Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films

Home , Joey Wong, Josephine Siao, July Rhapsody, Maggie Cheung, Nice guy, Supercop

人文地理第56巻第6号 (2004)

Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films:

Agents, Place and Culture in Socio-Spatial Context

OKUNO Sill

Hong Kong Trade Development Council1) reports that approximately 2,800 business establishments, with an employment of 20,000 persons, operated motion pictures and other entertainment services in Hong Kong, in March 20032). In the same year, 77 films were produced in Hong Kong, contributing box office receipts of US $47 million, compared to a total of US $101 million when foreign films were included. In the export sector, audio-visual production and related services ac- counted for US $53 million, and contributed annually a share of 0.1%-0.2% to services exports in recent years. Hong Kong films or their related agents have often been invited to exhibit at Film Festivals abroad, and have won several prestigious awards including those from the Oscars in Los Angeles and film festivals in Berlin and Cannes3). Before examining the Hong Kong film industry in-depth a theoretical context is provided.

I Theoretical Context

Allen Scott, a geographer, analyzes the film industry in Los Angeles according to the division of labor. In particular, he highlights the proximity of skilled and socialized cultural workers in the image-production system and milieu to attain cultural agglomeration or synergy4) Scottthen extends his field of interest to Paris and the French cinema5) He also underlines that film production forms an integral part of the United States cultural-products industry, and the cultural innovative and creative aspects of film culture in representing and making propaganda of US capital- ist culture to the rest of the world6).

After examining the theory of film expressed by Easthope7), Aitken and Zonn8), and David

1) Hong Kong Trade Development Council, http://www.tdctrade.com/main/si/spfilm.html; sources from MPIA and Annual Reports. Report updated on June 11, 2004. 2) In August 2004, Ng See Yuen, President of Federation of Hong Kong Film Workers estimated there were 4,000 workers, and an extra 1,000 workers are needed to meet the demand of an improving economy and a higher export quota under the Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement with China. Source: South China Morning Post, August 4, 2004. 3) Some examples are: Peter Pau and Tim Yip (Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon) won the Oscars in 2000 for cinematog- raphy and art direction respectively. Maggie Cheung won the Cannes for Best Actress for the French movie Green in 2004, and the Berlin Golden Bear 1992 in Center Stage (or Ruan Lingyu: The Actress). Wong Kar Wai's Happy Together (1997) won him Best Director at Cannes. At the Cannes Film Festival 2004, Wong Kar-Wai's 2046, and Johnnie To's Breaking News were played with positive feedbacks. 4) Scott, A. J., Metropolis: From the Division of Labor to Urban Form, University of California Press, 1988. 5) Scott, A. J., The Cultural Economy of Cities: Essays on Image-producing Industries, Sage, 2000. 6) Scott, A. J., The craft, fashion, and cultural-products industries of Los Angeles: competitive dynamics and policy di- lemmas in a multisectoral image-producing complex, AAAG, 86, 1996, pp. 306-323. 7) Easthope, A., ed. Contemporary Film Theory. Longman, 1993. 8) Aitken, S. C. and Zonn, L. E., eds. Place, Power, Situation, and Spectacle: A Geography of Film, Rowman & Littlefield. 1994.

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Figure 1. A Theory of Filmspace Source: Modified from Michael Dear, The Postmodern Urban Condition, Blackwell, 2000, p. 190.

Clarke9), Michael Dear, another geographer in his study of the postmodern city-Los Angeles10) fo- cuses on the importance of place and space. Dear then outlines his theory of "filmspace" in four different, but sequential, components: the place of production, the production place, film text, and consumption in space. Then he discusses their respective attributes and characteristics. Here- by film includes movies and documentaries. Mark Shiel, an academic specializing in film studies, when discussing the aims of his new edition on cinema and the city outlines six sections: (1) the relationship between film studies and sociology11); (2)cinema and urban society; (3) space and spatiality; (4) geographical description and uneven development; (5) describing history; and (6) globalization. He admits that cinema is a peculiarly spatial form of culture, and that "cinema operates and is best understood in terms of the organization of space: both space in films-the space of the shot, the space of the narra- tive setting, the geographical relationship of various settings in sequence in a film, the mapping of a lived environment on film; and films in space, the shaping of lived urban spaces by cinema as a cultural practice, the spatial organization of its industry at the levels of production, distribution, and exhibition; the role of cinema in globalization12)." Another academic in film studies, Esther Yau, examines the "New Wave" of film production Hong Kong cinema after 1990s and is impressed by the speed of the local film production process and its interaction between local agents and those in Hollywood, and the rest of the world13).

9) Clarke, D. B., ed. The Cinematic City, 1997. 10) Dear, M. J. The Postmodern Urban Condition, Blackwell, 2000, p. 190. 11) Shiel, M. & Fitzmaurice, T., eds. Cinema and the City: Film and Urban Societies in a Global Context, Blackwell, 2001. He mentions the usefulness of the disciplines of geography, cultural studies, urban studies in understanding films in their cultural and social context. 12) Shiel, Mark, Cinema and the city in history and theory, in M. Shiel and T. Fitzmaurice, eds., Cinema and the City: Film and Urban Societies in a Global Context, Blackwell, 2001, p. 5. 13) Yau, Ester. C. M., ed. At Full Speed: Hong Kong Cinema in a Borderless World, University of Minnesota Press, 2001.

