The treadle pump is considered a ‘new technology’ in Ghana George Danso Micro-Technologies MAGAZINE

NUMBER 10, AUGUST 2003 AUGUST NUMBER 10, for Urban

Agriculture in the city has many faces. It is a dynamic Urban farming takes place in locations phenomenon and comprises different farming systems, inside the cities or in the periurban each with specific needs. This issue of the UA-Magazine areas, on the homestead (on-plot) or on features micro-technologies for . land away from the residence (off-plot). It presents a wide variety of techniques and discusses It can include production activities, but why and how these technologies were developed, the also processing, distribution and sales. critical factors for their success and what policy Most urban farmers are women from improvements are needed for their further development. lower income groups who first take up farming to supplement family incomes. Urban products include different types ome of the technologies presented of , trees or animals. Priority is have been developed specifically given to crops such as , for S for the urban setting. which there is high demand and good or the Cuban ‘organoponics’ for market prices. Although a large example, will be familiar to many proportion of the harvest is used for readers. Other practices such as those self-consumption, the surpluses can be that make use of waste and wastewater traded. As shown in no. 7 of the UA- Editorial treatment may not be so well known. Magazine, the value of these enterprises The small-scale irrigation and should not be underestimated. The composting practices discussed are quite products can be sold at the farm gate, in similar to those used in rural settings. the neighbourhood, in shops, farmers

www.ruaf.org markets or even to supermarkets. DIFFERENCES IN URBAN AGRICULTURE A big challenge for urban agriculture is Agriculture in the city differs from that high pressure on the land and undertaken in the rural areas, in insecurity of land tenure. Land and location, in economic motive, in type of space for agriculture is limited, and product, in the use and distribution of when available, it can be contaminated harvests, in actors involved and in the or one has to compete with a multitude types of technologies used. of other users. Another constraint is that labour costs are higher in cities, but René van Veenhuizen this may be offset through increased Editor opportunities to sell the output. URBAN AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGIES FOR URBAN 26) has developed an Abundant Harvest AGRICULTURE (AHG), which is a micro- This issue of UA-Magazine discusses 26 intensive food production system that experiences from all over the world. can grow the produce needs for a family The articles emphasize how the of four on 1.44m2. This technique is also technologies have been adapted to applicable for temporal emergency

urban-specific situations and how situations like refugee camps. IWMI-Ghana continuous research and training are Hydroponics is another technology contributing to their widespread use. characterized by the absence of land. Two articles on page 8 and 9 describe on page 6, indicates that both site- In UA-Magazine issue no. 5 on the spread of hydroponics in Latin specific biophysical and socio-economic Methodologies (December 2001), topic America. In Lima, Peru, the absence of conditions are critical in the choice of 4 on Technology Development stated soil of good quality makes hydroponics irrigation practices. In South Africa, the that most urban farming systems were especially attractive. In Havana, Cuba, Drum & Drip micro-irrigation system characterised by a low level of (see page 11), intensive production was introduced because it allowed for technology development. The methods have been adapted, like the use of grey water to grow vegetables rationale for this include a bias towards hydroponics, zeoponics (on zeolite), and in areas where the daily consumption of rural agriculture within the agricultural organoponics (on organic substrata), the water could not be increased see page 4. research and extension institutions, latter being popular due to the lack of limited attention given to agriculture funds for the application of chemical In cities, large amounts of organic by urban authorities and the low nutrients. Agricultural land in the city is wastes are available, and the participation of urban farmers in scarce but many houses have flat composting of these materials is an technology development. concrete roofs, which provide space for excellent solution for waste disposal, growing crops. Initiatives on rooftop increasing soil substitutes and closing Some of the articles in this issue in Senegal and Russia are the nutrient loop. The articles on indicate an increasing interest in described on pages 16 and 17. Uruguay, page 40, Ghana, page 30 and agriculture by urban authorities and Ethiopia, page 13 describe simple, that research on suitable techniques The agro-ecological setting in the city small-scale techniques for making the has been commissioned see page 12 also gives rise to specific and seed best use of urban waste. Composting and 14 for examples from Asia. These requirements. Research in major cities domestic waste for use in urban and other articles call for more in South East Asia, described on page agriculture is one strategy that can be participation of the urban farmers in 12, aims at improving the availability of adopted at the household level. On development and adaptation of vegetables during the dry seasons and page 29, the experience from Mexico technologies. It is important for urban to reduce vulnerability to pests. In describes the use of human urine in authorities to promote these initiatives Cagayan de Oro in the Philippines, this process, while on page 32, the through supportive policies on access research was conducted to adapt article from Tamale, Ghana, illustrates to land (which will be dealt with in the ‘highland’ temperate crops, originally how farmers are requesting that the next issue) and credit (as was discussed not suited for the lowland urban faecal sludge from the city is applied on in issue no. 9). It is also necessary for conditions, thus increasing the their lands during the dry season. urban farmers to build associations and availability of food within the city, see These farmers have developed special articulate their needs. page 14. Urban growers are reported to treatment for the sludge, which is later prefer temperate crops for which there incorporated into the soil at the start of ADAPTING TO ‘CITY LIMITS’ is more demand and better market the farming season. The article on page Urban agriculture, especially in the inner prices. On page 22, the experience 34 shows that urban agricultural city is limited by the availability of space from Ethiopia illustrates the need to activities using biogas improves food and often is practised on small pieces of develop cheap, simple technologies that security, increases income and converts land. Accordingly, several articles focus depend on local resources and produce wastes - excreta, wastewater and on growing crops in very small spaces a high-level of outputs in the smallest organic solid wastes – to energy. The and in areas where land is not fertile. possible space. On page 24, similar residue sludge can be used for soil The NGO “Hunger Grow Away” (page practices in Botswana and Kenya are improvement, feeding fish, finless eels, described. On page 25, is earthworms, silkworms, and pigs. promoted as a viable option for urban Biogas can used as fuel for burning agriculture because of its integrated lanterns, for cooking in domestic stoves approach and flexibility. and for generating electricity.

The lack of clean water may also limit The article from Kolkata, India, on page urban agriculture and is a key 36, provides a good example of a closed determining factor in the development loop agro-industrial ecology, there the and use of technologies. The experience wastes from one process is used as a by IWMI in Ghana and Togo, described resource for another. The examples of IWMI-Ghana 2 UA-Magazine In this issue

4 The ‘Drum and Drip’ Micro-irrigation SUPPORTING URBAN System, tested in South Africa AGRICULTURE 6 Urban Irrigation Methods and Practices Clearly, the case for and the concerns in Ghana and Togo surrounding agriculture in urban areas 8 Hydroponics in Latin America is very different from rural agriculture. 9 Hydroponics Technology in Urban Lima, As discussed in the UA-Magazine no. 5, Peru the participation of the farmers and 11 Organoponics, a Productive Option other stakeholders in the selection and 12 Improving Techniques for Periurban continuous development of Production in South East Asia Russia, page 17, the USA and Australia, technologies is critical. Local farmers 14 Basic Cultural Management Practices for page 27 and 28, describe initiatives to will provide the inherent (indigenous) Urban Vegetable Production in the develop integrated systems of knowledge of local conditions that is Philippines production, consumption and essential for creative problem solving. 16 Rooftop Gardening in Senegal and processing. The articles from Asia on pages 12, 14 St. Petersburg and 38 highlight this. 18 City Farming – the Natural Alternative, LABOUR Experiences in India Contrary to rural farmers, urban Urban farmers require more specific 20 Mushroom Cultivation in Urban Kampala, farmers most often combine farming services than the present day, formal Uganda with several other economic activities. systems can offer. For example, 22 Micro-Technologies for Congested Urban Time and labour are therefore key priorities for research on urban Centres in Ethiopia concerns. In the article from Vietnam farming in the Philippines include 24 Innovative Urban Agricultural on page 38, farmers and their improved vegetable varieties (higher Technologies in Botswana stakeholders are reported to have nutrition values and longer shelve life); 25 Permaculture in Senegal and Mobile identified limited space, labour, and technologies for composting in Kenya environmental pollution as the key biodegradable city wastes; integrated 26 The Abundant Harvest Garden constraints for the developing of their crop management, 27 Aqua-Terra Gardens in the USA and village level food processing enterprise. technologies and soil mulch for weed Lismore’s Worms in Australia A combination of land availability and control; and efficient and economic 29 Organoponics – the Use of Human Urine labour for fetching water determines irrigation systems and safe use of waste in Composting the use of irrigation technologies in water. The article on page 30 30 Container Composting in Periurban Ghana and Togo, as discussed on page highlights how the implementation of Kumasi, Ghana 6. The experience from India on page backyard composting programmes still 32 Faecal Sludge Application for Agriculture 18, illustrates a gardening technology require substantial training, with local in Tamale, Ghana developed from the need to divide farmers participating in all stages of the 34 Conversion of Urban Waste to Energy by labour across several activities. From planning and implementation process. Anaerobic Digestion another perspective, the Montevideo On page 24, the experience from 36 Waste-Fed Fisheries in Periurban Kolkata farmers story suggests that farmers Botswana shows that agriculture needs 38 Improving Agro-enterprises in Duong Lieu deliberately moved to the city because to be incorporated into urban Commune, Vietnam the inputs they need are more planning, and that urban planners 40 Treatment of Organic Household Waste abundant there, see page 40. need to be educated on its feasibility Used as Pig Feed in Montevideo and benefits. 41 RUAF Progress Review THE ROLE OF WOMEN Urban dynamics and the market Urban agriculture is increasingly economy assign different gender roles recognised as a vehicle for the provincial offices have worked and responsibilities to women and men. development of productive and together in the selection of locations Many urban women turn to agriculture sustainable cities. It is heartening to and assembly of organoponic units. to ensure food security and to note that several cities have created They have also developed the supplement income. On page 20, the specific agencies for urban agriculture necessary irrigation and pest control experience from Uganda describes or are implementing related policies systems and ensured an adequate mushroom farming as a new trend and programmes. For example, the management of the substratum. In among urban women farmers. Women Government of Ethiopia had begun to most cities, however, such initiatives have little access and control over land promote urban agriculture and has are yet to be developed. It is hoped in Uganda and the mushroom included it in the research agenda of that this issue of the UA-Magazine will cultivation can be done in the home or the Ethiopian Agricultural Research encourage stakeholders, including on the plot, and combined with Organization (EARO), in the teaching governments, research institutes, household work. On page 16, the agenda of Addis Ababa University, and NGOs, and farmers, to work together Senegal experience mentions that in the development agenda of GOs, in developing and implementing women’s groups have established NGOs and CBOs in Ethiopia. In similar urban agricultural initiatives rooftop gardening projects in Dakar Havana, the agriculture, physical which will make cities cleaner, safer and Thies. planning, water resources and other and more healthier places to live in.

August 2003 3 The ‘Drum and Drip’ Micro-irrigation System, Tested in South Africa

arming is a widespread phe- South Africa is a dry country The Drum & Drip system irrigates nomenon in many poor where vegetable production is an area of 6 m x 6 m = 36 m2. F informal urban settlements difficult, unless irrigation is According to the designer, the found on the periphery of South available. Re-using domestic system enables production of Africa’s cities. Meadows (2000) water may help to address water about 60 kg of fresh vegetables reported a rate of 35 % families in shortages as long as contact every four months. This requires the Cape Flats near Cape Town, between untreated wastewater the application of 600 litres of and Maswikaneng et al. (2002) a and the leafy part of the water per week, which is equal to rate of 54 % in Atteridgeville near vegetables is avoided. Suitable three full drums. In 2003, the cost Pretoria. At both these places, methods of applying wastewater of the components needed to urban farming was done mainly to crops include subsurface construct the Drum & Drip by women and involved, for the irrigation and micro-irrigation in micro-irrigation system was most part, the growing of crops the form of drip (Drechsel, about R150.00 (US$20.00). and vegetables in home gardens Blumenthal & Keraita, 2002), of less than 10 m2. The farming of which is known to be efficient, open urban spaces and the use of because water is delivered collective approaches to agricul- directly to the part of the soil ture in the form of community where the bulk of the crop roots gardens, had also com- are situated (Du Plessis & Van Der menced. Many NGOs and Stoep, 2001). I cannot irrigate welfare organisations in with water in South Africa recognise the THE DRUM AND DRIP which I washed importance of small-scale MICRO-IRRIGATION SYSTEM an Averbeke

dirty clothes urban agriculture, but Gerrie Albertse of Farming V town planners and policy Systems Consulting Services in A garden equipped with the Drum and Drip makers tend to ignore it (Martin, Stellenbosch adapted a low-cost micro-irrigation system Oudwater & Meadows, 2000). system developed The main benefit of urban farm- by International Development ing for the poor of South Africa, is Enterprises to suit South African ON-FARM ASSESSMENT better nutrition. In recent times, smallholder conditions. This OF THE SYSTEM the importance of a balanced and adaptation, called the Drum and The Drum and Drip micro- nutritionally adequate diet has Drip micro-irrigation system, irrigation system was introduced become even more critical due to consists of a 210 litre drum, which in Sekuruwe and Ga-Molekane, the impact of HIV/AIDS. is connected via a tap to a set of two settlements north of five polyethylene dripper lines, Mokopane (Potgietersrust) in the each with a length of 6 m (see Fig. Limpopo Province of South 1). The drippers are constructed Africa. The objective was to Polyethylene pipe by perforating the polyethylene lower the high rate (19 %) of 1 m pipe with a heated nail. A piece chronic malnutrition among the of string is threaded through local children (Kleynhans & these perforations by means of a Albertse, 2000). Research into the Tap bag-needle. Knots on both ends diets of the children and their of the string prevent it from caregivers showed that a lack of slipping out of the pipe. When fruit and vegetables was the most the perforations get clogged, probable cause for the high rate Drum 1 m pulling the string from side to of child malnutrition. Dripper line side usually unblocks the Widespread poverty prevented openings. Clogging of the people from purchasing fruit and 6 m drippers is reduced by placing a vegetables, and a chronic lack of FIGURE 1: The Drum and Drip stone and sand filter at the water prevented them from micro-irrigation system bottom of the drum. This growing their own. The Drum & prevents coarse particles, which Drip micro-irrigation system was ______may be present in the irrigation introduced because it allowed for T Khosa, W Van Averbeke, R Böhringer, water, from entering the pipes the use of grey water to grow J Maswikaneng and E Albertse, Technikon Pretoria, and blocking the drippers. vegetables. By reusing water South Africa, ✉ [email protected]

4 UA-Magazine REFERENCES - DRECHSEL, P., BLUMENTHAL, U.J. & KERAITA, B. 2002. Balancing health and livelihoods: adjusting wastewater irri- gation guidelines for resource-poor countries. Urban Agriculture Magazine, December:7-9. - DU PLESSIS, F.J. & VAN DER STOEP, I. 2001. Evaluation Overall the intervention had a positive effect of the appropriateness of micro-irrigation systems in small-scale farming. Report No. 768/1/01. Pretoria: Water Research Commission. - KLEYNHANS, I.C. & ALBERTSE, E.C. 2000. Causes of stunting among young children in rural and urban South pulling the string from side to side was supply and damage to crops by livestock. Africa. (Paper read at the NutriGro Workshop, May 14-15, no longer effective. “I have stopped using The low rate of nutrient supply used by Technikon Pretoria). Unpublished. - MARTIN, A., OUDWATER, N. & MEADOWS, K. 2000. the irrigation system. It was not irrigating participants arose from their experience Urban Agriculture and the livelihoods of the poor in South evenly because of blockages. As a result with dryland cropping, in which the Africa: case studies from Cape Town and Pretoria, South Africa and Harare, Zimbabwe. Chatham: Natural Resource some of my were not getting any application rates they used are Institute. - MASWIKANENG, M. J., VAN AVERBEKE, W., water. The electrical conductivity of the considered adequate. Livestock damage BÖHRINGER, & ALBERTSE, E. 2002. Extension domains different waters available in the area resulted from the lack of secure fences among urban farmers in Atteridgeville (Pretoria, South Africa). Journal of International Agricultural and Extension showed that they all presented a high around the home gardens. To goats and Education, 9(2):15-22. salinity hazard (EC > 130 mSm-1). The poultry the lush green vegetables - MEADOWS, K. 2000. The Social and Institutional Aspects of Urban Agriculture in the Cape Flats, South Africa. Chatham: high salt content of the water even represented an irresistible attraction and Natural Resource Institute. affected the lifespan of the drum. without a secure fence, damage to the Rusting of the metal around the tap crops was unavoidable. resulted in leaks, causing people to abandon use of the system. “The drum is This on-farm study showed that the from kitchens or bathrooms for leaking. We do not know how to seal it. introduction of vegetable production, irrigation, the participants do not have to That is the reason why we have removed the based on the use of recycled water that increase their total daily consumption of pipes (dripper lines)”. This particular was applied by means of a small-scale water. In the two settlements this was a problem could probably have been micro-irrigation system, was not an critical issue, access to water was very avoided by rustproofing the exposed unqualified success. Users considered difficult. metal after cutting the opening in the recycled water to be unhygienic, and drum to insert the tap. could not be convinced otherwise. The The Drum & Drip system was installed in Drum & Drip micro-irrigation system the home gardens of ten female had difficulties in dealing with saline volunteers. The women were supplied water, resulting in frequent clogging of with fertilizers and vegetables seedlings the drippers and rusting of the drum. to start their gardens, and obtained basic The problem of rusting could be training in the operation of the system prevented by rust-proofing exposed and the growing of vegetables. Their metal parts. The clogging of drippers by experiences with irrigated vegetable salt deposits could be addressed by production were monitored over a period flushing the system with clean water. of one year. Sufficient quantities of clean water could be obtained by harvesting rainwater from an Averbeke

The women used water from various V roofs. Overall the intervention had a sources to irrigate their gardens. Grey After about two years of use, the drums started to positive effect. Even when participants water only constituted 26 % of the total leak because rust had destroyed the metal where decided to discontinue their use of the amount of irrigation water that was a hole had been drilled to insert the outlet Drum & Drip system they usually applied. The rest came from other continued growing irrigated vegetables, sources. Women who had boreholes in pouring buckets of water in the short- their gardens preferred the hard work of During the first season, the participants furrows constructed between the rows of hand-pumping water to the use of obtained high yields from their gardens, crops. In communities where nutrient recycled water. The others irrigated with on average about 77 kg of vegetables. The deficiencies caused by a lack of recycled water, but diluted it with water second time, the yield dropped to an vegetables are a chronic problem, this is from a far-away spring or river before average of 45 kg, because of low nutrient definitely a desirable outcome. use. Invariably the women had serious hygiene concerns about using grey water to irrigate vegetables. “I cannot take water in which I washed dirty clothes and use it to irrigate vegetables that I will eat”. Women also complained that recycled water had a negative effect on their soils. “The soap in the water makes my soil dry and white. When I irrigate now, the water no longer penetrates the soil”. After about seven months the drippers started to clog more frequently than before. This resulted in uneven water distribution. The clogging an Averbeke

was found to be the result of salt V accumulation near the perforations, and A garden with the drum and drip micro-irrigation removed

August 2003 5 The treadle pump is considered a ‘new Urban and periurban vegetable farmers in Ghana and technology’ Togo try to crop as close as possible to the markets of in Ghana their perishable produce. They accept a large variety of site conditions, including marginal urban soils or sandy beaches, as long as there is a reliable water source within appropriate distance. The water sources can be 0.5 to 1,5 metre wells, 2 to 7 metre hand-dug wells, streams, rivers, or even an urban drain. The water source determines, in part, the water lifting as well as irrigation methods used. The most common irrigation methods are watering cans, buckets, treadle and motor pumps.

