. Τα Στάδια στην Αρχαία testants and guests at the Olympic Games in Ελλάδα και οι σύγχρονες αναβιώσεις των Athens in 1896. Belgrade: “Logos” Totovo αρχαίων αγώνων. Athens: Ekdoseis Periskopio, village. p 16, 2001. pp. 49–53.49, 2004b. WACKER, C. Das Gymnasion in Olympia: MILLER, S. Νεμέα: Μουσείο και Geschichte und Funktion. Wurzburg: Ergon Αρχαιολογικός Χώρος. Athens: TAPA.17,21- Verlag, 1996. 22, 2005. YAGHOUB A. History of Ancient Art, Posi- MOUSTAKA, A. Grossplastik aus Ton in tion, Tehran, 354, 2011. Olympia. OlForsch 22. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, p. 31, 1993. NEWBY, Z. Athletics in the Ancient World. License information: This is an open- access article distributed under the terms of the Creative London: Bristol Classical Press, 2006. Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted OST A., DEBORAH, A. BOUCHER, use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided CHARLES. Fundamentals of Physical Educa- the original work is properly cited. tion, Sport Sciences and Sports, Translation

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019 44 Deimary, Azizi and Mohammadi Article received on August 30, 2019. Evaluated October 21, 2019. Accepted on November 01, 2019. Published on November 21, 2019.

How cite this article (ABNT): DEIMARY, Nima; AZIZI, Mahsa; MOHAMMADI, Mohammad. The study of the influence of ancient Greek rituals and sports and the formation of the architecture of its sports spaces. Estação Científica (UNIFAP), Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, apr./jun. 2019.

Estação Científica (UNIFAP) https://periodicos.unifap.br/index.php/estacao ISSN 2179-1902 Macapá, v. 9, n. 2, p. 33-44, abr./jun. 2019