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Law Karr, in the same edition, introduces the concept of "cultural field" where intellectuals and artists work to: (1) define and defend various criteria of cultural legitimacy; (2) play out their emotional investment in the idea of culture; (3) elaborate and address their implied audience; and (4) establish their moral and aesthetic authority. He continues, "The result of these efforts was a practice of criticism and a set of enduring public institutions where that practice could unfold…At stake in these activities were the mission of the film critic, the relationship between culture and society, and the identity of Hong Kong14)." There are many other studies relating the city, urban space and urban life, to films, including Stephen Teo15) and David Bordwell16) on Hong Kong, Guneratne17) on Singapore, and Sugimoto18) on In- dia. In particular, Tobari19) and Fujii20) take a broader perspective to comparing several Chinese films, including those produced in Hong Kong and Taiwan, according to their locality, aesthetics, political and cultural emphases. The author is interested in studying the film culture, and its path of change and relationship to the socio-economic and political history of the place. He also pays attention to the film as an industry and culture undergoing local-global and then global-local processes, transnational in nature, and produce impacts on the core, the periphery, and immediate region. In this light, this study aims to: (1) give a profile of the image-making of the place through the films screened there; (2) explain the boom and later globalizing of its films since early 1970s by plotting the paths of some actors, directors, action choreographers active in the process; (3) explain the utilization of embedded Chinese culture of the place and its people, the new hybrid cultural formation and transformation in the film-making process with some examples, and last but not least; (4) draw comments on the role of Hong Kong in cultural-political context within China, Asia, and the world.

II Images of Hong Kong on the Silver Screen

The exhibition of Hong Kong Film Archive, April 2001, revealed that the earliest film of Hong Kong was made in 1898, when an Edison Company (US) documentary covered images of Chi- nese coolies carrying bamboo levers on their shoulders. This contrasted with a street scene where a European gentleman was being carried on a sedan chair. Images of the 1930s and 1940s, like the Governor's House, Supreme Court, Star Ferry, trams, low-rise shophouses, and parades were shot in the film Ten Thousand Li Ahead (1941), recording the early days of modernization and colonial governance. Story-telling activity on the street, once a popular entertainment form

14) Law Karr,“An overview of Hong Kong's New Wave Cinema,”in Esther C. M. Yau, ditto., pp. 31-52. 15) Teo, Stephen. Hong Kong Cinema: The Extra Dimensions, British Film Institute, 1997. 16) Bordwell, David. Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema, Harvard University Press, 2000. 17) Guneratne, A. R.,‘The Urban and the Urbane: Modernization, Modernism and the Rebirth of Singaporean Cinema,’ In Goh, R. B. H. & Yeoh, Brenda, S. A., Theorizing the Southeast Asian City as Text, World Scientific, 2003, pp. 159-190. 18) Sugimoto,Yoshio. An Invitationto Indian Cinema (Indo Eiga he no Shotaijo),Seikyusha, 2002. 19) Tobari, Haruo. China, Taiwanand Hong Kong on the Screen (Sukurin no naka no Chugoku,Taiwan, Honkon), Maruzen, 1996. 20) Fujii, Shojo. Exploration into Contemporary China: A Tale of Four Cities (Gendai Chugoku Bunka Tanken-Yottsu no Toshi monogatari), Iwanami, 1999.

-59- 618 人文地理第56巻第6号 (2004) for the masses, was screened in the movie Roar of People (1941) to capture people's protests against Japanese militarism. The turmoil in China caused large influx of migrants to Hong Kong during the 1950s. Due to inadequate housing, these people had to live in squatter settlements on hillsides and tiny rooms in run-down apartments. Scenes of people queuing for jobs showed the other social problem-in- sufficient employment. Then came the industrialization of Hong Kong, and textile factory workers, bus drivers, construction workers and small shop owners featured in the movies. The casting of office-workers was later adopted. A decade or two after the Second World War a new generation emerged. Young women in modern dresses, enjoying the amusement park or the a-go-go dance became a recurrent theme of concern. The screen was then changed to accommodate color imagery and cinemascope, reflecting a marked improvement in Hong Kong living conditions. Nevertheless, images of child hawkers in an agricultural market in Kowloon City, once the city's oldest urban space of the city, were still shot in a film. During the 1970s, urban images on the silver screen began to show high-rise office buildings in the Central District, reflecting rapid economic growth and infrastructure investment. The berths and cranes of the container terminal at Kwai Chung, reflecting the city as a major international port, often appeared on the screen. The busy streets of Tsimshatsui with their swinging signboards were also shot conveying the message of crowded urban environment. Before the construction of the new railway terminal of Hung Hom, Tsimshatsui used to be the terminal of Hong Kong-Canton Railway connecting the urban centre with the rural areas of New Territories. Some movies used the terminal as a breaking and connecting point between the two spaces, the urban areas as evil and sophisticated, and the rural areas as pure and simple. In the 1980s, Hong Kong enjoyed tremendous economic growth, and there was increased female participation in the workforce. Local families began to employ domestic workers from Asia, especially from the Philippines for their English speaking ability. A movie featuring Filipino domestic helpers was shot (Nobody'sHero, 1989). During the 1990s, the difficulties of public housing residents in dealing with gangs and juve- nile delinquency were represented in movie themes. Images of the urban landscape showed the Mass Transit Railway, elevated highway network, and busy cross-harbor ferry services. The central figures of movie themes was then changed completely from blue-collar to white-collar workers, perhaps reflecting the growing importance of the service sector. The 1997 issue of Hong Kong's return to China and worries or expectations of local residents were also reflected in several movies.