Urban Irrigation IWMI-Ghana Methods and Practices in Ghana and Togo

he use of Watering cans is the countries, in both urban and rural through a rapid assessment done in predominant informal irrigation settings, for a number of years. Farmers urban farming sites in Lome, in 2002. T method used in the vegetable farms often see it as a stepping-stone for of Ghana and Togo, with farmers using acquiring a motorised pump. The TP COPING WITH CROP WATER the cans to carry water from the source to essentially is a water-lifting device, DEMANDS their crops. The method is arduous as the though in some cases, it can be Vegetables, which are the most walking distance is usually around 100 connected to hosepipes or even commonly grown crops in irrigated metres and one watering can has a sprinklers for irrigation. In most cases agriculture in the study area, have higher volume of about 15 litres. As a result, men two people are needed; one pedalling the and more regular water requirements who can carry two cans at a time, usually TP and the other irrigating. than more traditional crops like yams, do the watering. cassava, etc. As extension services for Motorized pumps are being used in some urban farmers are often limited, they Buckets are used to fetch and carry water farming sites, often where farmers are have learnt, over time, when and how from the source to the field, where it can wealthier and the water table is deep. In much water to apply to their crops. be used immediately or stored in drums periurban Kumasi, the fields are often to be used later. This practice, commonly adjacent to the water sources and the Seventy urban farmers in Kumasi were observed around Kumasi, mostly involves pipes, as much as 300 metres in length, asked “how do you know the amount of women and children carrying buckets as are laid across the fields. As the pipes are water to apply?” While most urban ‘head loads’. Men usually do the often in poor condition, leakages and farmers said they depended on their watering using smaller buckets or bowls. flooding are common occurrences. More ‘hands-on-experience’, most periurban The method could have a cultural than one farmer has to be involved to farmers used the soil and status of connotation, in that in most African watch the pump and to hold and carry vegetable leaves as indicators. Generally, settings, fetching of water and transport the pipe or hose. most farmers irrigate in the mornings as a ‘head load’ is traditionally feminine. and evenings, saying that at these times Farms using buckets are located around Electric pumps are used by a few “it is cooler and therefore easier to carry the 200 metres away from water source, (as wealthier vegetable farmers in Lome, water-load,” which corresponds well with opposed to the 100 metre distance when Togo, but rarely in Ghana. In Lome, the times when evapotranspiration is at cans are used). Buckets are also used for motor pumps are also used to fill its lowest. This watering schedule is also lifting water from wells and to apply reservoirs or a connected chain of convenient as most farmers work at other water extracted by a treadle pump. reservoirs, from where watering cans are jobs during the day. used to irrigate (hence reducing the Though the treadle pump (TP) is distance for carrying water). The pumps Not all farmers can afford to buy considered a ‘new technology’ in Ghana, are connected straight to water hoses irrigation equipment like motorized it has been used in Togo, Benin and other (single or double hose system), a practice pumps. However, there is often the which is hardly observed in urban Ghana. possibility to hire a pump inexpensively. ______In Kumasi, for example, most farmers Bernard Keraita, George Danso TECHNOLOGY COSTS only pay for the fuel of a motor pump and Pay Drechsel Table 1 provides comparative available locally. Where farmers are International Water Management Institute, West information on the cost of irrigation required to pay more than this, the fee is Africa Office, Ghana, ✉ [email protected] technologies. The data was obtained still reasonable, and can be settled after

6 UA-Magazine selling the harvest or by providing labour recognise that their methods are more countries of West Africa between 1995 for the pump owner. Some farming sites labour intensive. The answer lies not and 1999, while corresponding activities have set up farmers’ associations to only in the differences in capital and in Ghana only started in 2002. provide for the exchange labour and maintenance costs (listed in Table 1). irrigation equipment. CONCLUSION A financial comparison showed that the This study highlights that when selecting When monitoring water efficiency in and profit margins of open-space vegetable technologies, the consideration of site around Kumasi, farms in urban areas farmers in both countries are similar, specific biophysical and socio-economic showed a tendency to over-irrigate by although higher amounts are more conditions are critical. While pumps are one-third of the water requirement, frequent in Lome, where export crops are more viable in Lome, shallow wells and while farms in periurban areas tended to also produced (e.g. Basil for Europe). In watering cans are considered to be more under-irrigate by the same amount. Lome, even though most farms are appropriate in Kumasi’s inland valleys. located along the ocean on poor beach The demand for pumps might, however, Urban farms are, on average, one-seventh sands, the Lome city authorities accepts rise on upland sites, as well as in Accra, the size of periurban ones, and farmers of the farmers and allows larger fields than where farms are larger and the water these smaller areas predominantly use in Accra. These small economics of scale sources are not always located close to watering cans for irrigation. Periurban favour investments in labour saving farms. Pumps may also be tried where farmers mainly use buckets and motor technologies. In addition, water-lifting pumps connected to water hoses. The devices are necessary in Lome, as urban farmers achieve a more regular groundwater is the only acceptable water Small economics of and a more spatially uniform distribution source along the ocean. scale favour investments of water, which is greatly facilitated by in labour saving technologies the use of the watering cans. The In Accra, on the other hand, farms periurban farmers have irregular located along streams and drains, and the irrigation intervals and poorer water transport distance for the watering can is groundwater is available between 1 and 7 distribution, especially those using usually short enough to favour labour meters, or the walking distance between hosepipes. As only few periurban farmers over capital input. Moreover, watering the field and water source is larger than own a pump, most farmers need to queue cans allow more flexibility, one-man- 50 to 100 metres. If the pump is not for long periods before they can hire a usage, and are less sensitive to bad water mobile, the farm site needs more facilities pump. Subsequently, it is quite common quality and solids, which could block any to secure the pump overnight (as farmers that these farmers apply larger volumes pipe or hose. These are also good enough may be living at a distance from their of water, as there is no certainty on when reasons for farmers to avoid investing in fields). Wherever there is better water next they will have access to the pump. pumps. quality than in drains, low-cost drip irrigation technologies like bucket-kits DIVERGENCE IN IRRIGATION There are also differences in the and drum-kits could be tested. State and TECHNOLOGIES availability and promotion of pumps and local governments are encouraged to give Why are pumps and water hoses used hoses between Francophone Togo and special support to irrigation technologies more extensively in Lome, Togo, than in Anglophone Ghana. EnterpriseWorks, for that bring the added benefits of lowered Accra or Kumasi in Ghana? After all, the example, started their promotion of health risks associated with the use of farmers in Ghana are the first to treadle pumps in most Francophone polluted water.

Table 1. Input requirement of different irrigation technologies used in Lome

Irrigation technology Watering cans Treadle Pumps Motor pumps Electric pumps

Farm Size (m2) 80-250 200-500 1,000-3,000 4,000-12,000 No. of hired labourers 0-1 1-2 4-6 8-12 Initial Cost (CFA 1) Negligible 70,000-80,000 New: 250,000-400,000 New: 200,000-300,000 Used: 150,000-200,000 Hiring/month: 4,000-6,000 Fuel/electricity 0012,000-16,000 30,000-80,000 (CFA/month) Maintenance 0 500 500 500 (CFA/month) Costs for accessories 0 80,000 200,000 500,000 (CFA/month)

Source: Danso et al., unpublished 1 US$ is approx. 650 CFA

August 2003 7 Parcel of hydroponics on the roof of a house

Since the mid 80s, the UNDP -soon followed by FAO- began fostering the development and use of Household Hydroponics. This mainly urban agricultural technique is a fast and efficient alternative to address the lack of food and the lack of income of many impoverished households. Imagen Educativa

Hydroponics in Latin America elderly. Better nourished mothers and children mean improved performance in learning at all n household hydroponics, the growing region of Colombia has levels, which contributes in a key is not to increase the yield given rise to many requests for significant way to the I per hectare, but to produce technical assistance from other development of the population in small amounts of food in many departments of the country general. houses, in spaces unsuitable for affected by violence, and from conventional agriculture. The other countries around the world A hydroponic garden can produce project started in Colombia, but (Curacao, Egypt, Mexico and an average of 4.3kg of over 15 reached more than 20 countries. In Panama). species of legumes per m2. If a this development, the support of household cultivates 10 m2 in one regional institutions, mayor’s The yields obtained using simple year (some producers already have offices, non-governmental hydroponics proved to be higher production areas that exceed 60 organizations, professionals, than those obtained on the m2), it could produce 431 kg of technicians and independent traditional soil system. In some fresh and clean legumes. If the persons was essential. The initial cases, yields double, triple and goal of training 0.2 % of the goal of the project was to teach even quadruple when full population of a country (with 6 how to grow, prepare and recommendations are followed million inhabitants, for example) is consume legumes in the small and environmental and health reached, 12,000 households could housing spaces of poor residents conditions are adequately produce 11,400,000 lb. of legumes in order to improve the household managed. The period between that could be eaten by producers diet. Afterwards we saw that the planting and harvesting is cut and neighbours who eat small high yield obtained generated down (mainly with transplanted amounts of this type of food. The surpluses that could be sold as a species) and planting can be done production, sold at an average source of additional during every month of the year, price of US$ 0.50 per 0.45kg, income. because it does not depend on would represent a production ideal weather conditions. As a value of US$ 5,700,000. This is an However, as the project result, one can obtain between 7 excellent contribution to improve developed we saw that and 11 harvests per year with the the socio-economic situation of it has more benefits in species that have turned out to be any country. almost all the places more profitable. These are the where the project has leafy vegetables (broad-leaf basil, This technique is contributing to been implemented. celery, watercress, lettuce, endive, the achievement of the national

Imagen Educativa The main value of the spinach), but also a greater goals and those of individuals Pyramid System project is that it number of harvests can be willing to improve the supply of generated a new obtained per year with species that healthy and fresh food, or to start attitude among the poor on socio- grow slower and have longer micro businesses that strengthen productive activities that can be productive cycles and that are part the economy of the household and developed at home or the of the basic food basket, for the community. neighbourhood, with the example pepper (green chilli), hot involvement of the members of pepper, onion, sweet peas, and the family group, in an tomatoes. economical, fast and effective way. In addition the socio-economic More recently, the implementa- benefits are worth noting, as tion of the project in the coffee- farmers need not take money from their precarious household budget ______to buy legumes that are essential

César H. Marulanda Tabares for adequate human nutrition, Imagen Educativa Consultant for UNDP and FAO, ✉ [email protected] especially for children and the Planting in a sponge

8 UA-Magazine Hydroponics Technology in Urban Lima – Peru

Hydroponics is a technology characterized by the absence of soil, allowing the growing of crops of better quality in small urban spaces, requiring less time, less labour, and less inputs. It uses containers, in some cases under direct irrigation with water enriched with nutritive solutions, and in others, with irrigation through substrata that also serves to fix roots, provide adequate humidity and meet the oxygen requirements for specific crops. Results are spectacular, both in terms of yields and low-cost of inputs. Imagen Educativa Simple hydroponics at a school ydroponics for the poorer tices. It implies the growth of in Peru segment of the population is legumes, ornamental, aromatic H based on the following con- and medicinal plants in the cept: “It allows the production of peripheral areas of Lima, where it fresh, healthy and abundant is difficult to farms due to poor legumes with low water con- soil conditions and lack of water sumption and less physical work, for irrigation.

but with a lot of dedication and Imagen Educativa perseverance, in small spaces at THE PROJECT A large variety of crops can be grown on a home, in many cases taking Seeking to improve the food secu- small parcel advantage of waste elements. rity of the low-income population This urban agriculture technology living in the peripheral areas of gives a productive use to some of Lima, 3 strategies were used: With this objective, more than the idle time of family members school and household hydroponic 200 teachers were trained in the The potential productivity of gardens for self-consumption, hydroponics technology and in hydroponic crops when devel- commercial household hydro- the development of projects for oped in optimal conditions is ponic gardens, and the constitu- school hydroponic gardens. The greater than the productivity gen- tion of a virtual enterprise for the trainees established hydroponics erated by traditional garden culti- commercialisation of hydroponic gardens in 42 schools in several vation systems” (La Huerta produce. districts of Metropolitan Lima. Hidroponica Popular”, Technical The crops included legumes, aro- Manual, FAO). The idea behind the establish- matic and medicinal herbs and, to ment of hydroponic gardens in a lesser extent, fodder to feed In Lima, Peru, the NGO Imagen primary and secondary Guinea pigs. The produce is freely Educativa began working in 1993 schools, was to include hydro- distributed among the students to promote urban agriculture as a ponics in national educational who work in the gardens and in strategy to improve nutrition, curricular. This would enable the rare cases it is sold to parents. The family income and environment transfer of technology and enable dissemination and promotion of quality. The focus is on hydro- these systems to contribute to the this experience has led the gov- ponics as it is the most suitable academic programme on biology, ernment to include it as an option technology for educational, physics, chemistry, mathematics in the school curricular. household and commercial prac- and ecology. The produce from the gardens will also improve the The implementation of ______nutrition of students, who could household hydroponic gardens Jovita Abensur Ríos be encouraged to replicate the for self-consumption was another Horacio Chicata Blancas, Imagen Educativa, Peru technology at home. strategy used to improve ✉ [email protected] household food security. This

August 2003 9 10,000 project was carried out in Marcavilca and 8,000 Armatambo, two marginal human settlements in the district of Chorrillos, 6,000 Lima-Peru. These marginal settlements are characterized by the lack of farmland, 4,000 public or household gardens and by a large concentration of substandard, 2,000 unfinished houses, built using recycled materials, over 40 to 50 years. The project 0 sought to transfer hydroponics 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep Mar Sep technologies to farm food for household consumption and eventually for sale. Figure 1: Sales of lettuce bags

Three demonstration hydroponic gardens were set up, which served as a executed the project to administer two agency. Producers participate as privi- tool to train more than 100 households. funds: one for investment and capital for leged suppliers within a scheme that is Sixty percent of those trained were household gardens; and another for similar to a franchise; they have become women. This lead to the establishment of investment and capital for the virtual micro-entrepreneurs, have access to 43 household hydroponic gardens for marketing company. credits and ensure their own progress. self-consumption, all of them located on rooftops. Their produce improved Although household hydroponic micro- Sales during the first 4 years of opera- household nutrition and reduce enterprises were not efficiently managed, tions, between September 1998 and expenses, as less money was needed to they generated earnings through the sale December 2002, and those projected buy food. of their products, well beyond the aver- until August 2003, are shown in Figure 1. In view of generating income, market- age income of international social pro- oriented household gardens were jects. Average earnings per 40 day cam- To date, the produce has been sold in developed in the human settlement of paign were $116 per garden, with two Wong, one of the largest supermarket Delicias de Villa, in the district of hours of work per day, generating $ 87 a chains of Peru. Also, in March 2000 a new month. This improved chain of popular supermarkets, called income is significant, given Metro, began operating in urban and the level of poverty of the periurban areas. Fluctuations in produc- participants, whose mini- tion and sales reveal a lack of regularity mum monthly household that could be explained by seasonal con- income, for the most part did ditions (see in Graph 2), as well as other not exceed $ 116 at the onset difficulties. There has always been per- of the project. If participants manent shortfall in supply and delivery. increased their production area to up to three times In both chains, the demand is only par- their current size, as several tially met. The main problems that have of them have already done, affected the supply are related to avail- their income increases to a ability and access to products. monthly average of $ 261, Concerning the accessibility of products

Imagen Educativa working full time. by customers, the main factors that influ- The surplus can be sold at good prices at city markets ence the levels of sales in each store, in In seeking a strategy that order of importance, are: the existence closes the production and and location of exhibition displays, Chorrillos, Metropolitan Lima, employ- sale cycle, an initiative to sell the produce preservation of product quality in dis- ing idle household labour and using of commercial hydroponic gardens, the plays, demonstration and promotion of unproductive spaces (rooftops and back- Popular Virtual Company for the products through sales promoters, and yards) owned by the participants. In Commercialisation of Hydroponic advertising through brochures. total, 18 lots were financed by the project Produce was established, Following a and an additional 8 were self-financed by non-traditional business model, the com- the participants. After 3 years, further pany is a holistic combination of produc- development and extention of the project ers, consumers and the promotion took place through a revolving fund, called Household Hydroponics Fund (FONHIDROF). This fund was a dona- Imagen Educative organised an electronic conference on the subject of tion from the financial entity that co- urban agriculture in April. The three main topics for discussion were: Food Security, operated with the initial project. It Hydroponics, and Sustainable Urban Agriculture Development Projects. allowed the NGO that promoted and You can read more on this (in Spanish) at www.imageneducativa.org

