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An Analysis of Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Face

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An Analysis of Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Face University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Computer Science and Engineering, Department CSE Journal Articles of 2007 An Analysis of Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Face Ashok Samal University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected] Vanitha Subramani University of Nebraska-Lincoln David B. Marx University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/csearticles Part of the Computer Sciences Commons Samal, Ashok; Subramani, Vanitha; and Marx, David B., "An Analysis of Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Face" (2007). CSE Journal Articles. 95. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/csearticles/95 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Computer Science and Engineering, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in CSE Journal Articles by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Published in Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation 18 (2007), pp. 453-463; doi:10.1016/j.jvcir.2007.04.010 Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Inc. Used by permission. Online at http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jvci Submitted August 11, 2004; accepted April 25, 2007; published online June 2, 2007. Archived in University of Nebraska-Lincoln Digital Commons December 2010. An Analysis of Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Face Ashok Samal, Vanitha Subramani, and David Marx University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA Corresponding author — A. Samal, [email protected] Abstract Human beings can distinguish between a male and a female face without much difficulty. The science of recog- nizing and differentiating different faces by humans is not completely understood and is still under research. Sexual dimorphism is common in humans and indeed in other species of animals as well. Significant differences between males and females exist in many aspects like size, color, body shapes, and weight. In this research, we characterize and analyze the sexual dimorphism in the human face as a function of age and of face features. Features are grouped into six categories: head, eyes, orbits, nose, lips, and mouth, and ears. We demonstrate that the face of adult males is significantly different from adult females. We also identify the features that signif- icantly contribute to the dimorphism of the face. This provides a basis for gender-based classification of faces. Keywords: face recognition, sexual dimorphism, gender classification, face classification, human face 1. Introduction rect measurements and photographic images of the face as the basis for our analysis. Human beings can distinguish between a male and a female face without much difficulty. Humans have in- 1.1. Sexual size dimorphism in humans tuitive ability which makes it possible to recognize the faces [1]. Though males and females differ in many char- The dictionary definition of dimorphism is “difference of acteristics, the face plays a significant role. However, a form between members of the same species.” Sexual di- viewer often cannot describe the exact reason of how morphism, in general, refers to differences between males he could determine if a person is a male or a female. It and females of the species in terms of size, appearance, and is difficult to specify exactly the features and the rea- behavior. Dimorphism exists in various forms in all hu- sons that enable a viewer to make the distinction. Face mans. Any person can easily observe dimorphism in hu- is an important feature of humans, as it plays a signif- mans by looking at a face. Studies have shown that parts icant role in their activities. The notion of beauty is of- of human anatomy exhibit sexual dimorphism. Factors ten associated with the face. A facial expression pro- and the features responsible for dimorphism in humans vides a guide to the disposition of a person and hence are still under research. The study aims to contribute the is important as well in the manner humans conduct so- understanding of sexual dimorphism by analyzing the di- cial interaction. Detection, identification of faces, as well morphism in human face and identifying the features of as facial expressions have been approached both theo- the face that contribute to the dimorphism. retically and experimentally for several decades [2, 3]. The goal of this research is to study sexual dimorphism 1.2. Applications in humans with the focus on human faces. In particular, we would like to identify the features in faces that are Research on sexual dimorphism can be used in conjunc- most different in male and female faces. We use both di- tion with face recognition systems in several ways. It can 453 454 SAMAL, SUBRAMANI, & MARX IN JOURNAL OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION AND IMAGE REPRESENTATION 18 (2007) be used as a mechanism to reduce the search space by half, of human face recognition is beyond the scope of the pa- if the gender of the face is known in advance or can be de- per, but is provided elsewhere [2, 3]. termined automatically. In large databases this could result in significant reduction in search time. The research can be 2.1. Sexual dimorphism in humans used for analyzing the facial expressions and determining the gender of the subject in the photograph. Sexual dimorphism can be defined as the systematic dif- ference in form between individuals of different sex in the 1.3. Contributions same species. Though any human being can distinguish the difference by appearance, it’s stated that human be- Specific contributions of this research are to: (a) add to ings have comparatively lower level of dimorphism when the body of knowledge in sexual dimorphism, (b) pro- compared to other species. In most of the species, the di- vide quantitative results that measure sexual dimorphism morphism manifests in the size. For instance, in mam- in human faces and develop a basis that could be used to mals the male is usually larger than the female. Some of differentiate between male and female faces. In this re- the other factors influencing the dimorphism among hu- search, we use both direct measurements and measure- mans can be weight (studies indicate a normal male is 1.2 ments from photographic images for our analysis. We heavier than a normal female), height, hair, face, muscles also study how sexual dimorphism changes as a function (more among men than women), voices, body shapes, of age and which features are more significant in the ex- color, size of eyes, and behaviors [4]. pression of sexual dimorphism. In addition, we analyze the features to determine which ones are likely to be most 2.2. Sexual size dimorphism useful in automated analyses. It should be note here that our goal here is to funda- Sexual dimorphism when quantified using either differ- mentally understand the degree and extent of sexual di- ences or ratios is referred to as the “Dimorphism Index” morphism in the human face. Therefore, we have relied on and is commonly referred to as sexual size dimorphism measurements obtained directly or indirectly from the hu- index (SSDI), or simply as sexual size dimorphism (SSD). man face by manual methods. There is an active research SSD helps us in determining the degree of difference be- community in extracting features automatically and the re- tween the male and female measurements. Many different sults can seamlessly dovetail into the results from this re- ways to compute the SSD have been proposed in the liter- search to develop a fully automated system to accurately ature [5]. An SSD value close to “0” indicates the feature is classify faces into males and females. This information pro- similar in males and females [6]. A positive value of SSD vides a guide to research into automated methods in the means that the male measurements are higher than the fe- sense that the most important features of the face are iden- males. On the other hand, a negative value indicates that tified. The results of this study may be used to tune some the female measurement is higher. It is observed that an- of the standard procedures in face recognition. gular measurements have high SSD’s when compared to other direct linear measurements [7]. Features that have 1.4. Organization larger values in males tend to have lower SSD. The paper is organized as follows. We summarize the pre- 2.3. Sexual dimorphism in human face vious research on sexual dimorphism in Section 2. In Sec- tion 3, we describe the datasets used in this research and The human face also plays a significant role in the sexual how they are obtained. The fundamental research ques- dimorphism. Researchers have studied human faces dat- tions in sexual dimorphism in the face are posed, stud- ing back to the renaissance period [8]. The focus then was ied and analyzed in Section 4. Finally, we conclude with a to determine the most appropriate dimensions of human summary and directions for future work in Section 5. face for making beautiful sculptures. Studies have been conducted on different races to determine the dimorphism 2. Background research in the human face among different human races [9]. Ferrario et al. used the Euclidean distance matrix anal- Face recognition can be defined as visual perception of fa- ysis method to determine the sexual dimorphism in the miliar faces. The face is often regarded as the most impor- human face [10]. The method employs is a two-step pro- tant feature in humans. This is because the face acts as a cedure; (a) calculate all the possible Euclidean distances guide for recognizing or identifying a person. Humans between the selected points on a face; (b) compare the have the ability to easily detect and identify the difference two faces by calculating the matrix of ratios of corre- between faces with little or no effort.
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