There are many references to the development of the cinema in the Hong Kong21). Similarly, the record of images of Hong Kong in western movies can be traced through Luk and Rice22), which

21) (1) Shi, Wenhsiang,‘The development path of Hong Kong cinema,’in Wang, Yenwu, ed., Honk Kong History, New Edition (Xianpian Xiang Guang Shi), Vol. 2, Sanlun-Hong Kong, 1997, pp. 565-592. (2) Matsuoka, Kan. Hong Kong Cin- ema, in Dictionary of Contemporary China (Gendai Chugoku Jiden), Iwanami, 1999, pp. 1159-60. (3) Fu, P. & Desser, D., ed., The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity, Cambridge University Press, 2002. (4) Hong Kong Museum, Hong Kong Cinema in the Past 80 Years (Hong Kong Dianying 80 Nian), Hong Kong District City Council, Revised Edition, 1997. 22) Luk, T. Y. T. & Rice, J. P., ed., Before and After Suzie: Hong Kong in Western Film and Literature, New Asia Academic Bulletin No. 18, 2002, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. -60- Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films (OKUNO) 619

includes the well-known ones such as Love is a Many-SplendoredThing (1955) and The World of Suzie Wong (1960).A Many-SplendoredThing, based on a novel written by Han Su-Yin, portrays an American man in love with a female medical doctor adhering to Chinese values, using beau- tiful locations at Mid-Levels, Repulse Bay, and Aberdeen. The story depicts a possible union between the East and West, but with the female giving way to the male. Similarly, the classic Suzie Wong illustrates the life of a prostitute working in Wanchai bars for the pleasure of US sailors so as to satiate the desires and overcome the anxieties of Western viewers.

III Agents in Place: Actors, Directors, and Choreographers

This section deals with the paths or projects of important agents in movie production, notably the directors, actors and actresses, and the emergence of a new category of choreographers and action directors that were responsible for the growing popularity of Hong Kong movies after the 1970s. Many moviegoers were captivated by acrobatic actions, skills in weaponry use and high- wire acts. Why do these acts predominate in Hong Kong or Chinese movies? In addressing this issue we discuss the background factors behind the visual images involving both agglomeration factors and free flow of human resources to Hong Kong from China and Taiwan that resulted in Hong Kong becoming the pivot of cultural media pivot for overseas Chinese in Asia and other parts of the world.

(1) Bruce Lee Bruce Lee was born in 1940 and later went to the US for higher education. He opened a kungfu school and invented the Jeet Kune Do-"the way of intercepting fist" school. The technique is a hybridized martial art of southern Chinese kungfu-Wingchun, aikido, karate, wrestling, and boxing. This school found its philosophy in fast and accurate actions, especially when respond- ing to the enemy's (motion of) first attack so fast that your reaction can reach your enemy before he or she hits you. Bruce acted in the Big Boss (1971),Fist of Fury (1972),and later directed and acted in Way of the Dragon (1973), and Enter the Dragon (1973).He died suddenly the same year when he was half- way through the movie The Game of Death. Before his death Lee revealed that his dynamic actions were drawn from Laotze, the first book on Taoism, and Yi-jing, (eki-kyo in Japanese). All earthly objects, according to the Yi-jing, come into being with combinations and changes of two primary elements -yin (masculine) and yang (feminine)-and the greatest truth is that all things change continuously and endlessly. Some of Bruce's instructions were: "Be flexible so that you can change with change." "To change with change is the changeless state." "What is true stillness? Stillness in movement." "The intangible represents the real power of the universe. It is the seed of the tangible." "Water is an example of wholeness without form; it can fill any container and yet it is substance without

23) Started since Zhou dynasty, around AD650, Laotze's teachings urge people to understand nature and to conform oneself to the way of nature for happy life.

-61- 620 人文地理第56巻第6号 (2004) shape. Because it is formless, it permeates all." Taoist concepts of "formlessness can win form," or "slenderness can beat over hardness," are the essential roots of his thoughts24). Bruce depicts that the ultimate source of jeet kune do is enlightenment. "It is being itself, in becoming itself. Reality in its isness, the isness of a thing. Thus isness is the meaning-having free- dom in its primary sense-not limited by attachments, confinements, partialization or complexi- ties25)." "Life is wide, limitless-there is no border, no frontier." "By martial art, I mean like any art, it is an unrestricted athletic expression of an individual soul. Oh yes, martial art also means daily hermitlike physical training to upgrade or maintain one's quality26)…" Moreover, Bruce's movies embody the overall objective of dignifying, respecting and honor- ing the essential Chinese character as an antidote against the weak image that has accumulated from unequal treaties and invasion, and colonialism in China's contemporary history. This feeling finds its origins particularly among Asians and people in developing nations who are still re- sisting colonialism and imperialism. Bruce's movies found popularity in both Southeast Asia and Japan, and a cult following among university students in the West.

(2) Jackie Chan Jackie Chan was born in 1954. His family first moved from Shandong to Hong Kong, and then migrated to Australia. Later he returned to Hone Kong and learned acrobatics. tumbling, danc- ing, and various martial arts in a Peking Opera Academy with some other children27). Jackie first debuted as a stuntman in Bruce Lee's movie in 1973. He worked as stuntman in other movies too, and was selected to replace Lee after the latter's death. Jackie did not fit Lee's mould of folk hero. Director Ng See Yuen (Golden Harvest) picked him and together they developed a "kungfu comedy" style that led to Chan s successful career. Jackie played as a bright but lazy kid and succeeded not through hard training but good luck in complete contrast to Bruce Lee who was characterized as the authentic wuxia, upholding individual and social justice and assisting the weak. A previous action director of Bruce's early movies, Yuen Woo-Ping, became the action choreographer/director of Jackie's first hit Snake in the Eagle's Shadow (or SnakeMonkey for Japanese title, 1977) besides playing master in the movie. Jackie played as the hero, and more often the clown in the story as well. Jackie was cast in new roles in ProjectA (1983)as a marine policeman, and in Police Story (1985) as an inspector, and achieved certain success. The viewers applauded him more in the Police Story III-Super Cop, featuring his tremendous actions on the roof of a running train at Kuala Lumpur, and the debut of Michelle Yeoh riding on a motorcycle. Increasingly, Jackie was recognized in Hollywood following his Rumble in the Bronx (1995),Mr. Nice Guy (1997),Who Am I? (1998),Accidental Spy (2001) and ShanghaiNoon (2002).Following Jackie's entry into the Holly- wood arena, Stev Fore suggests his immediate success stems from playing local characters/in