10 UA-Magazine ORGANOPONICS, a productive option

Productive urban techniques are valid as long as they are adequately adapted to the physical urban setting, and as long as the expected productive results are obtained. Several initiatives have developed productive solutions for places where the land is not fertile, or where space restrictions make it necessary to exploit the available resources to the maximum. One of the most innovative technical and productive solutions developed in Havana is called ‘Organoponics’.

rban Agriculture is highly heterogeneous, with respect U to the places and people that practice it, and with respect to the Mario Gonzalez technologies used. In Havana, Organoponics in Cuba several intensive production methods have been developed or Generally on Organoponics, In many cases, the gardens have adapted. These are substratum legumes are can be grown been developed in such a way as hydroponics (on water and an intensively, due to the advantages merge with the urban inert substratum), zeoponics obtained by the improved use of environment where they are (on zeolite) and organoponics organic matter, and because of located. Their presence, far from (on organic substrata). Due to the possibility to grow these being obtrusive, blends well the funding limitations for the crops at distances close to where urban environment surrounding it. application of chemical nutrients, consumers live and work, thus many facilities that relied on offering fresh and newly Given the advantages of chemical inputs gradually harvested legumes. Certain crops organoponics, concerning converted to organoponics. are rarely produced on location, assembly and organoponics. disassembly, we have been able to The organoponics technique relocate complete production consists of creating furrows in This method is similar to the units, or develop organoponic soils with a low fertility and production in traditional gardens, systems on the foundations of protecting them with different but because crops are placed in unused building sites. materials, these spaces are then low-fertility soils, beds must be used as “nurseries”. A wide range built and they must be protected In Havana, the agriculture, of materials can be used, including like in “nurseries”, adding a physical planning, water wood, stone, or concrete slabs. substratum made by mixing soil resources and other provincial with different sources of organic offices have work together in the In cases where the soil fertility is matter. This allows preparing the selection of locations and poor, this technique allows to soil for the selected crop. The assembly of organoponic units, gradually create soil by applying variety offering the best yield for measuring approximately organic matter. This allows for a the season is used, crops are 10,000 m2 each. They have also more intensive exploitation, since rotated and interspersed; developed the necessary this technique prevents the loss of adequate irrigation, integrated irrigation systems, pest control the substratum due to rainfall or pest and disease management systems and ensured an adequate water flow. It can be applied to and systematic use of organic management of the substratum. flat areas, but also to slopes, by matter in beds allow the Today, the city has 19 units, called constructing terraces. The use of preservation of soil fertility. High-Yield Organoponics. localized irrigation systems is Havana has nearly 200 recommended in organoponic Organoponics humanize farm organoponic gardens, a valuable gardens, because their work, by tracing furrows and option that can be replicated for construction facilitates the paths. Likewise, if nematodes or the production of food and maximum use of humidity. fungi affect the soil, it is possible especially legumes in an intensive to change the entire substratum. and organic way. ______It also allows making specific Mario González Novo mixtures, obtaining the desired Latin American Network on Urban Agriculture soil for certain crops. Research, Cuba, ✉ [email protected] REFERENCES - Diógenes Labrada Valcárcel, Head of Agricultural production, Urban Agriculture in Havana, 2003, personal conversation. August 2003 11 The SUSPER project aims to increase the contribution of periurban agriculture to food security in the major cities of southeastern Asia (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Phnom Penh, Vientiane). This research effort is based on a multidisciplinary approach, involving social and agronomic views on the production, marketing and consumption of periurban produce. Hubert de Bon Improving Techniques Tomato seedlings for the dry and humid season, in Vientiane for Periurban Vegetable Production in South East Asia

he project’s national partners are (i) in minimal temperatures exceed 24°C on ❖ Shelters with a framework in Vietnam, Dr Tran Van Lai, Research average, while the monthly rainfall exceeds galvanised or painted iron, and a T Institute of Fruit of Vegetable; (ii) in 100 mm. Furthermore, the analyses carried transparent polythene film cover Laos, Mr. Kham Sanatem, Agriculture out in the course of the different studies resistant to ultraviolet rays (150-200 Department of the Forest and Agriculture showed high residues in several micron thick). The shelters are widely Ministry; (iii) in Cambodia, Mr. Phat Leng, samples, especially greens used in the daily opened on the sides and at the ends. Agro-industry Department of the diet of the population. . The shelter is 4.8-metre wide under Agriculture, Forest and Fishery Ministry. the peaked roof, and 24-metre long Two international research centres are also TECHNIQUES PROPOSED for the experiment shelters. participating in the project: CIRAD (Centre FOR MARKET ❖ A simple grafting chamber (15 m2) for International Cooperation on In order to ensure a year-round ❖ A nursery (17.5 m2) Agronomic Research and Development) production, the sheltered crops technique and AVRDC (Asian Vegetable Research is proposed to protect the crops from rain In Hanoi and Vientiane, tests carried out and Development Centre). Actions are damage. For the production of tomatoes during the 2002 raining season compared undertaken in two targeted sectors: during this season, it has been varieties of tomatoes grafted on two periurban vegetable production and fresh recommended to graft varieties adapted to rootstocks – tomato (Hawaii 7996 cv.) water fish farming. In these sectors, two the heat, on some rootstocks resistant to and aubergine (EG 203 cv.) – with the aspects are addressed: the quality of the various soil-borne pathogens such as same varieties but non-grafted, as well as produce from periurban agriculture and Fusarium wilt or Bacterial wilt, caused by with field-grown and the sheltered crops. the regularity of the urban market’s supply. the Ralstonia solanacearum bacteria. These rootstocks could be tomatoes (Hawaii In Hanoi, the first tomato test was sowed FARMERS AND INTERVENTION 7996) or eggplant. The EG 203 eggplant on 21 May 2002 and transplanted on 26 ZONES rootstock selected by AVRDC is June 2002. The harvest started on 21 The project is concentrated on urban areas particularly recommended in case of August to end on 3 October 2002. Four where vegetable gardens already supply temporary flood risks. To protect the leafy heat-resistant varieties were used as produce to the cities’ markets (table 1). vegetable crops, mainly crucifer, from grafts: CHT 501 (small fruits: 25-35 g / In Hanoi, the farmers are periurban insect attacks, farmers are advised to place fruit), CLN 2026D (small to medium size producers using an acreage ranging from tunnels of nylon nets with 500-micron fruits: 45-65 g / fruit), CLN 5915 (small to 400 to 3,000 m2. But for certain vegetables stitches (or 32 mesh). The mesh is small medium size fruits: 50-60 g / fruit), VL such as tomato, market surveys revealed enough to keep the diamond back moth 2000 (big fruits: 100-150 g / fruit). The that periurban production could not (Plutella xylostella); a chemical treatment rate of success of the tomato grafting (50% supply the market during certain periods might be applied under the net if needed. to 78%) is lower than that of the aubergine of the year: three months for Hanoi (July to For maximum efficiency, the net should grafting (92% to 95%). There was a slight September), seven months for Vientiane not have any holes. To combat the stripe increase in the overall sheltered crop (May to November), seven months for flea beetle (Phyllotreta striollata), the soil production compared to the field-grown Phnom Penh (October-April). We have should be flooded 48 hours beforehand, crops by 16 percent. A few non-grafted therefore chosen to develop these tomato which would kill all the pupae in the soil. plants died of bacterial wilt. crops during these periods, i.e. the hot and humid season. During this season, the SHELTERED OFF-SEASON TOMATO In the second tomato test in Hanoi, PRODUCTION harvested from 13 September 2002 to ______Experimentation stations were set up in October 31, 2002, it was not possible to Hubert de Bon Hanoi, Phnom Penh and Vientiane, notice significant effects of the shelters French Foreign Ministry, CIRAD, Vietnam which consisted of: and rootstocks on the overall production ✉ [email protected]

12 UA-Magazine The author would like to thank the French Foreign Ministry, which is the main donor of this three-year project (2002-2004). proposed: water culture, sheltered and In both cities, the 32 mesh nylon net Our thanks also go to the field-grown crops. All the appears to be an efficient solution against Strategic Initiative on Urban produce is expected to show lower than insects. and Periurban Agriculture maximum residue levels of , co-ordinated by the CIP for its micro-organisms, heavy metals and CONCLUSION financial contribution to the nitrates. However, it is very difficult to These new techniques introduced in the works on the use of pesticides convince consumers that the produce is three cities have been successful. This by farmers in Hanoi. safe for consumption. year, numerous plants grafted on tomato or aubergine have been distributed to the In Hanoi, it has been suggested to farmers. Training sessions on this for the different rootstock/graft simultaneously compare the results of technique were also organised, using two combinations (cvs. HS 902, VL 2000, CHT the different techniques of integrated varieties of rootstocks that are easy to 501). However, the marketable yield pest management and control the quality reproduce. Some difficulties were appeared higher in the sheltered crops. of the produce through analyses. The encountered with the use of nylon nets For the two species of medium size fruits first tests began by comparing the use of and plastic shelters. (HS 902, VL 2000), a rise in the the nylon nets and the chemical control marketable yield was recorded thanks to on amaranth and choysum crops during The farmers are fully aware that the the field-grown aubergine grafting (13.6 the hot season. With the sheltered crops, economic results are not the same every t/ha against 10.00 t/ha ; 12.88 t/ha fewer plants were damaged by insects year. In fact, the beneficial effects of the against 9.61 t/ha respectively). compared to the field-grown crops on two techniques depend on external which several insecticide treatments conditions: very rainy humid season and In Vientiane, the varieties used as grafts were used. Concerning the amaranth, the heavy insect attacks. Moreover, a were CHT 501, SIDA and SR 382. The marketable yields have risen from 4.2 and relatively high investment is required. young plants were transplanted on 7 July 8.7 t/ha without the net, to 19.1 and 18.0 Despite of the existence of enterprises 2002. All the field-grown non-grafted t/ha with the net, without and with specialised in the construction of tomato plants died before harvest, respective insecticide application. For the shelters, the investments small periurban probably due to bacterial wilt, while the choysum (Brassica rapa cvg. Choysum), the vegetable farmers can do in Vietnam still plants grafted on aubergine and tomato marketable yield has risen from 3.6 and need to be carefully analysed. A produced satisfactory yields. 6.2 t/ha without the net to 11.1 and 11.3 participatory approach is therefore t/ha, without and with respective needed to examine the most appropriate An evolution was noted from June to insecticide application. The insecticides technical and economic solutions. October as to the sheltered cucumber, used were (dimehypo, dimethoate, yard long (asparagus) bean, sweet (green) cartap) and some residues were observed pepper, and mini-cabbage crops, during five to seven days following the compared with the field-grown crops. No harvest. The methods used for this REFERENCES - Hoang Bang An, Le Nhu Thinh, Dang Dinh Dam, Ngo difference was noted for the yard long observation were the quick biological test Van Nam, Le Thuy Hang, Trinh Quang Thoai, Paule Moustier & Isabelle Vagneron. 2003. Spatial and bean. The sheltered crops of cucumber and the gas chromatographic analyses. institutional organization of vegetable market in Hanoi. (25.3 vs. 19.4 t/ha), sweet pepper (8.4 vs. SUSPER project document, RIFAV and CIRAD, Hanoi, Vietnam, 42 pp 1.3 t/ha) and mini-cabbage (14.9 vs. 10.5 In the experiments conducted in the Dey - Lowell L. Black, N.S. Talekar, Hubert de Bon, To Thi t/ha) produced higher yields. This was Eth station in Phnom Penh using the Thu Ha, Nghiem Hoang Anh, Vu Thi Hien. 2002. Quality assurance of agricultural products in peri-urban Hanoi. due to higher resistance to diseases, same treatments, the Chinese kale and the Strategic Initiative for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture, AVRDC – CIRAD – RIFAV component, Final report, which reduced plantation densities and water bindweed were cultivated. The Hanoi, Vietnam 16 pp the number and size of the fruits. treatment did not have any effects on the - De Bon, H. 2001. Urban and peri-urban in Africa and Asia: characterization of the systems and water convolvulus (kangkong or morning issues of sustainability. Bibliographic study for ETC / PRODUCTION OF SAFE VEGETA- glory) yield. The Chinese kale showed an RUAF, 15 pp. http://www.ruaf.org.bibliography/urban%20horticultur BLES IN HANOI AND PHNOM PENH impact depending on whether the net e.pdf In Hanoi, a vegetable production was used or not (14t/ha against 10 t/ha). - De Bon, H. 2002. Hanoi-CLV peri-urban agriculture project. In: AVRDC. 2002. AVRDC Report 2001. Asian programme was launched in 1996. Likewise, an impact was noted with the Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. vii+151 pp, 114-116 At present, 776 ha are cultivated with insecticide application (13t/ha) compared - Fanny Quertamp, Hubert de Bon, Nicolas Baudoin 40 species. Three cropping patterns with the non-use of insecticides (10t/ha). (eds.). 2002. Le développement périurbain à Hanoi. Nouveaux enjeux. Les cahiers de la coopération française au Vietnam. Ambassade de France en République Socialiste du Vietnam, Hanoi, 138 p. Table 1: Administrative data on the main cities covered by the project

Cities Surface area Farming lands Population density Overall population Farming population (km2)(km2) (inhab/km2) -thousands -thousands

Phnom Penh 375 89 2,568 963 80 Vientiane 3,920 833 145 569 178 HCMC 2,094 980 2,434 5,097 448 Hanoi 919 435 2,952 2,712 829

August 2003 13 Basic Cultural Management Practices for Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines

Like most cities in the tropics, Cagayan de Oro is located in the lowlands. Such locations place constraints on year-round vegetable production when compared to the rural highlands, due to the elevated night temperatures of 20°C and above, and the unfavourable biological, chemical and physical properties of soil and water.

egetable production in Cagayan de Oro can be classified into three V categories (Potutan et al., 2000): (1) Commercial, on an overall area of Robert J. Holmer about 60 ha (average farm size 0.5 ha), Ceremonial planting of tomatoes during the launching (2) Subsistence, in 40 % of all households of the first Cagayan de Oro garden and in recently established allotment gardens; (3) School gardens in 75 out of 78 public practice: crops that are usually and inorganic fertilizers is applied. Organic schools. transplanted (e.g. cabbage, pepper, fertilizers such as manure and are The most popular vegetables in the city in cauliflower, tomato, lettuce, eggplant); needed to improve the biological, chemical terms of consumption, are horseradish crops that are usually direct-seeded (e.g. and physical properties of the soil while tree leaves (Moringa oleifera), eggplant melons, cucumber, beans, kangkong, inorganic fertilizers supply the required (Solanum melongena), squash (Cucurbita onion, sweet corn); and crops that should amount of nutrients. Organic fertilizers maxima), string beans (Vigna sesquipedalis) be direct-seeded (radish, carrots). Direct supply the same essential nutrients and tomato (Agbayani, et al., 2001). seeding requires three to four times more as inorganic fertilizers. The major seeds than transplanting. Some crops, difference is in their availability and CULTIVAR SELECTION such as legumes, do not easily regenerate concentration. Urban growers prefer to grow high-value roots, hence; do not easily recover from crops that will provide a good return. transplanting shock. The opposite can be The best method is to apply all of the However, most of these are temperate said of solanaceous crops and crucifers. organic fertilizer, all of the phosphorus, crops, only grow well in upland areas of and part of the other inorganic fertilizers the tropics, where temperatures are Soil is the universally available medium into the soil just prior to planting. cooler. Continuous crop improvement by for germinating seeds and growing Fertilizers should be covered with a plant breeders has resulted in cultivars of seedlings, but not necessarily the best 3-4 cm layer of soil before setting the these crops that perform well even in the medium. In the urban setting of Cagayan plants to avoid burning of the roots. hot climates of the tropical lowlands. de Oro, a mix of 2 parts rich top soil, 2 One half of the nutrient amount for Among those that were successfully parts compost, 1 part chicken dung and nitrogen and potassium K and other tested and introduced in Cagayan de Oro, 1 part river sand has been proven as best nutrients are applied one week after were cultivars ‘Busecorp 7’ for tomato, nursery medium for all vegetable crops. transplanting as first side dressing. ‘Trinity’ for bell pepper, ‘White Shot’ for The remaining balance is given two cauliflower and ‘Tenjiku’ for broccoli SOIL MANAGEMENT AND weeks thereafter (Holmer, 1998). (Holmer, 2000). FERTILISERS Research under the PUVeP shows WATER MANAGEMENT METHODS OF PLANTING (Holmer, 1998; Trüggelmann et. al., 2000), Proper water management is one of the VEGETABLE CROPS that the best yield and quality results for most crucial points for successful vegetable Vegetables can be classified into three vegetable production in Philippine soils are production since most varieties are very categories depending on the planting obtained, when a combination of organic sensitive to any kind of water stress, either to drought or to water logging. ______Yvette B. Guanzon, Robert J. Holmer If water is limited crops should be selected Periurban Vegetable Project, Xavier University College of Agriculture that will grow well under drier conditions Cagayan de Oro, Philippines, ✉ [email protected]

14 UA-Magazine Abstracts or the full version of most of the above-mentioned articles can be accessed under www.puvep.com/rjhpublications.htm. Cagayan de Oro are using chemical CONCLUSION pesticides. Most of the farmers are not Growing vegetables in urban areas plays (e.g. mungbean, eggplant). Short-term using sufficient protective devices while an important role in providing food, vegetable crops can be grown near a spraying and the majority of them are income, and ecological services to cities source of water such as a water well, the experiencing negative health effects after in the Philippines. Research to support drain from washing areas or a water tank. the pesticide application. Only very few urban agriculture is on going at Where feasible and affordable, drip farmers received training on integrated universities, government and non- irrigation systems (such as the bucket pest management. Of the farmer trained, government organizations. system) could be used (Holmer & only one-third changed their pesticide Schnitzler, 1997) to reduce water application practices to use less toxic Priority areas on which further consumption. The soil around plants products with better effects on pest information is needed include: should be covered with a mulch of leaves, control. Respondents would favour ❖ Improved vegetable varieties with cut grass or rice straw. If plastic mulch is natural control measures with less adaptation to the tropical lowland used, only silver-coated ones should be chemical applications. However, these climates, resistance to pests and applied since black mulches heat up too technologies are not as readily available pathogens, higher nutrition values, and much and can cause burning of stems and to them as chemical pesticides. In longer shelve life, other plant parts. Young plants should be addition, some of the non-chemical ❖ Technologies for composting given shade to keep them cool. Compost alternatives such as bacillus biodegradable city wastes, or organic material should be thuringiensis products or commercial ❖ Integrated crop management incorporated in the soil to improve the neem extracts are more costly (Holmer including the introduction of local water holding capacity of soil. One large et. al., 2001). predators; intercropping technologies sack of composted organic material should and soil mulch for . The be sufficient for an area of about 10m2. Weak plants suffer more from attacks by objective is to minimize the application insects or pathogens than healthy plants. of chemical pesticides in densely In the wet season, crops should be Good crop management, including populated areas; planted in high beds to improve aeration attention to water, soil and weeds will and to avoid water logging. Another help reduce damage from insects and option would be to plant crops that grow pathogens. Furthermore, the cultivars well in wet conditions, such as taro used should be adapted to the local (Colocasia esculenta) and kangkong climate. Crop rotation based on (Ipomea aquatica). For controlling weeds, differences in the botanical families of the ground could be covered with 6 cm of plants, will also prevent a build-up of mulch to prevent weeds from receiving disease and infection in the soil. Plants, sunlight. Weeds cut by hoe or knife can such as lemon grass, basil, marigolds, and be used as mulching material or for others are known to repel certain insects composting. Quick-growing vine plants and other pests. If application of

will also reduce weeds by covering the pesticides cannot be avoided, the Robert J. Holmer ground. Examples are legumes, squash instructions on the label have to be Protection of crops from insect attacks and sweet potato. strictly followed. It must however be using nylon nets pointed out, that some “natural” PESTS AND DISEASE pesticides such as tobacco, chilli extracts MANAGEMENT or others, can be very toxic to man, ❖ Efficient and economic irrigation Findings of a survey revealed that more animals and beneficial insects. systems such as the bucket drip irrigation than 80 % of vegetable growers in system which minimises water requirements ❖ Safe use of wastewater for irrigation.