24) See Little, J., ed. Bruce Lee, Vol. 3, Jeet Kune Do. Turtle, 1997. (Japanese Translation by Y. Nakamura, Fukushodo, 1987.) 25) ibid., p. 340. 26) ibid., pp. 393-394. 27) Chan, J., I am Jacky Chan, Ballantine, 1998. (Japanese Translation by K. Nishima, Kindai-Eigasha, 2000.)

-62- Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films (OKUNO) 621 films with themes that attracted not only global concern but also had sufficient universal appeal to gain sympathy from the audience at large28).

(3) Jet Li Jet Li Lian Jie was born in Hebei Province, China. During his childhood he was greatly interested in wu-shu, or martial arts and was smart enough to win a number of Martial Arts Champi- onships in China. His first movie debut was in Shaolin Temple(1982), which was filmed in China when he was 19 years old. Throughout the 1980s Jet played in the Shaolin Templeseries. Then Jet moved to the US to explore opportunities but did not enjoy much success even though he con- sulted Yuen Woo-Ping, the genius choreographer, for action effects and wire-aided scenes. Later, Tsui Hark noticed Jet's upright and straight appearance, and brought him to Hong Kong to play the Chinese folk hero Wong Fei-Hung in Once Upon a Time in China (1991). The movie gained great box-office results, and generated a series that were dubbed in videos,. Video CDs, and DVDs. These sold very well. After this success, Jet also acted as another Chinese folk hero in Fong Sai Yuk (1993)followed by Swordsman II(1993). Jet directed one of his own movies, Born to Defense (1996).He continued to act in BlackMask (1996),Once Upon a Timein China and Ameri- ca (1997),Hitman (1998),and Kiss of the Dragon (2001).He had another great hit with RomeoMust Die (2002),and played the villain in the series of LethalWeapon IV.

(4) Tsui Hark Tsui Hark was born in Vietnam and came to Hong Kong at age 15 where he obtained his ini- tial experience in the early projects with Hong Kong Television Broadcast (TVB).The films he directed are packed with fantasy, action, and experiments with new movie techniques. He produced The ButterflyMurders (1979),A Better Tomorrow(1986), Peking Opera Blues (1987),A Chinese Ghost Story (1987), Once Upon a Time in China (1991),and ChineseFeast (1995).He directed the movies, of Zu: The Warriorsfrom the Magic Mountain (1983) and The Banquet (1991).During the late 1990s he also participated in several movies in the US, like directing the movie Knock Off (1998).As an overseas Chinese, he continues to express and look for Chinese-ness: Chinese culture, one's political affiliation, and an overseas Chinese identity when facing changes in govern- ing parties and policies of mainland China and Taiwan29). Tsui also deals in his movies with the imagined world of jiang wu30), theChina-Hong Kong syndrome, and Oriental versus Occidental. He is seen as a central figure of the New Wave group, which commenced in the late 1970s and is still active. Keeto Lam, a colleague in the. "New Wave" group, reflects in a seminar on Tsui that he often employed special effects technology that originated in the West. "He uses them to portray some-

28) Stev Fore,“Life imitates entertainment: home and dislocation in the films of Jackie Chan,”in Yau, ditto., pp. 115-141. 29) He questions the ambiguities of Chinese-ness in his mind. He revealed in an interview that interpretations of China are many. The China from books is much different from China seen as Kuomintang in Taiwan, or China seen as the China's Communist Party in mainland China. And in Hong Kong, under the British rule before the reunification in 1997, the government has tried to alienate local Chinese people from discussing about the matter.

30) Read literally as“rivers and lakes.”It means the legendary world of wuxia where they practice martial acts and sometimes compete with each other while following their own morals and rules.

-63- 622 人文地理第56巻第6号 (2004) thing very different. To create an evil feeling in A Chinese Ghost Story, tongues and other gro- tesque objects were used. In The Swordsman, the effects created a sense of strength and solidity and the fight scenes were different from A Chinese Ghost Story and Zu. For instance, Blue Phoe- nix wields a gun and the eunuch practices a special form of qi-gong (practice of inner spirit). Tsui loves martial arts films because it allows him to express the world of Eastern aesthetics…He designs visuals that embody philosophical concepts using colors and swords. His efforts represent a continuous re-engineering of traditional Chinese visual aesthetics31)."

(5) John Woo John Woo (Wu Yu-Sen) was born in Guangzhou in 1948. He incorporates in his movies a blend of ballet, violence and male-bonding heroism, and likes to adopt themes of honor, friendship, and revenge. His good friend Tsui Hark influenced him a lot. When they cooperated to make the movie A Better Tomorrow, they together felt that young people in Hong Kong were lost, and their trust towards the government was shaken. So they wanted to make a film to uphold the traditional values, including family ties, friendship, tolerance, and etc. And they decided to remake a film in the sixties-True Colors of a Hero, directed by Lung Kong, and that became A Better To- morrow (1986)32). Withthe success in the first one, he then directed A Better Tomorrow11 (1987),Bul- let in the Head (1990),Hard-boiled (1993) and won various awards for directorship. In his younger days he assisted the famous kungfu director Chang Cheh (Shaw's Brothers) and learnt a lot of techniques on the job. In late 1990s, he was invited to direct films in U.S. Some of his hits were BrokenArrow (1996),Face-Off (1997) and Mission Impossible II(2000).