REFERENCES Agbayani, Amelia Luz P., Holmer, R.J., Potutan, G.E., Schnitzler, W.H., 2001. Quality and quantity requirements for vegetables At the heart of urban agriculture lie the by private households, vendors and institutional users in a Philippine urban setting. Urban Agriculture Magazine, 5, 56-57. livelihoods of farmers, food security, and RUAF, Leusden, Netherlands. Holmer, R.J, Schnitzler, W.H., 1997. Drip irrigation for small-scale tomato production in the tropics. Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) 32 ecological and social sustainability. Any (5):56-60. Holmer, R.J., 1998. Sustainable vegetable production for small farmers on problem soils in the highland of Bukidnon for fresh crop production paradigm or technology marketing and processing. Ph. D. thesis, Institute for Vegetable Science TU München, Germany. Publisher Dr. Kovac, should result in these benefits. Farmers Hamburg, Germany. Holmer, R.J., 2000. The Periurban Vegetable Project of Xavier University College of Agriculture. Paper presented at the 12th need to be educated and encouraged to NOMCARRD Regional Symposium on R&D Highlights, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, August 10-11, 2000. make the best choices that suit local Holmer, R.J., Janubas, L.G., Potutan, G.E., Schnitzler, W.H., 2001. Pest management strategies of urban and periurban vegetable growers in Cagayan de Oro City. Paper presented at the 13th NOMCARRD Regional Symposium on R&D conditions. Highlights, Dalwangan, Malaybalay City, Philippines, August 9-11, 2001. Potutan, Gerald E., Schnitzler, W.H., Arnado, J.M., Janubas, L.G., Holmer, R.J., 2000. Urban agriculture in Cagayan de Oro: a favourable response of city government and NGOs. In: Bakker, M., Dubbeling, M., Sabel-Koschella, U., Zeeuw, H. (eds). Growing Cities Growing Food; Urban Agriculture on the Policy Agenda. DSE, Feldafing, Germany. pp. 413-428 Trüggelmann, L., Holmer, R.J., Schnitzler, W.H., 2000. The use of municipal waste in urban and peri-urban vegetable production systems: potentials & constraints. ATSAF Tagungsband, Deutscher Tropentag Berlin, October 14-15, 1999. Humboldt Universität Berlin, pp. 56-57.

August 2003 15 Rooftop Gardening in Senegal

The roof gardeners are Rapid urbanisation in Senegal, is giving rise to rapid housing satisfied developments and diminishing land available for urban agriculture in with the the city. It is also creating an increasing demand for vegetables. technology Although land in the city is scarce, many houses have flat concrete roofs, which provide space for growing vegetables. Crops can be grown throughout the year under the semi-desert climatic conditions. The Rooftop Gardening Programme of the United Methodist Church promotes rooftop vegetable production in Senegal. Women’s’ groups have already established rooftop gardening projects in Dakar and Thies, through which more than a 100 persons have already been

trained and many more are applying for training. D. Gueye Ndeye Fatou

he rooftop gardening only expensive, but also require nutrients are quickly washed out. programmes promote the use some mathematical calculations To replenish the nutrients, the T of compost and natural plant before application. regular use of manure tea is protection methods. The use of recommended. Manure tea is expensive inorganic fertilisers BEDS FOR GROWING CROPS prepared by putting some and dangerous pesticides that Two types of beds are used in nutrient rich compost into a half- may create long-term health rooftop gardening: brick and full sac and dropping it into a problems are discouraged. wooden box beds. container (preferably a 55-liter Compost is a granular, stable, drum) for about 14 days. It is material, which is high in organic The brick bed is constructed by called tea because of the tea like matter and plant nutrients. Using using bricks of 10 cm in height, hue of the solution. The tea is compost will help to grow 20 cm in width and 40 cm in then used to water the plants. healthier plants and also saves length (size 10 bricks). Therefore, This method will help return money on inorganic fertilizers. if the size 10 bricks are laid some nutrients to the nutrient- Compost improves soil structure, properly, the space that will be depleted compost in the bed. nutrient content, biological created for planting within the activity and plant yield when bed, should measure 80 cm in The wooden box bed is constructed applied to land. It is made from width and 10 cm in height. This like any other box, using wood. organic waste material such as neatly accommodates the one- Discarded wooden platforms that garden and household refuse, meter wide plastic sheeting that is are used as packaging for tiles are weeds, grass widely used in Senegal. The particularly useful, because they clippings, leaves bricks are laid flat with the open, already form a half completed and a host of weaker, side facing the inside bed. The platforms measure 80 other organic toward the plants, (visitors cm by 120 cm. After acquiring materials. consider it convenient to walk on the platforms, 10 to 15 cm wide top of the bricks, instead of in the wood is mounted on all 4 sides of There are several narrow pathways). the platform, thus creating a other institutions contained space of 10 to 15 cm in Senegal Since the brick bed does not have deep, 80 cm wide and 120 cm involved in any outlets, these should be long. A hole is then drilled on the

Ndeye Fatou D. Gueye Ndeye Fatou rooftop created during the rainy season. side of the lower end of the box, Beds made of wood gardening, but To do so, the compost that is in about 10cm from the end of the their methods the bed should be dug directly box. The floor of the box is then have proven to be down the middle to create 2 equal covered with cardboard to too technical and expensive for the parts on each side of the bed. The prevent the eventual caving in of majority of the population, who end of the plastic sheeting at the the growing medium. (But those are poor and illiterate. For bottom of the bed should be who can afford some extra instance hydroponic gardens dropped to make room for investment may use wood to seal require a daily application of drainage. The 2 bricks at this end the open spaces). The entire box soluble fertilisers, which are not should be replaced on top of the is then covered with plastic plastic sheeting, to serve as a gate sheeting and a drainage tube is ______to stop the compost from fitted in the already drilled hole Gabriel Deesohu Saydee and Sebastine Ujereh escaping with the water. But the using glue to hold it firmly in United Methodist Church, Senegal, ✉ [email protected] problem with this is that place.

16 UA-Magazine Before planting in the wooden box bed The major problems associated with this luxuries. Now, with many households during the rain season, the compost technology are birds, insects, and funds engaged in rooftop vegetable gardening, should be pushed back 10-cm from the 4 to meet the initial investment. To deal more food is available for home sides of the box, thus creating a little with birds and insects, gardeners are consumption and sale. The smaller channel all around. The vegetables are encouraged to set up bird screens and growers consume most of their produce, planted in the middle of the box and the apply natural insect control methods. while the bigger growers both consume surrounding channel allows the access and sell their harvests. Those who sell, do water to flow through the drainage tube. The impact of rooftop gardening in so at home, as neighborhood buyers individual households has been quite come to their gardens for purchasing. A wide variety of crops, especially those substantial. It has created self- with fibrous root are recommended for employment (at times of very high Based on participatory evaluation, the rooftop gardening because the space unemployment), and diversified and trained and practicing roof gardeners are provided by the box (10 – 15) cm or the increased incomes. Equally important, if satisfied with the technology, as it is cost brick frame (10 cm) can only support not more, is the increase in food security. effective, and relatively easy to learn and shallow fibrous root crops, for example, Vegetables are expensive in urban areas use. tomato, hot pepper, egg-plant, etc. and poor families cannot afford such Provisions can be made to grow tuber and other crops with larger roots like cassava and potatoes. This is made possible by increasing the size of the Rooftop Gardening wood that is mounted on the sides of the boxes, or by standing the bricks upright in St.Petersburg to increase the volume of the compost in the beds. In the early nineties it was considered that there was a niche for rooftop gardening, on apartment buildings and on the roofs of institutions in urban Russia, where there is no access to land except to the ‘dachas’ outside the city. (A ‘dacha’ is a plot of land outside of the city). The first experimental kitchen gardens on roofs of a public building and apartment houses appeared in St. Petersburg, in 1993.

here are some main organizational organic fertilizer (bio humus) is T rules of kitchen gardens on a roof. undertaken. The latter process, known as

Ndeye Fatou D. Gueye Ndeye Fatou Conventional garden soil is not suitable vermicomposting, consists of adding Beds made of bricks on a roof because of its weight. The use food waste (primarily vegetable and fruit of the facilitated peat soil eliminates this waste), to an aerated container housing a problem. Another reason for using colony of red worms in a moist EXPERIENCE AND IMPACT compost is that urban soils have been the environment. The red worms used are OF THE TECHNOLOGY recipient of acid rain for decades. known as red California worms (Eisenia The experience with this technology in Compost may even have lower heavy fetida). Shredded paper, regularly Senegal has been remarkable. When the metal content than the soil in rural discarded from apartment complexes, technology was introduced late 1999, and gardens. Organic matter in the soil also can also be added. The decomposers of despite time-consuming efforts to tends to tie up heavy metals and render this food waste include bacteria, fungi, highlight the benefits of roof gardening, them unavailable to the plants. The soil protozoa, and other organisms. When the the response from the communities was should be fertile enough to provide process is carried out in the presence of very lukewarm. The main obstacle had fertility for a long time, because new soil oxygen, there is surprisingly little odour. been the erroneous belief, that rooftop delivery, means hard physical labour. The red worms excrete quantities of gardening would destroy the house; that manure, known more commonly as bio the weight of the bricks would cause the Efforts were made to organise the humus or . roof to cave in and watering would bring apartments as a loop system of about leaks that would stain the painted production, consumption and processing. The biggest constraint against the more walls. By emphasizing the use of The on the roof is where widespread adoption of kitchen gardens, lightweight compost, wooden structures cultivation of vegetables, flowers and is the conviction that it is not safe to eat and by setting up a demonstration berries takes place, while in the cellar, vegetables grown in the city. However, garden, we were able to overcome these processing of kitchen wastage into the vegetables grown on rooftops were obstacles. Thereafter, a steady increase in analysed for heavy metals, and it was interest was noted, mainly from women. ______found that they contain the same amount (Almost 99 % of those we work with on Martin Price or less heavy metals, than many rooftop gardening are women). ECHO, USA, ✉ [email protected] vegetables from the countryside.

August 2003 17 Ms. Devi and Ms. Patil (catering officer in Mumbai Port Trust) on the rooftop of the canteen

After retirement, Dr. Padmashri R.T. Doshi, started working on his farm at Kamshet, near Pune, and discovered the immeasurable problems faced by farmers. He discovered that if farmers include the cost of their labour in the calculation of farm profit and loss, all farms would be unprofitable. This led him to think very seriously about reducing the costs of farming and labour. Dr. Doshi has experimented with a number of farming practices that enable city dwellers to grow their own food on every available square inch of urban space, including terraces and balconies.

City Farming - the M. Gayathri Devi Natural Alternative, Experiences in India

An example of sustainable agricultural and sustainable initiative, using traditional and indigenous knowledge and appropriate technology

one of the innovations INNOVATIVE EXPERIENCES made in the house, or purchased recommended involve high High-density polyethylene bags from garden stores. At the N costs, nor does the farming are used for the growing institute compost is produced by require long hours of work. Every vegetables and cereals (the kind putting cow dung, organic member of the family can be used to pack 50 kg of cement or material and water in involved in the maintenance of fertilizers), with a diameter of polyethylene bags and leaving the city food garden, including around 22.5 cm and a length also them to break down for six weeks the elderly. The farm can provide of 22.5 cm. For crops like (as illustrated in Figure 1). the family with ample nutrition sugarcane, bags with large Compost can be made in many from plant sources, eliminating diameters are essential (35 cm). ways, but the suggested method the need to purchase one’s Fruit trees like fig, guava and requires the least amount of vegetables and fruits from the mango have to be grown in bags, labour. It is ideal for city homes market, where inflation makes a which have a diameter from 45 to since the bags are kept closed and mockery of housewives’ budgets. 52.5 cm. The bags must be open therefore, there is little change of at both ends; hence the base of them being infested with vermin the bag must be cut open. or other undesirable insects like cockroaches. After selection of the appropriate bags according to size, the next The remaining space at the top of step is to fill them with soil. If soil standing bag is filled with normal is put as it is into bags, it will fall garden soil; approximately 2 to 4 out the other end, which has also kilos of soil would be required for 2 Nusery soil or garden soil been opened. To prevent this, the every 0.11m of area. The bags 25% + 5% organic manure bottom half of the bag is tightly are soaked with water two to packed with biomass of any kind. three times and the water is Compost 25% Dr. Doshi often uses waste allowed to dry. It is now ready for (decomposed biomass) sugarcane stalks, collected from a planting. sugarcane juice vendor outside his house. The material is for free Seeds should be carefully Biomass 50% and sugarcane juice vendor is selected. They can be taken from (sugarcane residue) glad to get rid of it. Functioning one’s own kitchen (groundnut, as a kind of giant plug, the stalks cereals like wheat), or bought keep the soil in the bag, but at the from the store. The important same time, are sufficiently porous point here is how one plans the Figure 1. The different layers required in the containers to allow the water given to the planting. The Institute to grow the plants plant, to drain out easily. recommends “chain-planting”, where plants are grown to ______After the base is plugged, half of provide for small quantities of R.T. Doshi, with Sunil Doshi and Vandana Shah the remaining space inside the vegetable at staggered intervals India, ✉ [email protected] bag is filled with compost, either and not a large quantity all at

18 UA-Magazine Dr. Doshi set up the “International Institute of City Farming” which is Water use in this so-called “Doshi Dr. Doshi’s good practices could have a headed by Miss Vandana System” is also considerably less than in significant impact on policies relating to Shah – CEO (Chief Executive conventional soil farming. Since the plant food production. Today, most Officer) and Mr. Sunil R. grows in sealed bags or other cylindrical governments have fallen into the trap of Doshi – President. They bags or containers, considerably less reallocating all the food production to the started out with modest water is needed when compared to countryside. New policies supporting expectations and have been growing on fields, where most of the such forms of urban agriculture should blessed with grand success. water would evaporate. now be encouraged. A patent for Dr. Doshi’s scientific invention known as The system is suitable for any scale of Urban farming brings health and other “in-situ compost” has been operation and in any open space. Dr benefits (including recreation and granted. The United Doshi uses these bag systems to grow a physical exercise) to city folk. Farms of Nations, World Bank, BBC, variety of fruits, vegetables and cereals. the kind promoted by Dr. Doshi can also local newspapers, radio and He has also grown 1,0000 sugar cane reduced food prices. Even if the TV have provided media plants. Both small and large farmers can vegetables and fruits produced are not coverage. The Institute use this method, since it is easily destined for the market, their availability conducts lectures and replicable and depend, very much, on to households in the cities can help to awareness programmes, materials available in the local reduce food scarcities. provides consultancy environment. services, develops publications, and provides Rooftop with plants using kitching assistance in setting up city waste farms. (according to Mr. Doshi’s technology) once. Seeds, cuttings or grafts can be placed in the bag and with the right amount of watering; they begin to take root and flourish. Seeds may be placed 1.5 to 2 cm below the soil level and three weeks later, the plant would have fully emerged from the soil. Leaves may be given foliar sprays and pests should be dealt with, as far as possible, using non-

toxic, home made solutions. Photo: M. Gayathri Devi

Recycling of Kitchen Waste at Central Kitchen, Mumbai Port Trust

fter a training programme on “city of waste, the employees, who are not A Farming” given by the international professional gardeners, experience creative Institute of City Farming, Mumbai Port Trust pleasure in a friendly social environment. has developed an organic farm on the terrace of it’s central kitchen (which is about In a span of five months fruits like 3000sq ft (279 m2) area). The farm was pomegranate, guava, sugarcane, and a range started firstly to dispose of kitchen organic of vegetables like ladyfinger, tomatoes, and waste in an eco friendly way. All kitchen radish are produced. Many people visit the staff members, after their daily work in the farm, and the workers take pride in kitchen, tend the garden, which has about showing them around the garden. The 275 plants. Besides the eco-friendly disposal positive response has helped add to their self-esteem. This can be seen from their ______enthusiasm and changed attitude. The farm Preeti Patil, Mumbai Port Trust was awarded the 2nd prize by the National ✉ [email protected] Council of Friends of Trees in the annual show held in February 2003.