(6) Other "New Wave" directors and producers Given space limitations, only a few other "New Wave" directors and producers can be introduced. They include Wong Kar-Wai, who produced and directed the movies Happy Together (1997),In the Moodfor Love (2000),and directed As Tears Go By (1988),Chungking Express (1994) and Ashes of Time (1994).He also wrote film scripts too. Another director, Stephen Chow Sing- Chi, wrote, directed and also acted in the movies, including From Beijing With Love (1994),The God of Cookery (1996),King of Comedy (1999) and Shaolin Soccer (2001),with humor and a deep appreciation of human wants and aspirations. Among others, Peter Chan Hon-San (born in Thailand), produced and directed Alan and Eric (1991);He Ain't Heavy, He's My Father (1993); He's a Woman, She's a Man (1994); Who's the Woman, Who's the Man (1996);Comrades, Almost a Love Story (1996);and Three (2002).Stanley Kwan directed the Policy Story III: Supercop (1992),Rumble in the Bronx (1995),First Strike (1996),and China's Strike Force (2000). The "New Wave" movement cannot be complete without giving tribute to contributions by women. Female directors in Hong Kong include Mabel Cheung Yuen-ring, Ann Hui On-Wah

31) Ho, Wai-Lend,“From the Local to the Virtual: on Special Effects,”in Ho, S. & Ho, W. L., ed., The Swordsman and His Jiang Hu: Tsui Hark and Hong Kong Film, Hong Kong Film Archive, 2002, pp. 236-127. 32) Record of an interview. The movie casting includes Chow Yun-Fat, Ti Lung and Leslie Cheung.

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and Clara Law Cheuk-Yiu. Mabel Cheung directed Illegal Immigrant (1985),The Autumn's Tale (1987),Eight Taelsof Gold (1989),The Soong Sisters (1997),City of Glass (1998),and Beijing Rocks (2001).Ann Hui produced and directed Princess Fragrance (1987), Summer Snow (1995), Ah Kam (1996),Eighteen Springs (1997),Visible Secret (2001)and July Rhapsody (2002).Clara Law directed the Other 1/2 & the Other 1/2 (1988),Reincarnation of GoldenLotus (1989),Farewell China (1990),Fruit Punch (1991),and Au- tumn Moon (1992).They provide a more sensitive appreciation of both male and female characters; an emphasis on women's role in family and society; women's burdens, sorrows and joys; parent-and-child relationships; and heroine stories. In short, "New Wave" movies convey strong messages in their films: the emptiness of com- modity-oriented society, the struggles of young people from working class backgrounds, and a critical view of cultural and economic domination exerted by foreigners in the city.

(7) Choreographers: Yuen Woo-Ping and Sammo Hung Choreographers make kungfu actions and martial arts look good and sound real on the screen while simultaneously remaining faithful to the film scripts and wuxia novels that have long ap- pealed to Chinese audiences. Two choreographers are worthy of mention in this respect. Yuen Woo-Ping is notable for his pioneering contribution in making kungfu and martial arts visible, audible, and entertaining while remaining faithful to their portrayal in novels. Recently, Yuen is active in Hollywood and has choreographed the fight scenes for Matrix films, using an admixture of martial arts and computer effects. Sammo Hung Kam Po is a kung-fu actor, director, choreographer, and stuntman coordinator. He went to the Peking Opera Academy where he was 'big brother' to Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao. Sammo directed the film Pedicab Driver (1989),which was regarded as one of his best action films. He used to cooperate with Jackie Chan during the 1980s and, after a cooling-down period, returned to participate as action coordinator in Jackie's Thunderbolt (1995) and then directed Mr. Nice Guy (1997).

IV A Diversity of Cinematic Landscapes

Beyond the superficial images of martial arts films, we shall look at the culture and society that provide or reinforce a milieu for this genre of films, and also for the other genres of films that have flourished in the Hong Kong cinema. We use the word "cinematic landscape" as a metaphor to represent different genres of movies, embodying both form and contents.

(1) Action or kungfu movies The classical action story is based on the principles of Confucianism, Taoism, and various schools of martial arts. It promotes the way of wuxia. There are many schools of martial arts, including Shaolin, Wudan and Wingchun. The Chinese martial way comprises three areas: outer techniques (wai-gong,including fists, claws, steps, dances and using weapons), inner or breathing techniques (nei-gongor qi-gong, including breathing techniques that empower the body and -65- 624 人文地理第56巻第6号 (2004) keep good health), and the weightlessness technique, or qing-gong, enabling one to make high jumps, run with great speed, or even walk on the surface of a lake, or on tree-tops. Kungfu is a series of imagined actions to mimic the living styles of strong living beings in nature such as cranes, monkeys, eagles, snakes, lions and tigers. In martial arts using a variety of tools such as swords, knives, spears and rods is part of training at higher levels that form part of group-defense and martial training. During the 1950s and 1960s, Chinese martial arts schools were popular in Hong Kong for learning self-defense, body exercise, or healing bone fractures or dislocated joints with the treat- ment of traditional herbal medicines. Later, the popularity of martial arts was gradually replaced by karate, aikido, judo and gymnasium exercises. However, the two-person lion dance or qilun (known as kirin in Japanese) or the group dragon dance (involvingup to twenty people) are still very popular in festivals, and have been introduced as traditional arts to physical education classes in secondary schools. Jackie Chan offered an alternative to the classical theme of vengeance or revenge and all- mighty appearance of the hero in his hits of Snake in the Eagle's Shadow,or Drunken Master, in which he acted as a child and later in Police Story III as an international police officer from Hong Kong. As noted, he tried to interject a lighter mood which the audience loved because it was so much fun. Film scripts of action stories with historical backgrounds are usually based on novels that have already been best sellers such as those by Jin Yung and Gu Long. Each of these well-known au- thors had written many columns in local newspapers for three decades before they published them in book form.