August 2003 19 Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ugandan economy. Due to the growing population and high demand for land, urban agriculture is a major issue. Currently, Kampala has an estimated population of over 2 million people. It is a city experiencing large migration flows in search of employment and better living conditions. Most of the migrants are poor young men and women searching for jobs and services like piped water and health facilities that are lacking in rural areas. They are landless and often their spouses and extended family members follow them, which results in slums developing in public resource areas, like urban wetlands. Without the security over the land they occupy, these families tend to carry out short-term investments like mushroom cultivation. Mushroom cultivation is a space-confined technology and requires relatively small capital input.

Mushroom Cultivation Angelika Kessler Women vegetable farmers in Urban Kampala, Uganda in Burkina Faso

rban dynamics and the varieties is available, due to the private sphere belonging to market economy assign involvement of the government in women. Men prefer to find work U different gender roles and promoting programmes like the outside the home (due to responsibilities to women and Plan for Modernisation of traditional practices on the men. In Kampala, the poor women Agriculture (PMA). The PMA division of labour). Men also are well positioned to working considers gender participation control income from farm closely with urban natural important for economic produce, but mushrooms can be resources (Kigula 2001:32). These development, and mushroom sold by women and needs little women form the majority of farming enables the voices of capital input, which attracts more people who engage in urban women to be heard. Mushrooms women to this activity. However, agriculture. Because of the need to are also a good food supplement female-headed households are on supplement household income, as they contain minerals and the increase due to high rate of many wives start low- income vitamins (Beetz and Greer 1999). divorce or HIV/AIDS. generating activities. One of these Mothers argue that mushrooms activities is mushroom cultivation provide increased resistance and Declining soil fertility is also a in the dark nooks of houses or the immunity against early childhood growing problem. Most poor men wetlands. Mushrooms fetch extra infections and diseases. They also and women used to grow coco income and can be used to replace enhance food security in times of yams and vegetables in the hunger. Women have historically wetlands, but climatic changes held knowledge on wild have led to the drying up of the Women’s mushroom cultivation mushrooms, and can well adapt to swamps, while construction of reduces workload, increases cultivating them in limited spaces. houses or factories have displaced income and food security and many, rendering them landless. uplifts the status of women There is gender imbalance in land Evictions and land insecurity is ownership (titled towards men) leading people to adapt to limited because of paternal inheritance space agriculture. Soil degradation for other vegetables. It is also traditions. Women make up 7% of has meant that mushrooms can being included in micro-finance all landowners in Uganda no longer be found in rotten projects for urban women farmers (Busingye 2002:4, Ovonji 1999), wetland masses as the water table to enhance sustainable livelihoods. while 93% have access with has decreased. Hence, the space at usufruct rights or are landless. home is ideal for the cultivation of Mushroom growing utilises Typically, men determine the introduced varieties of residues as substrate and requires decisions over land use and the mushroom species from Kawanda limited land area. It is a cost control over farm produce. Land research station. effective way of growing food. shortage is another reason for Extensive research of improved women to take up mushroom MUSHROOM CULTIVATION cultivation. It can be done inside a AS CONFINED– SPACE ______house or on open access (urban AGRICULTURE Juliet Kiguli, Makerere University, Uganda natural resource) areas. The Mushrooms are intensively ✉ [email protected] house space is considered a grown indoors or outdoors in

20 UA-Magazine wetlands. The climatic conditions and prepared in the cultural laboratory at CHALLENGES dark rooms inside houses favour the 25-28°C. Black plastic bags of 3 to 4 Kg Some farmers state that there is no secure growth of locally improved and available capacity containing agro-industrial market for mushrooms. For example, mushroom species, such as oysters and residues, like cotton seed hulls or African Growth Opportunity Act (AGOA), shiitake. Mushrooms have both a sugarcane trash, are prepared. A drum or that enhances the sale of finished nutritional and medicinal value (Hobbs et boiler is used for pasteurising the products from third world countries, does al 1995). This makes them suitable for substrate by steaming and is then stored not include mushrooms. Still, growers improving the diet of families in urban on a raised rack as it cools, retaining 70% need to step up their production if they centres. Many people are knowledgeable moisture. Spawn is added and the bag are to satisfy a ready market like AGOA. about edible mushrooms and appreciate sealed for incubation for 3 weeks. During their consumption as part of traditional this period, the mycelia from the spawn Due to the lack of dryers for the drying of cooking, in central Uganda. There is also grows and colonises the substrate. This is mushrooms, farmers tend to sell only a ready domestic market for packaged then moved to a humid room with light fresh ones. As these poor farmers cannot fresh mushrooms by the quickly and holes made in the bag. In 2 weeks, afford refrigerators, their produce rots. sprawling supermarkets in Kampala like mushrooms are ready. 4 kg of substrate Although, the solar drying of mushrooms Uchumi and Shoprite, originating from produce 3 Kg fresh mushrooms. As is well accepted, farmers do not have the Kenya and South Africa. entrepreneurial agriculture, it is capital to invest into these machines, as estimated that a small farmer produces they produce on a very small scale. There The main source of income for poor 15 Kg each period, harvesting 5 times a is also a lack of information being women has been growing cocoyams and year, earning U.Shs.150.000 (about 80 disseminated on mushroom processing. selling sweets and tobacco on the streets. USD) per year. However, with the government focus on There is limited knowledge on the micro finance schemes, (funded by the Mushroom cultivation reduces the nutritional characteristics of mushrooms World Bank), a number of women workload of women, because they don’t amongst consumers and many farmers. acquire loans to grow mushrooms. travel long distances in search of free Information on growing is shared only Marginalized poor and landless male pieces of land. The improved mushroom within small groups of farmers (some migrants are also able to find work as growing technology that increases farmers give out photocopied mushroom casual labourers in households growing income and food security, uplifts the growing manuals). The high illiteracy level mushrooms and assist with farming or status of women in decision-making. among women, bars them from travelling selling. to increase education and obtain Mushroom cultivation has encouraged improved seed varieties. There are only the increase of women’s associations. few urban extension workers, due to low Irrigation of Women organise themselves and pool levels of resources and retrenchment in the crops resources to establish rotating funds. the public service sector. Those remaining by hand They also share knowledge on are mostly male and target male farmers. is mostly mushrooms or entrepreneurial skills. done Mushroom cultivation has the added Technologies at the Kawanda research by women advantage of providing employment and station need to be fine-tuned to fit into income for housewives. advanced farming systems. With the advent of decentralisation, local leaders

RUAF HIV/AIDS is having widespread impact need to be assisted to play a leading role on the agricultural sector, affecting of modernizing agriculture in their people and the household income. If a particular localities. Mushroom husband is taken ill, the wife stays at cultivators, if adequately empowered, People believe that wild mushrooms are home to look after him. With the decline can also play a very vital role. Realisation rare today, because increasingly, on the in household income and subsequent of women’s rights to land and household market, are the oyster and shiitake suffering of family nutrition, women are property, may further improve species introduced by the scientists. The forced to seek employment like investment in mushroom cultivation. small type of wild ones with names like mushroom cultivation. Obubala, Obunaka naka, Ggudu, Kinyulwa and Nampama, can still be found, but are REFERENCES seasonal, as they grow in wet areas, - Busingye, Harriet, 2002, Ensuring Women’s Land Access: lobby and advocacy for the recognition of women’s rights bushes, rotting tree trunks, or in debris of to land in legislation, Regional Workshop paper on Land Issues in Africa and the Middle East, Kampala, April 29- May 2, p.1-6 banana gardens and anthills. The farmers - Beetz, Alice and Lane Greer, 1999, Mushroom Cultivation and Marketing Horticulture production Guide, grow mushrooms for sale or home Appropriate technology transfer for Rural Areas, Fayetteville. - Hobbs, Christopher and Michael Miovic (ed.), 1995. Medicinal Mushrooms: an exploration of traditional healing consumption. and culture, 3rd Ed., Botanical Press. - Kigula, John, 2001, Women’s Common Property Rights in an Urban Context: the Jinja urban Women’s wetland Innovations, Unpublished manuscript, P.32. Oysters are the most commonly grown Uganda, African Centre for Technology Studies, p.42. - Ovonji Odida, I.F. et al, 2000, Land, gender and Poverty Eradication, is there a case for Spousal Co-ownership of mushroom species. The spawn is primary household property? Land Act Implementation project, Ministry of Water, land and Environment, Kampala.

August 2003 21 Micro-technologies for Congested Urban Centers in Ethiopia

This article describes the experiences of Yilma along these rivers unsafe for space between the inner wall of bio-consult, specializing on promotion of consumption (see also Getachew, the barrel and outer wall of the urban agriculture in Addis Ababa and other in UAM No.6). corrugated iron is filled with the urban centres in Ethiopia. soil mixture described above. Under such setting, the need for Vegetables or fruits of choice are technologies that enable high- planted in the space between the ddis Ababa sustains 2.5 level outputs in the smallest two lips of the incisions. Regular million people on a total area possible space is paramount. The watering is done through the A of 50,000 hectares of land, of technologies must be cheap, sand in the middle. Manure tea is which the concrete and asphalt simple and dependant on local applied on a weekly basis through build environment takes up resources. The choice of the sand in the middle. The barrel around 20,000 hectares. In this technologies presented here should be maintained over gravel congested city, the availability of considers these principles and is for better aeration and drainage. land for food production is based on natural processes. becoming very scarce. About 30 technologies have been identified for promotion by the The Government of Ethiopia had Agency, but only three are begun to promote urban detailed in this article. agriculture. It is included in the research agenda of the Ethiopian BARREL GARDEN TECHNIQUE Agricultural Research Imagine producing over 25 plants ilma Getachew

Organization (EARO), in the of Swiss chard or strawberries in Y teaching agenda of Addis Ababa a space less than one square Swiss chard on barrel University, and in the metre? The materials needed to development agenda of GOs, do this are a 200-litre barrel, a NGOs and CBOs in Ethiopia. corrugated iron sheet, soil The benefits of this technology is mixture (preferable 2 parts soil to that it enables families to increase Addis has a 40% unemployment 1 part aged manure or compost the availability of micronutrient rate and a great majority of the and 1 part sand), and manure tea. food and encourages the reuse of unemployed are youth. The city ❖ Old barrels and trashcans produces an estimated 400,000 Several incisions of about 12 cm (which are freely and cheaply tons of solid each should be made around the available), the composting waste barrel as shown on the photo. organic solid waste Rapid uptake of technologies annually, the The upper lips of the incisions are ❖ Livestock waste as manure tea. was possible, as they bulk of which hammered inward and the lower Used barrels can have several are cheap, simple and dependant is household lips outwards. The incisions uses to urban farmers, as shown on local materials organic waste should be made intervals of 15 cm in table 1 (CSA 2001). horizontally and 20 cm vertically. The city has a The barrel top is open while the THE FAITH GARDEN population of around 60,000 bottom is perforated with about TECHNIQUE dairy animals with around 50% of 10 holes. A rolled corrugated iron The FAITH garden uses the families rearing sheep and goats sheet is place in the middle of the abundant availability of organic (Tegegne et al 2002). A huge barrel and filled with sand. The waste to produce food. The amount of livestock manure is therefore available. The average available garden space in the city Table 1 Alternative uses of used barrels. is not more than 25 m2 per family, while the rivers in the city are Production Water Fertilizer Other uses ilma Getachew

Y highly polluted with heavy metals techniques management production Faith Garden and sewage making the vegetables and fruit cultivated Barrel garden Drip irrigation Compost making Pesticide (see above) Solar distillation Manure tea preparation- ______Ring culture of polluted water. making growing, mixing, Yilma GetachewAddis Ababa, Ethiopia Potato growing Roof water Plant tea making boiling, pesticide ✉ [email protected] Hydroponics harvesting plants. garden Solar water Biogas digester heater etc. 22 UA-Magazine Table 2 Alternative technologies for congested city centres

technology uses cheap material: bottom- Farming technologies Water management Fertilizer production less baskets (available to the poor), organic solid wastes, seeds and seedlings. Tire garden Soddis water purifier Earthworm husbandry A hole has to be dug in the ground with a Bottle garden Pither irrigation Cow horn manure diameter of 30 cm. The basket is placed PVC garden Tube well Portable chicken roost on top of the hole and all the available Growing walls Ferro-cement jars organic solid waste is placed inside the Hydroponics PVC Rus pumps basket and the hole below it. Four to Window sill garden eight selected plants are planted about 20 cm away from the basket. After harvest, the composted waste is used to After two months each potato plant will training programme. Finally, the fertilize other garden activities like the yield one or two tubers per week, or technology is installed on-site (practice container gardens. The procedure is about 2 kg per week, per trench, for area and/or a individual garden plots). further improved by including a series duration of two months. After two Each trainer is required to train 10 families of 12 basket garden units, which are months, the trench is refilled as before, following the above strategy. planted in succession, with an interval which will continue to supply the family These technologies are highly replicable. of 1-2 weeks. After the first harvest is with potatoes for another two months In one locality, training was provided to made, a continuous supply of vegetables (see photo on page 24). Depending on the 10 trainers, who in turn trained 100 and fruits are available for home availability of garden space the family families. After three months, a thousand consumption. can build several such trenches. families were trained and the technologies were improved through TRAINING AND hands-on experience. DISSEMINATION In addition to the The rapid uptake of these technologies technologies described in was made possible, as they are cheap, this article, several other simple and are dependant on local urban farming materials. Due to diversity of crops technologies have been farmed through these technologies, the installed by the damage by pests and disease was consultative agency. minimal. There are also no difficulties Some of these with odours or wastes. The technologies technologies are listed in however, require water, and clean water Table 2. in urban areas is in short supply. It is ilma Getachew

Y therefore advised that these technologies Training of Trainers To date, Yilma Bio-consult are coupled with water harvesting has disseminated the practices. above technologies to The benefits of this technology include over 800 families all over the Ethiopia. The These agricultural practices are also lower volumes of waste, an increased families were also trained on how the acceptable to policy makers as they availability of micronutrient food, a install and maintain the technologies. The demand little land, promote the recycling better skilled and environmentally aware training strategy commenced with initial and reuse of both organic and inorganic population and increases in family classroom discussions to explain how and wastes and create employment. incomes. why the technologies need to be installed However, the uptake of these and maintained as recommended. This technologies by the richer urban THE TRENCH GARDEN was followed by an in-situ demonstration, inhabitants, with larger garden spaces, The trench garden method is interesting the site being set up a month prior to the has been low. in situations where malnutrition (of macro-nutrients) and excess of livestock To promote urban agriculture, the manure go hand in hand. The technology Ethiopian government has established REFERENCES required seed potatoes, aged manure and -CSA 2001 Central Statistical Authority of Ethiopia. the Addis Ababa Urban Agriculture mulching material. To develop the trench -Tegegne, A., Sileshi, Z., Tadesse, M., Alemayehu, M. Office, probably the first of its kind in and Woltedji, D.(2002) Scoping study on urban and garden, one needs to dig a 30 cm wide, 30 peri-urban livestock keeping in Addis Ababa, East Africa. Furthermore, as of May 9, cm deep and 6 meters long trench. At the International Livestock Research 2002 the Addis Ababa city has become a Institute(ILRI),Ethiopia. bottom of the trench, the soil should be -Yilma G.1996.The FAITH Garden Module-The Urban signatory to the declaration “Feeding farmer Series. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia: Graphics. cracked to a depth of another 30 cm to -Yilma G.2002.The living Garden: a bio-intensive Cities in the Horn of Africa” which allow better aeration and drainage. After approach to urban agriculture. Urban Agriculture promotes urban and periurban Magazine- No. 6. planting the seed potatoes at intervals of -Yilma G.2001. The organic option to food production in agriculture. The poverty reduction 30 cm, the trench is completely filled Ethiopia: a blessing or a curse. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: strategy of the Ethiopia has also included The Daily Monitor with aged manure in between plants. urban agriculture as a priority.

August 2003 23 Agriculture in Botswana’s urban and periurban areas is not widespread. Some poor families have taken up farming to supplement their incomes, while a few entrepreneurs have chosen urban and periurban farming as business ventures. In the capital city, Gaborone, most commercial and subsistence farmers are situated in freehold, municipal or tribal land in the north and south of the city. The farms operate as private ventures or as a project of an academic or scientific institution. Farming activity consists of poultry farming (40%), horticulture (20%), pig farming, (10%) and diary farming (8%). ilma Getachew Y Innovative Urban Trench Garden Agricultural Technologies in Botswana

nnovative agricultural technologies are sides by well-swept bare ground. This is drip pipes, or by capillary action, which being used in several urban areas in done, according to most people, to involves the placement of clay pipes at I Botswana, which address the issues of prevent snakes around the home. Most the bottom of the bench. Water simply poverty and food security at the grassroots houses have no water catchments to seeps out of these pipes and up through level. The climate in Botswana is very collect run off when it rains. The the sand. It is estimated that harsh and the soils are quite poor in terms Productive Homestead technology enables approximately 1.2 cubic metres of water of nutrients. Hence, farmers cannot rainwater to be collected in underground is required per year to irrigate 1 sq. metre depend on conventional agriculture, tanks and used for irrigation. Another of the growing bench. which relies on annual rainfall and surface feature of the ‘Productive Homestead” is water. Some of the technologies adopted the ‘Growing Wall’. Concrete growing This method involves a certain level of are described below. boxes are built into either the actual investment that may be out reach for house, or into the boundary wall individual farmers. However, costs can be These technologies, if adapted to the surrounding the plot. These growing minimised if a number of farmers join socio-economic needs of the urban poor, boxes can be made using a block forces and cultivate communally. do seem to offer a great potential for machine. The boxes use sand as the Experience has shown that the growing increasing nutrition standards and growing medium, and this is placed on boxes are a very successful technology supplementing incomes. They can also be top of a bed of fertiliser (e.g. chicken and are suitable for a wide variety of incorporated into urban planning and the manure). Water can be applied manually vegetables, important to supplement design of housing areas. However, for or by using a drip-irrigation system. both income and nutrition requirements. these technologies to be widely used, urban planners need to be educated on The growing bench is designed so that Trench Gardening is a variation of the their benefits and feasibility. Quite a few crops can be grown using less water and growing bench. It involves digging a farms have already begun to use these produce higher yields than in traditional knee-deep bed about the same dimension technologies, for example, the SANITAS soil cultivation. A cement and river sand as a door. This is half filled with organic horticultural farm in Gaborone; mix is used to form concrete edges, waste, topped with soil and covered with hydroponics farms in the periurban areas which are then arranged to form a a blanket of mulch. of Gaborone and Francistown, and pilot rectangular bed. The bottom of the bed is farms at the Botswana Agricultural also covered in concrete. At the bottom of The permanent strip method is based College. the bench a layer of farm or chicken upon the principle of growing in strips, in manure is placed, which is then covered which the soil has been loosened by a THE PRACTICES by the growing medium - river sand. On special tool to allow for increased water The concept of the ‘Productive top of this, a further layer of manure, retention. This is a crucial element Homestead’ was designed with the aim phosphate and a mix of trace elements considering Botswana’s climate. The of both increasing food production and (usually missing in sand) are added. The strips are 0.6 metres in width and are rainwater retention on the plot. Most bottom of the bench is made slightly separated by banks built of compacted urban homesteads are surrounded by convex, so make certain that water from earth. These strips can control weeds, but yards, which on there is little or no irrigation does not settle. The convex most importantly, can help channel the surface vegetation due to the harsh base allows water to run off, and holes flow of water down into the growing climate. Houses are usually situated in are left at the end of the benches to allow strips. Organic matter can also be applied the centre of the plot, surrounded on all water to escape that can be reused. The to the strips in order to increase the bench is then ready for planting. fertility of the soil. ______Prof. A.C.Mosha The benches can be irrigated manually, Head, Architecture and Planning Department, by using a drip irrigation system of plastic University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana, ✉ [email protected] 24 UA-Magazine Permaculture

Permaculture is an agricultural and environmental technology, which combines growing of fruits, vegetables and grain and the raising of livestock by creating a symbiotic ecosystem.

n 1996, the 3rd International Ecovillage soil, whether working with a small plot or I conference was held in Dakar. This a large arable field. The scientific conference, organized by the Association foundations of permaculture are the

for the Economic, Cultural, and Social same all over the world, but the socio- SOS Environnement Promotion of Yoff (APECSY), had, as its cultural approach is specific to the main theme “Integrating traditional community that practices it. renewable revenue, in as much as it can African wisdom in a global process of produce both food and money. ecological reconstruction.” At the end of Permaculture could also be seen as a Permaculture is a viable option for urban the conference, around twenty members miniature model of a sustainable society. agriculture, since its integrated approach of the Yoff community were trained in It is a way of life: an economic and and flexibility, it is perfectly suited to the principles of permaculture with the cultural reality, or a way of regarding prevailing city conditions, in the fight advent of the APECSY’s Eco-Yoff nature and finding its place therein. The against poverty, food insecurity, loss of program. permaculture garden is also a source of biodiversity and atmospheric pollution.

Mobile Kitchen Gardens

Despite legislation that tends to discourage urban farming in many cities in sub-Saharan Africa, urban farming has thrived and has been identified as priority practice amongst the town dwellers. In the highly populated residential areas, where arable land is too scarce to facilitate meaningful farming, it’s advisable to plant vegetables in space-confined gardens. SOS Environnement

hese gardens can be created by family for a period of time, and In June 2002, a partnership was created T using materials like a fabric sack, thereby drastically reducing between CRESP, USAID’s polythene bags or plastic drums with drastically expenses otherwise spent DynaEntreprises programme, and the a capacity of 90 to 100 kg. Between 70 to purchase the same. Managing NGO, SOS Environment, and a to 100 small holes are cut all over the pesticides is very important to this permaculture garden, the first in Senegal, bag, which is then filled with nutrient practice, but weeding is not necessary was started. The garden aims to promote rich soil. The farmer can use as many which reduces labour requirements. permaculture to farmers as well as bags as required, as long as there is Very little water is required for private and public decision makers, by sufficient material and space. irrigation. As the bags are moveable, demonstrating its viability, effectiveness it’s possible the re-position it where and business opportunities offered by After 2-3 weeks of bag preparation, convenient and can be transferred such agricultural and environmental the propagation of cuttings and near the house to receive water from technologies. seedlings (of kales for instance) can the roof catchment. be done in the holes of the bag. This Permaculture incorporates the principles initial stage of propagation demands In many learning institutions in of sustainable and organic agriculture. a lot of intensive care, like watering Nakuru, Kenya, this farming practice Organic farming, as a part of a every morning and evening. has been promoted to homes through , uses no Alternatively, propagation can be demonstrating the methodology and chemicals as fertilizers or pesticides. done by using seeds, but using benefits to children. It is currently Sustainable agriculture seeks to make the cuttings or seedlings have proved being used by a number of residential most of the land without degrading the more promising and viable. estates.

______Up to 150 seedlings or cuttings of ______Khaly MBENGUE, Permaculture Project Coordinator sales can be raised in one given bag. Okoth Samuel Ondeng Abdourahmane TAMBA, Executive Secretary, This can sufficiently sustain an urban ✉ [email protected] SOS Environnement, Senegal, ✉ [email protected]

August 2003 25 The Abundant Harvest Garden

The goal of “Hunger Grow Away” has been to cultivate food security borne organisms or chemical pollutants “One Family at a Time.” To achieve this the Abundant Harvest Garden and invasion from soil insects and (AHG) was developed, which is a micro-intensive food production system nematodes is prevented. that can grow the produce needs for a family of four in 1.44m2. ADVANTAGES ❖ The AHG requires limited space: in the oo often, the space available for urban used for the production of both culinary dooryard, on a rooftop or the pavement, food production is distant from the and medicinal herbs as a cash crop. and can be used where there is poverty of T home, making it difficult to protect space, water, labour, time and finances. from predators or theft. A conventional THE ABUNDANT HARVEST GARDEN For example, in urban areas and where garden is labour intensive, making great there is a need for an adaptable system to demands on the time and energy of the The CelluGRO system women who tend them. The AHG puts the This system has a proven track record in Advantages of the Abundant Harvest garden close to the home. Water is the professional nursery industry in the Garden: frequently in short supply or must be United States. It offers maximum use of ❖ Saves water, time and labour (no tools carried great distances, and the water itself space and resources with a minimal required other than bare hands, one time may be a source of disease. Frequently the impact on the environment. It also offers financial investment) garden plots are located on soil that is the greatest return for a family’s ❖ Adaptable, to accommodate individuals polluted or chemically contaminated. investment in time and labour. with disabilities Furthermore, it is permanent, self- ❖ Flexibility in what can be grown The possibility of frequent harvesting of contained and can literally be folded up fresh vegetables from the AHG is a great and taken with a family if they move. The accommodate children, the elderly or the health advantage. When a family can system will last for years and is non-toxic. disabled. grow a dependable, varied and nutritious It is available in two sizes, the 1.4 m2 ❖ The gardeners have control over what diet, with minimal cost in money or time, family garden unit, and a larger 2.4 x 6 plants will be grown, how they will be the first steps out of poverty can be taken. metre community production unit. grown and what will be done with the harvest. As this system is so compact, MICRO-ENTERPRISES Without the cellular growing system the water efficient and adaptable, gardens In our trials we grew moringa (Moringa AHG would be nothing more than a can be productive during droughts, Oleifera: Horseradish-tree or Drumstick- growing box. The cells are 21 centimetres monsoons and cold weather. tree) in part of the garden while deep; the optimum average depth for a ❖ The system is forgiving of the vegetables were being cultivated in the healthy root system. Each plant grows in problems of neglect, planting errors, over remainder of the cells. If a garden was its own space or in a micro-community of watering and under watering: the compatible plants. So, plants with can make mistakes and still put aggressive root systems don’t crowd their food on the table. neighbours. Transplanting can be done ❖ The AHG system can be emptied, with little root disturbance or rolled up and moved if necessary. It can transplanting shock, while harvesting or be re-established and productive in as replacing spent plants can be carried out little as three weeks. without disturbing those remaining. ❖ Cultivating plants that provide food in Finally, the plants grow so close together more than one form can increase the that they serve as their own surface mulch, productivity of a vegetable garden. Local keeping soil moist, maintaining even soil favourites and indigenous vegetables Cell System Drainboard and Liner temperature and controlling weed growth. should also be a part of the garden. ❖ The development of green spaces, The dimpled drain board provides even micro-spaces of productive green, planted in only moringa seeds, over two efficient drainage of surplus water and it are a valuable community resource and hundred plants could be produced every creates an air space that prevents soil may become a teaching tool. two or three months, in a space only four fungus problems. The permeable foot by four foot. Other trees, shrubs and filtration fabric covering the drain board CONSIDERATIONS perennial plants could be propagated permits surplus water to gradually drain. ❖ The micro-intensive gardening system with this system to establish , The soil and the roots have time to can be use under extreme conditions: erosion control programs and more. absorb the required moisture. The where there is poverty of space, water, Herbs grow exceptionally well in the drainage outlets can be channelled for labour, time and finances, like in urban AHG and can be a source of income. In the recovery and recycling of surplus areas. On its own, however, it cannot be Lagone, Haiti, around 38 gardens will be water. The liner prevents the loss of used to reduce poverty. valuable water and nutrients do not leach ❖ Wise and efficient water use is needed ______out of the soil. Less fertilizer is required. to prevent breeding grounds for Tomi Jill Folk & Hank Bruce There is no contamination from soil mosquitoes. Hunger Grow Away, USA, ✉ [email protected]

26 UA-Magazine Abundant Harvest Garden in full production

experiments with five different program was planted April 26th of this gardens using a variety of year. The African Assistance Plan (West growing mediums and plant Africa) is exploring ways to use these materials. gardens at a number of schools throughout Ghana. Community Development Program (CODEP) is working ONE TIME INVESTMENT with Hunger Grow Away in Rooftop gardens are a logical solution to Lagone, Haiti where most of the the question of where to grow fresh gardens are used for food produce in urban centres. Due to its water production, some in a nutrition and space efficiency, the AHG is an ideal, ❖ The family size AHG costs program at several schools, and others as cost efficient and permanent rooftop approximately $225 (US) or more in a micro-enterprise producing herbs for system. Beyond the obvious food materials and transportation. This is also market. production, rooftop gardens can provide a one of the reasons that Hunger Grow number of environmental benefits Away was formed, to raise funds to help Residents of a homeless shelter Anthony including, providing thermal insulation for supply these gardens where they can be House near Orlando, Florida, USA, and those living below, absorbing rainwater to used most effectively. student volunteers assembled and control runoff, filtering pollutants out of ❖ The AHG is not manufactured locally, planted four of the AHGs. Twenty-one the air, enhancing the oxygen supply and although the food grown in them is. Soils, days later they had their first harvest, controlling noise pollution. soil building materials and compost will which was sufficient to produce a salad all be supplied locally. for each of the sixty-two shelter If we can use these AHGs to cultivate residents. family food security, improve nutrition EXPERIENCES and halt the poverty spiral, it is a wise The work of the Osceola County Childrens’ Plans are being developed with the investment. It will serve as a cost Home in Kissimmee, Florida, USA was Greater Albuquerque Habitat for efficient green space programme, that invaluable to the development and where Humanity to use the AHG as a way to decreases the need for food relief, the research actually began. The improve nutrition and teach important alleviates poverty, decreases crime and residents of this childrens’ home did life skills. The first garden for this promotes micro-enterprise. Aqua-Terra Gardens

Aqua-Terra Gardens is a newly formed corporation located in the heart of the United States, Springfield Missouri. Frank McNeely, owner and operator, has converted an unused old graining mill near the downtown area into an urban agriplex. The goal was to establish a facility that would address sustainable agriculture, use renewable energy and educate the public in these concepts. Frank McNeely Biodigester art of the old mill has been opened as grow tables. The so constructed as a year-round indoor farmers area enables Aqua-Terra P market. Aqua Terra Gardens has Gardens to produce tomatoes, meters are lined with heavy mil plastic. also constructed small systems that cucumbers, lettuce, spinach and fish, that Pieces of Styrofoam with holes drilled in are adaptable to schools, universities, finds its way to the farmers market and to a pattern are used to grow lettuce, that low-income families and low-income local restaurants. after germination in rooting cubes, are communities to teach them how to grow placed in these holes and float in a a healthy food product in a small area. Located in the southwest corner of the mixture of nutrient solution and water. large building are three rooms that equal This is aptly named the Floating Bed type Many different items were used in the 528 m2 of floor space. The entire outer of hydroponics. A product from the bio- construction of Aqua-Terra Gardens, siding along the southwest wall was digester is used as an organic nutrient including bathtubs taken from a removed and replaced with two layers of solution instead of the conventional remodelled apartment complex, and the same polyurethane material that was chemical base or inorganic supplements corrugated metal siding lined with plastic used on the greenhouse. This used in many other large hydroponic construction allowed Aqua-Terra growing facilities. ______Gardens to transform a warehouse Another of the large rooms holds 60 Frank McNeely setting to three large hydroponic growing rabbits and 30 chickens, which supply ✉ [email protected] rooms. Rectangular tables of 1to 2.5 manure for the 7-stage bio digester

August 2003 27 Abundant Harvest Garden in full production

experiments with five different program was planted April 26th of this gardens using a variety of year. The African Assistance Plan (West growing mediums and plant Africa) is exploring ways to use these materials. gardens at a number of schools throughout Ghana. Community Development Program (CODEP) is working ONE TIME INVESTMENT with Hunger Grow Away in Rooftop gardens are a logical solution to Lagone, Haiti where most of the the question of where to grow fresh gardens are used for food produce in urban centres. Due to its water production, some in a nutrition and space efficiency, the AHG is an ideal, ❖ The family size AHG costs program at several schools, and others as cost efficient and permanent rooftop approximately $225 (US) or more in a micro-enterprise producing herbs for system. Beyond the obvious food materials and transportation. This is also market. production, rooftop gardens can provide a one of the reasons that Hunger Grow number of environmental benefits Away was formed, to raise funds to help Residents of a homeless shelter Anthony including, providing thermal insulation for supply these gardens where they can be House near Orlando, Florida, USA, and those living below, absorbing rainwater to used most effectively. student volunteers assembled and control runoff, filtering pollutants out of ❖ The AHG is not manufactured locally, planted four of the AHGs. Twenty-one the air, enhancing the oxygen supply and although the food grown in them is. Soils, days later they had their first harvest, controlling noise pollution. soil building materials and compost will which was sufficient to produce a salad all be supplied locally. for each of the sixty-two shelter If we can use these AHGs to cultivate residents. family food security, improve nutrition EXPERIENCES and halt the poverty spiral, it is a wise The work of the Osceola County Childrens’ Plans are being developed with the investment. It will serve as a cost Home in Kissimmee, Florida, USA was Greater Albuquerque Habitat for efficient green space programme, that invaluable to the development and where Humanity to use the AHG as a way to decreases the need for food relief, the research actually began. The improve nutrition and teach important alleviates poverty, decreases crime and residents of this childrens’ home did life skills. The first garden for this promotes micro-enterprise. Aqua-Terra Gardens

Aqua-Terra Gardens is a newly formed corporation located in the heart of the United States, Springfield Missouri. Frank McNeely, owner and operator, has converted an unused old graining mill near the downtown area into an urban agriplex. The goal was to establish a facility that would address sustainable agriculture, use renewable energy and educate the public in these concepts. Frank McNeely Biodigester art of the old mill has been opened as grow tables. The so constructed as a year-round indoor farmers greenhouse area enables Aqua-Terra P market. Aqua Terra Gardens has Gardens to produce tomatoes, meters are lined with heavy mil plastic. also constructed small systems that cucumbers, lettuce, spinach and fish, that Pieces of Styrofoam with holes drilled in are adaptable to schools, universities, finds its way to the farmers market and to a pattern are used to grow lettuce, that low-income families and low-income local restaurants. after germination in rooting cubes, are communities to teach them how to grow placed in these holes and float in a a healthy food product in a small area. Located in the southwest corner of the mixture of nutrient solution and water. large building are three rooms that equal This is aptly named the Floating Bed type Many different items were used in the 528 m2 of floor space. The entire outer of hydroponics. A product from the bio- construction of Aqua-Terra Gardens, siding along the southwest wall was digester is used as an organic nutrient including bathtubs taken from a removed and replaced with two layers of solution instead of the conventional remodelled apartment complex, and the same polyurethane material that was chemical base or inorganic supplements corrugated metal siding lined with plastic used on the greenhouse. This used in many other large hydroponic construction allowed Aqua-Terra growing facilities. ______Gardens to transform a warehouse Another of the large rooms holds 60 Frank McNeely setting to three large hydroponic growing rabbits and 30 chickens, which supply ✉ [email protected] rooms. Rectangular tables of 1to 2.5 manure for the 7-stage bio digester