(2) Ghost stories and vampires Why and how have super spirits been introduced into Hong Kong movies? Watching the fantasy A Chinese Ghost Story33) onesees the female ghost played by Joey Wong flying high and low. Conversely, the male ghosts dressed in Qing Dynasty costumes in the movie Mr. Vampire34), only jump one step at a time. The joints of their legs are inflexible from being prone in their coffins. Transformation of corpse (gyonsi) is created when the male ghosts become vampires and bite people to suck their blood. When a person gets bitten, both male and female ghosts become vampires and prey on others, creating the contagious state of Gyonsi-ism. The act of sucking blood is an adoption of Dracula formats in Western movies. These formats bring fun and sus- pense to the scenes, but cheat moviegoers who want the real story true to Chinese traditions. A traditional antidote to the intrusion of hopping gyonsi (s), or evil spirits is thought to be Taoist monks and their written scripts. Human beings and ghosts are supposed to "live" in two separate ways or worlds in Taoism, the yin and yang, or the ghost and the mortal. The notion of ghost and their need to possess a

33) Produced by Tsui Hark and directed by Ching Siu-Tung. Joey Wong made here successful debut as the lovely female ghost. 34) Directed by Lau Koon Wai. The story portrays how a Taoist priest attempts to control gyonsi, or hopping vampires. This genre has been continued to kiddie gyonsi later.

-66- Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films (OKUNO) 625 human body for reincarnation can be traced back to the classical novel known as Liaozai Zhiyi35). Besides, animals such as monkeys, pigs, or oxen, after training their bodies and spirits for several hundred years, can become fairies that live eternally and possess great power too, as written in thee classic Xiyauji (The Journey to the West36).

(3) Gangster Stories Gangster films have a long history. However, John Woo introduced a new genre of bloodshed scenes typified by the actions, bombs, and gun fights in A Better Tomorrow. Heroes in his movies are imbued with yiqi involving friendship, brotherhood, honor, and personal loyalty. Gangster activities in Hong Kong are not cloak-and-dagger but a very visible element of life. In Internal Affairs (200237)) thestory changed from corrupted cops getting bribes to young gang members being recruited into the police service, while a young police officer infiltrates the gang to spy on its activities. This sophistication of the gangster genre provides moviegoers with extra thrills and excitement.

(4) Urban livelihood Sorrows and joys of the masses always offer good stories for movie producers. In 1973, Chor Yuen directed The House of 72 Tenants,reflecting an urban "ghetto" in Hong Kong. However, the "kaifong" spirit of mutual help and community sharing solved the full range of problems. Michael Hui and his brothers, gained experience from the popular TV program Enjoy Yourself Tonight at TVB that commenced the Mr Boo comedy series. The first film was Games Gamblers Play (1974).This series of stories expressed openly, or implied indirectly, the bitterness and joy, hopelessness and expectations, of working class life, and found its way back to one of the traditions-the social comedy38) Cantoneseof movies. As noted, the uncertainties of Hong Kong's future and how people reacted to unification with China in 1997 have turned into popular themes for movies. These themes stressed family break- up, emigration and a new life in foreign lands. Leung Chiu-Wai acted in Hero from Beyondthe Boundary of Time (1993),which upheld the kaifong spirit in poor urban communities and housing quarters. ChungkingExpress (1994)highlights how congested and cosmopolitan urban living is articulated through an admixture of love, drugs and money. Two stories are embodied in the movie. The first story occurs in the multi-ethnic and multifarious legal and illegal building activities in Yaumatei, and the second story happens in the covered horizontal elevator running along the slope of Hong Kong Island, a street cafeteria, and a small apartment.

35) It is a collection of folk legends being told, full of spirits, ghosts, and desires at Ching Dynasty. Pretty maidens van- ish at dawn. Hapless scholars ensnared by demonic trickery. The rites of white-browed monks are the only defense against the forces of evil. It teaches people the importance to lead a moral and decent life. 36) The fiction narrates the westward trip of the Chinese monk Sanzo and his disciples (the mighty monkey, pig and others) for Buddhism in India, and the strange creatures and fantasies they have met along the way. 37) Directed by Liu Wai-Keung and Mak Siu-Fai. The movie was given seven awards in the Hong Kong Film Festival.

38) Refer to Jenny Kwok,“Besides fists and blood: Michael Hui and Cantonese Comedy,”in Fu, P. & Desser, D., ibid., pp. 158-175. After the Games, The Last Message (1975), The Private Eyes (1976), The Contract (1978), and Modern Security Guard (Modern Bo-Biu,1981) continued to top the local box office.

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In Summer Snow (1995) Josephine Siao played the role of an office worker aged 40, who suf- fered multiple stress from work, care of her father-in-law with early symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, and household work. Moreover, the movies of Project A (1982),Once Upona Timein Chi- na (1992),or Drunken Master II (1994)were set within contemporary Chinese history with its im- plicit criticism of feudalism, colonialism, and imperialism. The underprivileged or underclass has also been featured in movies to highlight social con- cerns and prompt changes in public policy. Ann Hui directed Boat people (1982) to reflect the housing and living conditions of boat people-the denka39)-who were denied the right to move into public housing even when their boat leaked with holes. The movie Caged Residents (1993) reflects the shelter needs of poor, single, and elderly people, which have not been met by the housing authority. Housing space is so expensive and limited in Hong Kong and people have to struggle to get sufficient "room" for their family.