August 2003 27 located onsite. Aqua-Terra Gardens is ‘Worms turn garbage working in collaboration with “Integrated Agrisystems” an organization that does into gold in Lismore’ research in many different types of alternative agriculture. This particular type of digester is designed to take livestock If you’re into garbage, worms are the buzzword of the 21st Century and waste and through a special flow-through definitely in Lismore, Australia. Here, innovation in ecologically process produces a nutrient rich slurry, free sustainable development (ESD) has resulted is the biggest ‘state-of- from biological and chemical demand for the-art’, fully automated worm farm in the world, employing 10 million oxygen. Simply put, this product allows the worms to turn 6,000 tonnes a year of organic waste, into brown gold. use of an organic product into the water to supply the nutrient for hydroponic systems. The system also captures the resulting eeting the waste reduction targets runners’, who check every organics bin methane and reuses it to provide hearting requires an integrated approach to for contamination ahead of the collection for the rooms. M manage waste across several truck, and do a ‘blitz’ on issuing rejection fronts. Lismore City Council recognises stickers. This complements the ongoing A number of water ponds on the property that the key to successful waste quality control process, where each hold a variety of water plants for sale to the management for councils today, involves organics bin is inspected on pick-up for public. The waste from the fish feeds the innovative partnerships between local plastics, glass and other contaminants via water plants and the fish get much of their government and industry. In this colour cameras on the truck, and colour nutrients from the roots of these plants. particular case, synergistic effort monitors in the cabs. A staged procedure Inside the greenhouse there are four 324 between the Lismore City Council Waste of educational support, offers solutions litre tanks that hold Tilapia, a good Minimisation Department and Tryton to assist the household with each marketable fish that supply the nutrient Waste Services was required. After rejection sticker. In very few cases has solution for many grow beds. Tilapia is a overcoming many challenges in the Council been unable to work with the hardy, technological and management resident to find a solution, and withdraw disease solutions, particularly to managing a service. resistant fish contamination, both partners are now that grows reaping the rewards for their efforts. Involving and maintaining the goodwill rapidly and is of the community to separate their food a very light The three year action plan of the City waste, green waste, paper and cardboard tasting fish. Council sets out a program of waste into the organics bin, involves keeping Using the fish education projects and campaigns aimed people involved and informed. To this waste to feed at increasing the volume of organic end, Lismore City Council recently threw

Frank McNeely the plant is a resources, reducing contamination and open the doors to it’s waste facility and Hydroponics type of meeting householder, business, industry greeted over 500 visitors to a grand open alternative and school education needs. A major part day, with a welcome pack, a self guided agriculture of the approach is changing fundamental tour around the revolve centre, recycling that is a form of hydroponics called human behaviour through education. centre, compost demonstration area and . Like hydroponics, where one Programmes include learning packages gardens, worm farm and landfill. The suspends the root system of a plant into a for schools, including a half-day tour, day included 4WD guided tours, tours of nutrient rich solution for the plants growth and “sustainable school waste auditing” the worm farm and a number of cycle, aquaponics uses the already nutrient workshops. An education campaign ‘Do environmental theatre groups rich water from the fish and pumps it to The Right Bin’, features the ‘Lizzie’ worm performing waste reduction shows gravel grow beds where the plants uptake character (Lismore’s favourite recycler) throughout the day. It was considered a what nutrients they need. The natural self- as a way of connecting with children and great success and received much praise occurring bacteria living in the gravel cleans adults alike. Lizzie features in all from the community and local media. the water that is returned to the fish. educational advertising, for example on brochures, stickers, colouring books, Lismore City Council thinks it’s on the An important aspect of urban agriculture is newspaper, radio and television right track with a win/win system to dealing with the governmental entities that advertising. Lizzie also rewards those divert the available 75% of organic rule the city or area. As anyone who has recycling right with $50 gift vouchers, material from the waste stream into a renovated an old structure knows, there is a and an invitation to an afternoon tea useful product, returning it back to list of regulations one must follow to make with the Mayor, during the ‘Ambassador enrich the soil. With a solid approach to the building habitable for the public. The Competition’ (annual bin inspections). waste education and sound final aspect to the operation is education. contamination monitoring procedures, Aqua-Terra Gardens now hosts monthly Lismore’s contamination management Lismore is now diverting over 50% of aquaponic home kit classes. programme also includes annual ‘bin- waste to organic reprocessing through it’s Integrated Waste Service and feeling Visit the Aqua-Terra Gardens website: ______great about ESD! www.aqua-terragardens.com Lesley Trott, Lismore City Council’s (LCC) ✉ [email protected]

28 UA-Magazine located onsite. Aqua-Terra Gardens is ‘Worms turn garbage working in collaboration with “Integrated Agrisystems” an organization that does into gold in Lismore’ research in many different types of alternative agriculture. This particular type of digester is designed to take livestock If you’re into garbage, worms are the buzzword of the 21st Century and waste and through a special flow-through definitely in Lismore, Australia. Here, innovation in ecologically process produces a nutrient rich slurry, free sustainable development (ESD) has resulted is the biggest ‘state-of- from biological and chemical demand for the-art’, fully automated worm farm in the world, employing 10 million oxygen. Simply put, this product allows the worms to turn 6,000 tonnes a year of organic waste, into brown gold. use of an organic product into the water to supply the nutrient for hydroponic systems. The system also captures the resulting eeting the waste reduction targets runners’, who check every organics bin methane and reuses it to provide hearting requires an integrated approach to for contamination ahead of the collection for the rooms. M manage waste across several truck, and do a ‘blitz’ on issuing rejection fronts. Lismore City Council recognises stickers. This complements the ongoing A number of water ponds on the property that the key to successful waste quality control process, where each hold a variety of water plants for sale to the management for councils today, involves organics bin is inspected on pick-up for public. The waste from the fish feeds the innovative partnerships between local plastics, glass and other contaminants via water plants and the fish get much of their government and industry. In this colour cameras on the truck, and colour nutrients from the roots of these plants. particular case, synergistic effort monitors in the cabs. A staged procedure Inside the greenhouse there are four 324 between the Lismore City Council Waste of educational support, offers solutions litre tanks that hold Tilapia, a good Minimisation Department and Tryton to assist the household with each marketable fish that supply the nutrient Waste Services was required. After rejection sticker. In very few cases has solution for many grow beds. Tilapia is a overcoming many challenges in the Council been unable to work with the hardy, technological and management resident to find a solution, and withdraw disease solutions, particularly to managing a service. resistant fish contamination, both partners are now that grows reaping the rewards for their efforts. Involving and maintaining the goodwill rapidly and is of the community to separate their food a very light The three year action plan of the City waste, green waste, paper and cardboard tasting fish. Council sets out a program of waste into the organics bin, involves keeping Using the fish education projects and campaigns aimed people involved and informed. To this waste to feed at increasing the volume of organic end, Lismore City Council recently threw

Frank McNeely the plant is a resources, reducing contamination and open the doors to it’s waste facility and Hydroponics type of meeting householder, business, industry greeted over 500 visitors to a grand open alternative and school education needs. A major part day, with a welcome pack, a self guided agriculture of the approach is changing fundamental tour around the revolve centre, recycling that is a form of hydroponics called human behaviour through education. centre, compost demonstration area and aquaponics. Like hydroponics, where one Programmes include learning packages gardens, worm farm and landfill. The suspends the root system of a plant into a for schools, including a half-day tour, day included 4WD guided tours, tours of nutrient rich solution for the plants growth and “sustainable school waste auditing” the worm farm and a number of cycle, aquaponics uses the already nutrient workshops. An education campaign ‘Do environmental theatre groups rich water from the fish and pumps it to The Right Bin’, features the ‘Lizzie’ worm performing waste reduction shows gravel grow beds where the plants uptake character (Lismore’s favourite recycler) throughout the day. It was considered a what nutrients they need. The natural self- as a way of connecting with children and great success and received much praise occurring bacteria living in the gravel cleans adults alike. Lizzie features in all from the community and local media. the water that is returned to the fish. educational advertising, for example on brochures, stickers, colouring books, Lismore City Council thinks it’s on the An important aspect of urban agriculture is newspaper, radio and television right track with a win/win system to dealing with the governmental entities that advertising. Lizzie also rewards those divert the available 75% of organic rule the city or area. As anyone who has recycling right with $50 gift vouchers, material from the waste stream into a renovated an old structure knows, there is a and an invitation to an afternoon tea useful product, returning it back to list of regulations one must follow to make with the Mayor, during the ‘Ambassador enrich the soil. With a solid approach to the building habitable for the public. The Competition’ (annual bin inspections). waste education and sound final aspect to the operation is education. contamination monitoring procedures, Aqua-Terra Gardens now hosts monthly Lismore’s contamination management Lismore is now diverting over 50% of aquaponic home kit classes. programme also includes annual ‘bin- waste to organic reprocessing through it’s Integrated Waste Service and feeling Visit the Aqua-Terra Gardens website: ______great about ESD! www.aqua-terragardens.com Lesley Trott, Lismore City Council’s (LCC) ✉ [email protected]

28 UA-Magazine Experiments and tests using fermented human urine in the production of legumes, medicinal and aromatic plants in containers, began 10 years ago (1) in the Rural Research and Training Centre A.C. (CEDICAR). This cultivation system has been called “organoponics” or “urineponics”. It is a cost-effective system, saving money and water, is capable of producing an average of 25 kg of legumes per year per m2, and has been culturally accepted by most of the families and institutions with which we have worked.

Francisco J. Arroyo G.D. Organoponics: the Use of Human Urine in Composting

he main advantage of this cultivation ORGANOPONICS AND OTHER doubt, a strategic action that will help to system, especially where land is COMPONENTS OF URBAN achieve continuity and maintain family T scarce, is that after 10 months of AGRICULTURE gardens in good condition. growth, the initial substratum has The technique allows the recycling of The use of human urine as fertilizer in decomposed, resulting in compost, rich organic matter (used as substrata) and in organic matter. promotes the sorting of household Use of the ferment: wastes and the development of ❖ In organoponics, 3 litres per bucket with ORGANOPONICS household, neighbourhood and 19 litres of compressed leaves, (15 litres per The organoponic system developed in municipal composting centres. It also m2 of leaves, 20 cm deep). This is the initial Mexico, mainly in urban areas, is saves water, promoting dry, urine- dose. Then, it is diluted at a ratio of 10:1, (10 extremely simple. First, containers are separating toilets, which alleviates the parts water to 1 part ferment). A quarter of a filled with leaves and/or grass trimmings accidental discharges from toilets and litre of this is applied per bucket, three times up to 85% of their capacity. Then they are septic tanks reaching water bodies, a week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday). inoculated with fermented urine and causing their eventual eutrophication. ❖ On the soil, it is applied combined with filled with an additional 15% of topsoil. irrigation and/or rainwater in doses still being Finally, the seed is transplanted or sown. Although household gardens are not tested for different crops. conceived as a business or a small Composting activator: as urine ferments, Urine is fermented by placing one litre of undertaking, a 10 m2 garden can bring a significant populations of Actinomycets urine in a container and adding a family savings of 80 to 100 US$ per emerge, which are microorganisms especially spoonful of black soil, compost or month. The household diet is improved apt to degrade lignin and cellulose. For this vermicompost. It is left to sit without as healthy and fresh legumes become reason, it can be applied at a dose of 5 to 20 cover for 28 days. The process is more easily available. litres per m3 of carbon rich material, to completed when the smell of ammonia substitute and/or complement other manure. becomes pervasive and the colour The practice can be used as participatory changes from light yellow to dark brown. environmental education process for the (Consult www.laneta.apc.org/sarar) poorer segments of the population, which ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH will reinforce community ties and urban agriculture requires that it be The use of urine as fertilizer highlights the neighbourhood organizations. Gender developed as a local authority backed added benefits of dry toilets, as well as studies and surveys on the distribution of programme. Systems to collect, transport, edible backyard and rooftop gardens. household work are being conducted. The store, treat (ferment) and apply, need to be Families are also encouraged to donate provision of support and incentives to developed. The same farmers interested in their urine to the municipal system for environmentally conscious families needs using urine can take part in this treatment and use in peri urban agriculture. to be included in environment, public programme and develop an enterprise for service, health and economic policies of the handling both of urine and faeces and Urine is innocuous, its use is guaranteed local authorities. It would also be feasible their secondary treatments before being and carries no health risks (2). Most of the and desirable, for local authorities to set used as fertilizers. The role of the pathogens that cause human diseases die up urban agriculture divisions and municipality will be to facilitate these quickly once urine leaves the body. If some integrate urban agriculture into municipal activities and perhaps, find funds to subsist, the lactic bacteria and the agricultural initiatives. Having a municipal partially subsidize the process. Actinomycets would destroy them during greenhouse and composting centre that storage and during the fermenting process. supplies seedlings and compost is, without Notes 1) Based on a brochure published by the State of California, USA, written by Dr. Barbara Daniels ______(Fairfax California. USA, year unknown). MC. Francisco J. Arroyo G.D. 2) Vinneras Björn “Possibilities for sustainable nutrient recycling by fecal separation combined Co-ordinator CEDICAR and of the Urban Agriculture Network (Red Aguila – Mexicana) with urine diversion. Doctoral thesis. Swedish ✉ [email protected], www: laneta.apc.org/redseco. University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala 2002. Esrey A. Steve, et.al. “Cerrando el Ciclo. Saneamiento ecológico para la seguridad alimentaria. UNDP-SIDA. Mexico, 2001. August 2003 29 Easy to operate ‘Suame’ compost tumbler In Kumasi, Ghana, pollution and waste disposal problems are most acute in the periurban areas, where waste management services are seldom provided. These transitional areas are characterized by squalid and hazardous waste.

Container Composting Andrew Bradford in Periurban Kumasi, Ghana

aily domestic waste consists mainly ratio). To obtain a suitable C/N ratio, This method was chosen because of the of vegetable and fruit peelings materials with a high C/N ratio such as wide availability of clay, wooden and D (cassava, yam, coco yam and sawdust (C/N ratio up to 400), must be concrete building blocks in the localities. plantain) and wood ash, with only small mixed with materials with a low C/N The bins consist of a double-chamber with quantities of sand and plastic bags. such as chicken manure (C/N ratio of 7). wooden lids that cover each chamber. Composting domestic waste for use in If the C/N ratio is incorrect and there is Mortar can be used when a permanent urban agriculture is one strategy which too little nitrogen, decomposition will be structure is required. Otherwise the can be adopted at the household level. slow and the compost of low quality; and blocks can be left without, for temporary conversely if there is too much nitrogen use or portability (the blocks on the front CONTAINER COMPOSTING the compost will become putrid, acidic of the bins are better left unmortared to When left long enough, all organic matter and compact and the quality will provide easy access when removing the decomposes due to breakdown by deteriorate (Agromisa, 1999). Turning the compost.). Gaps are provided between the bacteria and other living organisms. pile and adding dry porous materials bricks in the bottom course to facilitate Composting is a method of controlling (carbon rich), such as leaves, sawdust, or airflow, while making holes with a sharp this process by accelerating the straw, can easily rectify this problem. stick and mixing the compost pile decomposition rate while also minimising provides additional aeration. The the nutrient loss. Backyard composting in COMPOSTING DEMONSTRATIONS chambers are filled sequentially and once residential areas requires suitable During a participatory action research the second chamber is full, the compost in composting containers to stop disease (PAR) project into community based the first chamber can be emptied and the vectors and vermin from being attracted waste management strategies, several mature compost stored until ready for use. to the compost pile, thereby ensuring that container-composting micro-projects Each compost bin is sufficient for a the composting process remains safe, were implemented at the household level household with an extended family. Larger hygienic, acceptable to local residents and in six periurban areas of Kumasi (1). The versions consisting of three high-capacity conforms to district and municipal micro-projects have been strategically chambers were also demonstrated. sanitation by-laws. Compost containers distributed at prominent points can be used to obtain the optimal throughout each of the six areas to Unlike the brick-built compost bins the decomposition conditions by regulating provide simple demonstrations that can ‘Suame compost tumbler’ has a smaller the air, humidity and temperature during be easily replicated by other community capacity and is therefore only suitable for the composting process. With appropriate members. By increasing the number and smaller households (2). It is designed to handling the decomposition rate can be distribution of micro-projects in each accelerate organic decomposition while greatly accelerated; good practices village and by conducting composting ensuring hygienic conditions are include the cutting up and shredding of workshops, the dissemination capacity is maintained; specific design features were the organic matter, sprinkling water on increased and a wider community included to ensure suitability for local the pile if it becomes too dry (dusty with audience can be reached. However, conditions and ease of use by children. ants), mixing the pile to increase aeration interventions must be well planned due The tumbler consists of a 250litre drum and keeping the container closed during to the time required for compost mounted horizontally onto a steel axis that heavy rains to prevent (the pile from) production, hence local people must be is supported by a frame made from 50mm water logging. actively participating in all stages of the angle iron. The opening is made by cutting planning and implementation process. out a section in the side of the barrel, For effective decomposition, it is equally which is then reattached with hinges and important to supply the microorganisms The main container-composting method a hasp to provide a means of closing the within the compost pile with the optimal being demonstrated was block-built barrel when tumbling the waste inside. carbon/nitrogen ratio of 25-30:1 (C/N compost bins (bricks may also be used). With the barrel in the upright position (door opening uppermost) two rows of six ______holes (4mm diameter) are added Andrew Bradford, Duncan McGregor and David Simon University of London, UK, ✉ [email protected] 30 UA-Magazine underneath the barrel to allow drainage then be emptied and is ready for use and compost bins, particularly the larger and 11 holes (4mm diameter) are added at the cycle can be started again. triple chamber container as the cost can each end of the horizontal drum to allow be divided by several households. additional aeration. PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS After construction of a compost bin or POLICY IMPLICATIONS Other container composting methods that allocation of a tumbler, the respective Separating and composting domestic were demonstrated included barrel household members received training in waste at the household level can lead to composting and vermicomposting (use waste separation and composting substantial decreases in waste outputs and of earthworms), both of which were techniques. In addition, information thus contribute to a cleaner environment, constructed using recycled materials found leaflets in both English and the local Twi particularly in periurban areas that are within the localities. Old 250litre drums language were distributed, which plagued by open waste dumps. can be used as composting containers provided clear instructions in Furthermore, composting and reusing simply by making aeration holes around environmental sanitation, household domestic organic waste is a means of the drum and providing a cover on top. waste separation and container recycling nutrients and restoring soil If the base of the barrel is still intact then composting. The demonstrations were fertility, contributing to soil structure and drainage holes need to be made in the monitored over several weeks during humus, increasing organic matter and base; any draining runoff that is collected which further training and technical improving the water holding capacity of (stand drum on some bricks and place assistance was provided, particularly if soils. However, the implementation of small container under drainage holes) can any problems had arose. backyard composting programmes be diluted 1:10 and used on crops as a requires substantial educational and liquid fertilizer. If the drum has no base it All the containers proved to be effective training inputs, with the beneficiaries can be placed directly on the underlying for decomposing organic waste, participating in all stages of the planning soil. Similarly, old 250litre drums or plastic particularly when good composting and implementation process. Successful drums can be used to build simple vermin- practices were followed (shredding of implementation can be enhanced through composting units. First aeration holes are organic materials and frequent aeration). providing demonstrations and information made around the drum before locating the Problems that have occurred have resulted leaflets and by conducting composting drum in a shaded area, place stones in the when containers are filled rapidly and the workshops. Financial assistance may also bottom up to a depth of 10cm for drainage, waste inside compacts and then putrefies. be required to purchase any required cover the stones with a perforated wooden Removing the top layers and increasing materials to build compost containers. board or nylon sacking with slits (which aeration of the remaining compost pile has stops the worms escaping while still remedied this. Teething problems were allowing drainage), add mature compost to also encountered with the compost a depth of 10cm for the worm bed and tumbler due to insufficient aeration holes, then add local varieties of red worms (e.g. which was easily rectified by making the Lumbricus rubellus) and brandling worms additional 11 holes (4mm diameter) at (e.g. Eisenia foetida). Then add a few each end of the horizontal drum. handfuls of organic waste to start the process, being careful not to overload the In economic terms the most cost- container, as until the worm population effective have been the containers that has increased they will only cope with were constructed from recycled materials small amounts of waste. Keep the compost and hence required no financial inputs. covered with several layers of damp These included the barrel composting newspaper or plantain and/or banana and vermin-compost containers and leaves sprinkled with water to prevent the unmortared block-built compost bins