V Comments

Some issues have to be clarified: where is the production and office space for movies in Hong Kong located; how are Hong Kong movie businesses linked with regional and global movie development; how are socio-spatial factors integrated into filmmaking; how is Hong Kong's integrated into China's postmodern film culture; and how can Hong Kong's role in global culture be described?

(1) Film Production: Space and Links Figure 2 shows the locations of Hong Kong's twenty-one film production or distribution of- fices. Most are concentrated in Tsimshatsui on the tip of Kowloon peninsula. The next tier is found in Mongkok, Hunghom, and Central District. Requiring more space, major movie studios are located in the New Territories. Major television companies, like TVB or RTHK, are also located on the Kowloon side. Famous stars and producers prefer to live in upper class housing on Hong Kong Island or Kowloon Tong. Usually, menial staff, such as assistants or stuntmen, live in public housing estates in the new towns offering cheaper rent, or in tiny apartments in urban areas. Besides, various supportive institutions such as guilds or workers' unions help to promote the film industry and protect the rights of the film workers. In 2000 the Hong Kong Film Archive and Library was opened at Saiwanho to keep track of past developments and to promote film culture. Hong Kong has 61 cinemas with 172 screens. Cinemas are concentrated in urban entertainment districts, such as Causeway Bay, Yaumatei and Kwun Tong, and at the center of new towns. The Hong Kong movie business can be interpreted as an intricate network of establishments and activities, represented by flows of people, products, money, information, singly or in combi- nation, to different urban places in the world. This pattern led to the recognition of three "spatial

39) Denka is a group of boat people who live in the riverside or seaside of south China coast. Coastal fishing used to be the way of life, but as fishing resources were lost to over-fishing or sewage pollution at coast, some of them changed to transport or tourist service to earn a living.

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△Film production or distribution office (21) ○Film association or guild (6)

Figure 2. Film production space in HK source: Variety International Film Guide 1998.

Figure 3. Regional and Global Linked of HK's Filmspace

circles" in the global movie business. The first circle comprises Hong Kong, China and Taiwan, which share a similar cultural tradi- tion, and use Mandarin as a common language, and serve an almost the identical market area.

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Film production occurs in all three places involving an exchange of human resources and occa- sionally finance. New films are exhibited at each other's annual festival. Stimulation and cross- fertilization of ideas can be found in their collaborative activities. So far, Hong Kong has had the upper hand because she possesses a richer and more compact market (7 million residents with a per capita income of over US $25,000), a freer flow of cultural, political and innovative ideas, and an agglomeration of companies and investors engaged in financing and outsourcing cultural industries aimed at the China market. Also Hong Kong holds an annual "Filmart" to present its film productions to local and foreign film agents. The Special Administrative Region also benefits from vibrant movie critics, a seemingly endless supply of young local talent, and returnees from studying abroad, ready to challenge existing practices with new concepts and styles. The second circle includes East and Southeast Asian cities populated by overseas Chinese, Jap- anese and Koreans. Exchange activities, including financing, cooperating on new movies, sharing techniques, adopting digital filming technologies, and participating in each other's film festivals and markets. Increasing collaboration is anticipated in the coming decade, with an increasing focus on the bigger market at China and other countries with growing populations. The third circle involves global connections through world film festivals in Berlin, Cannes, Los Angeles, Venice, and other cities. Classical movies, recent hits, trade talks, territorial rights for a particular film, are negotiated and traded at these festivals. Besides, young students from Hong Kong attend good movie or media arts departments in universities and institutes in the US and Europe to polish their potential.

(2) Socio-Spatial Context of Film Production Film production can be seen as a process starting with theme selection, script writing or editing, budget setting and finding financers. When the theme, script and sponsorship are certain, then the directors can decide on how the film should be shot, the production schedule, and the location of scenes. Simultaneously, director and producer work together to find and secure ap- propriate leading actors and other cast members that are the key to a successful film. After an "Open Camera Ceremony", shooting commences either inside the studio, or outside at a location site. Depending on scenario and budget, locations may involve more than one coun- try. When shooting is completed, editing, printing and dubbing will be necessary. Discussions are held about what other markets and groups to target. These involve dubbing and editing with slight changes of scenes to accommodate different markets. For example, Hong Kong films are cut for distribution to Taiwan or China because their censorship rules are stricter. Further changes are made to cater for Malaysia's religious sensitivities. Often, more bloodshed and sex scenes are added for films exported to the US market. Where do producers and directors draw their ideas from in the first place? Their personal background and experiences are significant. They draw, selectively or extensively, from a locale' s culture and history, and their particular ethnic or national identity. Often the producers and directors are stimulated by films and visual art exhibitions, and encouraged or discouraged by partners and rivals. Also they participate in formal symposia and informal discussions, read film reviews and offer their films to local and foreign festivals. They also pay attention to world eco- -70- Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films (OKUNO) 629

Figure 4. Socio-spatial factors in Film Production nomic, fashion, cultural, and arts trends, and are obligated to read novels and seek to rewrite them into film scripts. Directors and producers may possess burning ideals and seek to rights the world's wrongs. Or they may respond to the commercial market needs and provide sex, fun and fantasy, or respond to successful trends in Europe, Japan and North America. Sometimes, directors and producers merely mimic or copy. Supporting staff and choreographers are also keen to master and introduce new technology and special effects. Television companies are sometimes closely related through capital and human resources to movie production enterprises. Often a theme and scenario from a successful TV program can be translated into a possible hit movie. This study of Hong Kong has highlighted its function in linking local and regional capital resources and mobilizing directors, producers, actors and camera operators. Indeed, Hong Kong still plays a pivotal role of a bridge between Mainland China and Taiwan, which do not have formal direct flows of people and commodities between each other. The Special Administrative Region still offers a freer atmosphere for interchanging views on arts and politics. Besides, pro- viding finance for new movies Hong Kong's financial community handles overseas Chinese capital and looks constantly for fresh investment opportunities. These ingredients provide the particular socio-spatial context that sustains Hong Kong as one of the world's biggest movie production cities. The Hong Kong government has recognized the significance of the movie industry and its culture, and has helped to build a production studio in Shenzhen. Also support has been afforded for a short-term training program for film workers. A Movie Promotion Fund for supporting small and medium film companies with seed capital has been established.

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(3) Interplay between the Local and the Global Hong Kong cinema agents, directors and actors viewed the movies of Kurosawa, Hitchcock, and Truffaut in their youth. They also inherited cultural assets from the local cinema, embedded culture from their surroundings, and their own past experiences. In making films, they produced their own images of place, culture, certain historical periods, sometimes assisted by virtual computer techniques and special effects. There is feedback into the global scene. Some productions get worldwide exposure and obtain good box office results. Support and continuous innovations from, the core, in turn, pushes the local and peripheral cinema to struggle harder and seek wider distribution networks. This process can lead to spiraling growth of media culture and development of the corresponding industry and the agents involved. Image production-form and technique-is not what matters. It is content that accommo- dates a locality's fantasy, ethnicity and humanity and breathes new meaning into form. Hong Kong cinema and its active agents experiment and work towards introducing freshening values, culture and philosophy by using new techniques to reinterpret old formats. Paralleling these developments in Hong Kong since the mid-1980s has been the transformation of Chinese cinema that has led to global recognition for its excellent directors, actors, and movies. Increasing cooperation between Hong Kong and China is anticipated in production, distribution, sharing and techniques, including the opening of new overseas markets and financing. Rapid and continued development of East Asian economy in sectors of electronics and com- puters, automobile, mobile phones, and other industries in some way promote the local culture or media to develop, increase the size and income of middle class, and their consumption power. The middle class people are prepared to pay more for fantastic and interesting stories in films, in animation, or in publication and their related products. Their tastes are getting more transnational, omnivorous, and demanding. Agents feel the need to share and exchange their experiences within the East Asian region to emphasize their common culture, which covers Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism (ying and yang), kanji (Chinese characters and their symbolic meanings) and their shared perspiration, tears, and joy through their engagement in the processes of modernization, democratization, industrialization and informatization. This new East Asian culture, expressed in films or other forms of media, has emerged to challenge the Euro-American centered core culture. Cultural plurality, mutual respect, and a major effort to understand each other's culture are required for mankind to maintain peace and to sustain itself in the new millennium.

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Beyond Martial Arts in Hong Kong Films: Agents, Place and Culture in Socio-Spatial Context

OKUNO Shii (CHEUNG Chiwai) University of Marketing and Distribution Sciences

Hong Kong has one of the largest and most dynamic movie industries in the world. The paper aims to provide a short profile of the images of Hong Kong through the screen and to explain why and where those images have taken place. Michael Dear initiates the theory of“filmspace”by outlining the place of production, production of place, film text, and performance consumption in space as the four sections or components in producing and consuming films. In this light, the paper, first of all, gives a profile of the place images of Hong Kong through the moves screened there. Next, it attempts to explain the boom of its movies since the early 1970s through the actors, directors and choreographers by tracing their background, paths of experiences, and roles played in Hong Kong filmmaking. Thirdly, movies of various genres like kungfu (or action),ghost and horror, gangster, or city life, are used to exemplify the film culture in its formation and transformation. Moreover, the underlying factors that have attracted human resources and capital to Hong Kong are also considered. It concludes by looking into the local- global interplay in Hong Kong film industry and their effects on film culture and production, and giving comments on Hong Kong's political-cultural role in Asia and prospects for further Asian co-production and cooperation.

Key words: cinematic landscape, cultural industry, films, film space, Hong Kong, kungfu

マーシャル・アートを超えた香港映画の諸側面 -社会的・空間的コンテクストにおけるエージント, 場所, 文化-

奥野志偉流通科学大学

香港の映画産業は, 世界の映画産業の中でも大規模で, 最もダイナミックな側面をもっている。マイケル・ディアは, 映画の生産場所, 場所の生産, フィルム・テキスト, 場所にもとづくパフォーマンスの消費といった4つの側面に基づいて, フィルム・スペース (映画空間) の理論を創出し

た。本論文は, ディアの理論にしたがって, 第1に20世紀末まで香港で生産された映画の歴史を回顧する。第2に1970, 80年代香港映画のブームを解釈するため, 当時香港映画界で活躍していた主要な俳優や監督, 武術指導 (監督), スタントマンの背景や経歴, そして香港映画の発展における貢献について導出する。第3に, 映画のジェンルをカンフー映画, ホラー・幽霊映画, ガンスター映画, 都市暮らし映画との4種類として, それぞれの類型作りや発展について賞味する。第4に, 香港映画の成功に導いた要因として, 人的資源, 資金, 映画文化の交流などを討論する。最後に,

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本論文では香港映画をめぐるローカル及びグローバルな作用が, 香港映画産業や, 映画文化への影響を検出するとともに, 中国, アジア, そして世界における香港の政治的・文化的な役割という場所性について考える。

キーワード: 文化産業, 香港, 映画, 映画文化, 映画空間, 功夫 (カンフー)

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