compost from drying out. Once the constructed from recycled blocks. Andrew Bradford container is full, carefully remove the top Whereas the average construction cost of Block-built triple chamber compost 10cm of compost for use as the next worm each double chamber block-built bin being used at Apeadu Junior bed as it contains most of the worms. The compost bin was approx. EUR 13, the Secondary School, Kumasi remainder of the compost in the drum can construction cost of each compost tumblers was approx. EUR 58. Despite the compost tumbler being highly Notes 1) Acknowledgements to the Communities of Adagya, REFERENCES effective in decomposing small quantities Apeadu, Asago, Domeabra, Esereso and Kyerekrom for - Agromisa. 1999. Preparation and use of compost: their project participation. Research funded by the UK Agrodok-series No. 8. Agromisa Foundation and the of organic waste, the construction cost Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC grant no. Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation exceeds the purchasing power of many R42200134386). Micro-projects funded by the (CTA), Wageningen, the Netherlands. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), - Caincross, S. and Feachem, R. 1993. Environmental periurban farmers and therefore could Ghana Office. Research conducted in collaboration with Health Engineering in the Tropics: An Introductory Text. only be viable if financial assistance was IWMI, Ghana Office. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. 2) The tumbler is an outcome of collaborative work - GFA-Umwelt. 1999. Utilisation of Organic Waste in provided. Conversely, the wide between the Centre for Developing Areas Research, Royal (Peri-) Urban Centres. GFA Infrastruktur und Holloway, University of London and the Intermediate Umweltschutz GmbH, Bonn (GFA Umwelt), Deutsche availability of building blocks (both Technology Transfer Unit, Kumasi. Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH modern and traditional sun baked) (GTZ), Eschborn and Ingenieurgemeinschaft Witzenhausen Fricke & Turk GmbH (IGW), increase the viability of block-built Witzenhausen, Germany.

August 2003 31 Faecal Sludge Application for Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana

Tamale Municipality is the largest settlement in Northern Ghana with a sludge that is generated in the population of about 300,000. There is no functional sludge treatment municipality at the current collection facility in the city, and sludge is discharged into open lands and in volume. nearby streams on the fringes of the city. Part of the faecal sludge is used by Tamale farmers, on which this article reports. Through this practice, significant amount of plant nutrients in terms of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) is he area has distinct rainy and dry rural farmers who have been farming for returned into the soil, and in addition, the seasons and a unimodal rainfall many years in communities surrounding level of organic matter is gradually built T pattern with about 1000mm of rainfall Tamale, but now find themselves within up. Based on the average concentration per annum (Ghana Meteorological the expanding township boundaries. of nutrients in human excreta as reported Services Dept., 2002). The annual Crops cultivated are mainly maize, millet by Drangert, (1998), estimated amount of population growth rate is 2.7%. On the and sorghum (cereals). N, P, K and carbon in the applied sludge average, the Tamale urban area covers a is presented in Table 1. This estimate does radius of about 25-30 km from the central The preferred type of sludge in use is the not consider loss during sludge storage in core of the city in all directions (Balma, partially stabilized sludge from septic septic tanks and the amount lost in the 2003). Records of the Municipal tanks (septage). According to the farmers, field beyond the reach of plants. Sanitation Unit (MSU) show that an faecal sludge has been used in their average volume of 30.607m3 of faecal communities for the past 25 years. Its METHODS OF CULTIVATION sludge (FS) is generated annually. About effect in improving the productive WITH FAECAL SLUDGE 83% of the FS generated by the population capacity of the soil was identified as the The farmers employ two methods in is collected and disposed by the MSU, main reason for use. Higher crop yields sludge application for crop production: while 17% is disposed off by individual are obtained from fields fertilised by FS surface spreading and the ‘pit’ method. households, particularly those who use compared with other sources of organic the bucket type of toilet facilities. Toilet and inorganic fertilisers. Surface spreading of sludge involves the facilities are not adequate; hence 12% of discharge of faecal sludge at various the inhabitants resort to unorthodox From the farmers’ experience over the random points (accessible to the septic places of convenience. years, five trips of the suction truck with emptier), on the farmers’ plot. The period capacity 4.45m3 are used to fertilise one of application is during the dry season USE OF FAECAL SLUDGE BY acre of land (0.4 ha). This works out to an (end of October – December). In TAMALE FARMERS average application rate of about 56m3 February and March, at the end of the According to the MSU, there is no per hectare. dry season, the faecal sludge so applied particular single point for the disposal of becomes very dry, and farmers gather faecal sludge. Over ten locations are in Based on the current FS application rate and redistribute this material evenly on use around the city. The waste is disposed by farmers, about 550 hectares of land the field before cultivation. off on available land perceived to be in a can be fertilised annually using the faecal “convenient” environment. Although the MSU has no official reports on farm delivery of this waste, the suction truck Table 1. Estimated amount of nutrients applied in faecal sludge by Tamale farmers drivers reported that, farmers do request for the faecal sludge to be discharged on Nutrient concentration (kg) their lands during the dry season. Sludge is later incorporated into the soil at the Nutrient Total in human Total in kg/m3 Amount applied start of the farming season. Generally, faeces (kg/0.55m3) * (Kg/ha)** men are solely responsible for the acquisition and application of faecal Nitrogen (as N) 4.5 8.18 455 sludge, on all the farms. This is because men generally own land due to the Phosphorus (as P) 0. 1.09 61 traditional set-up, and there are no women’s fields. These are subsistence Potassium (as K) 1.2 2.18 121

______Carbon (as C) 11.7 21.27 1183 Isaac Asare, Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevic University for Development Studies, Tamale * Source: calculated after Drangert 1998 based on the nutrient concentration in human faeces per person-year. Olufunke. Cofie ** Approximately 56 m3 of raw sludge is applied per ha in Tamale IWMI-Ghana Office, Accra ✉ [email protected] 32 UA-Magazine REFERENCES - Asare I., 2002: Human Waste in Tamale, unpublished report, 16 p. - Balma, Y. 2003. Demarcating the peri-urban fringes of Tamale. Unpublished IWMI Internal Report, 11p - Drangert, J.O. (1998). Fighting the Urine Blindness to Provide More Sanitation Options. Water South Africa, Vol. 24, No. 2, April Ghana Meteorological Services Dept.: Annual Weather Records for 2002. ❖ Farmers who have fields near large - Laryea, J.A., 1998: Urban Waste management Techniques: The case housing areas are prevented by the

study of Ghana. In: Environmental Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevi neighbours to use faecal sludge due to its Management in West Africa: Proceedings of a seminar: pp291- Pit prepared in farmer’s field for bad odour. 292 storage and drying of faecal sludge ❖ Landowners do not allow farmers on - Owusu-Bennoah E.and Visker (1994). Organic wastes hijacked hired land to use sludge, despite its ILEIA Newsletter Oct 1994 12-13 positive effects on soil fertility. - Strauss, M., 2000: Contribution to ETC/SIDA, Bibliography on urban Over the years, farmers have been able to ❖ Some people shun the consumption of Agriculture: Human waste (Excreta and wastewater) Reuse. pp 9-22. take advantage of the savannah climate crops cultivated with faecal sludge. - Strauss, M. Udo, H. and in the use of faecal sludge. As shown in ❖ Excessive weed infestation after the Montangero, A., 1999: When Pits are Full- Selected issues in Feacal Figure 3, the long dry season starts application of faecal sludge. Sludge (FS) management. SANDEC around November and lasts till about end News No.4 January 1999. p18 of March/April every year. Temperatures CONCLUSIONS and solar radiation at that time of the There is a general consensus is that fresh year are high, while relative humidity is faecal sludge contains high levels of low (generally less than 50% and in some organisms that cause gastro-intestinal years as low as about 5% in January). infections (GI) in man (Strauss, 2000). It These conditions lead to effective drying is also necessary to study the health of the discharged sludge and allow the consequences of the long-term use of sludge to be handled easily during its faecal sludge and the consumption of incorporation into the soil. Moreover, the crops grown with this method in Ghana.

Gordana Kranjac-Berisavljevi health risk associated with use of FS is Faecal sludge is not processed or treated Discharged faecal sludge in reduced, as most microorganisms in any way before application on farmers’ farmers’ field in Tamale Municipality contained in the sludge would have been fields at present. In this condition, it inactivated due to the long drying period. poses an obvious threat to health of both farmers and suction track drivers The ‘pit’ method involves digging pits on By the time of the first seasonal rains involved in this process. the farms and placing of rice /maize (usually in April) the sludge is completely straw or bran at the bottom of the pit and dry and ready for use. It is then evenly Farmers are taking advantage of the local then pouring faecal sludge on the straw. distributed on the field prior to land climate to facilitate the drying and FS The FS is then covered with another layer preparation and planting. application. However, there is the need to of straw and this process is repeated until study the process thoroughly in order to the pit is full. This mixture is left to The farmers mention itching and swollen suggest sustainable measures for its long- compost for months (November to end of feet as main problems when term use. Future sanitation plans for March). Before cropping season starts, incorporating FS into soil during land Tamale, by the Municipal Sanitation Unit the pit is emptied and the dry mixture of preparation period. Related studies are in and other relevant agencies, should faecal sludge and straw applied evenly on progress to determine the extent of consider its consequences on this the field. health risk involved with the use of FS in enterprise. Tamale. Staff of MSU who convey FS to The ‘pit’ method is not as widely used as farmers’ fields (mostly septic tanker Further studies on this practice is on the surface spreading method because it drivers) while fresh, are also being going, with the objective of documenting requires quite large quantities of crop studied regarding the health risks they the impact of sludge use on agricultural residue in combination with the faecal are exposed to in the course of their productivity, livelihoods and health of the sludge. Nevertheless, those farmers who work. farmers in Tamale. Perhaps the farmers’ can spare enough crop residues favour ingenuity in the use of FS is a worthwhile the method. Advantages of the ‘pit’ PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED consideration as an alternative method of method are in easier FS application and WITH THE USE OF THE SLUDGE sludge disposal with a view of reducing mixing with soil when dry, and BY TAMALE FARMERS environmental pollution, while at the improvement of soil characteristics, such During focus group discussions with same time supplying the needed input for as bulk density (BD), etc. This method farmers, the following problems emerged crop production. has been used for over 20 years, and is an as affecting the use of FS for crop ingenious innovation; which according to cultivation: The authors are very grateful for the farmers interviewed in 2002, has not ❖ Increased urban population, resulting encouragement as well as the been introduced by any particular in agricultural lands being turned into financial support of IWMI Ghana agency. human settlement areas. office.

August 2003 33 Conversion of Urban Waste to Energy by Anaerobic Digestion Vijayaraghavan Bag digester Although the technology of generating and using biogas dates back 3000 years (Lusk 1997), it is still seen as a risky and new technology. In Malaysia, about 41% of the land area is cultivated. Urban agricultural activities Bag digester improve food security and income generation, and enhance public health by Bag digester is essentially a long cylinder providing more food and a diversified diet, but also by improving resource (length: diameter 3:14) made of PVC, a management through excreta, wastewater and organic solid waste reuse. Neoprene coated nylon fabric, or “red mud plastic” (RMP), a proprietary PVC. The digester acts essentially as a plug flow n Malaysia around 60% of waste anaerobic digestion will reduce green reactor. The Taiwanese evolved the bag generated arises from urban sector house gases (GHG) and generate energy. digester primarily to treat swine manure, I consisting mainly of sewage, domestic due to its low cost and excellent durability. and agricultural solid waste, whereas the TYPES OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS One advantage of the bag is that its walls agro-industrial contributes to 20% and are thin, so the digester contents can be the rest from the industrial sector and Batch and Dry type digester heated easily if an external heat source, construction. The existing treatment This is the simplest of all the processes. such as the sun, is available. The average method for solid urban waste is either by The operation involves merely charging temperatures in bag digesters, compared landfills, composting or incineration, an airtight reactor (made out of concrete, with dome types, are 2° - 7°C higher. whereas in the case of sewage aerobic brick wall or MS / SS with epoxy coating) oxidation process is adopted, resulting in with the substrate, a seed inoculum’s Plug Flow digester huge power input and land area for the (sewage sludge or cow dung), and in A typical plug flow reactor consists of a treatment process. some cases a chemical (regularly a base) trench lined with either concrete or an The Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur to maintain almost neutral pH. The impermeable membrane. To ensure true and Selangor State alone generates reactor is then sealed, and fermented. plug flow conditions, the length has to be approximates 8300 tons/d of urban When fermented with a solids content considerably greater than the width and waste out of which 60% is organic with a (6 - 10%) is known as batch digestion, depth. The reactor is covered with either a total solid content of 30% and a volatile and solids concentrations (>20%) is flexible cover gasholder, anchored to the solid content of 70%. By adopting known as “dry” fermentation. ground, or with a concrete or galvanized anaerobic process, assuming the digester iron top. In the latter type, a gas storage efficiency as 50% and the biogas Fixed Dome digester vessel is required. The inlet and outlet to produced as 0.72 m3/kg of VS destroyed Fixed Dome (Chinese) digester was built the reactor are at opposite ends, and could have resulted in 15,687 m3/hr in Jiangsu, China as early as 1936. The feeding is carried out semi-continuously, biogas with a net power generated as 683 reactor consists of a gas-tight chamber with the feed displacing an equal amount MWh/day. constructed of bricks, stone or poured of effluent at the other end. The first concrete. Both the top and bottom of the documented use of this type of reactor Malaysia’s palm oil sector is a major reactor are hemispherical, and are joined was in South Africa in 1957 (Fry 1975). source of renewable energy in which 360 together by straight sides. The gas mills churn out 30 million tons of empty produced during digestion is stored Anaerobic filter fresh fruit bunches (EFB) every year. For under the dome and displaces some of In order to reduce reactor volume, a unit every ton of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) the digester contents into the effluent known as the immobilized growth processed about 0.9 m3 of effluent is chamber. digester has been evolved. One of the generated with a COD of 52,000 mg/l. earliest and simplest types of this design Assuming the digester efficiency as 70% Floating Dome digester was the anaerobic filter. This typically and gas generation as 0.42 m3/kg of COD Floating Dome (Indian or KVIC Design) consists of a tall reactor (H/D = 8 - 10) destroyed. The amount of biogas biogas technology has developed since filled with media on, or in which the generated per ton of (FFB) processed 1937. In 1950, Patel designed a plant with organisms can grow or become would be 13.75 m3. Hence, adopting a floating gasholder, which caused entrapped, like river pebbles or plastic renewed interest in biogas in India. The media. The advantage of attached growth ______digester is designed for 30 to 55 days of process is that it can overcome toxic Dr.K.Vijayaraghavan retention time. The main material fed is effect, organic shock loadings and low Prof.Abdul Rashid Mohamed Shariff cattle manure. The drum was originally biomass washout from the reactor. Prof.Mohd. Amin Mohd. Soom made of mild steel, and later on replaced Department of Biological and Agricultural to fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP). Anaerobic Baffled Reactor Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University The reactor is a simple rectangular tank, Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Malaysia ✉ [email protected] 34 UA-Magazine with physical dimensions similar to a The main applications of this design are difficult. Wash water from domestic or septic tank, and is divided into five or six likely to be for treating particulate waste animal holding area or primary sludge or equal compartments, by means of of <8% total solids concentration, where treated sewage / industrial wastewater partitions from the roof and bottom of some settling will occur. can be used for dilution purpose as it also the tank The liquid flow is alternately serves as recycle. upward and downward between the Closed Type Anaerobic Lagoon partitions, and on its upward passage the Anaerobic lagoon has the advantage of Loading Rate: Loading rate normally waste flows through an anaerobic sludge handling wide waste characteristics ranges between 1.0 to7.2 kg VS/m3day, on blanket, of which there are five or six. including solids, oil and grease. The main average its between 1.5 to 3 kg VS/m3day. Hence the waste is in intimate contact disadvantage is that it requires a large Above 3.2 kg VS/m3day toxicity of with active biomass, leading to higher land area, inefficiency in feed flow ammonia limiting may occur depending treatment efficiency. distribution and maintenance of geo- on the feed material and at any cost the membrane cover loading should not exceed 6.4 kg Anaerobic Contact Process VS/m3day This process in similar to the aerobic The choice of the anaerobic reactor activated sludge process, in that cell selection depends on individual Desired Retention Time: The minimum recycling is used to maintain high perception. Normally attached growth retention time is 15 to 20 day, depending biological solids retention at low HRT. process are not employed for treating on the loading rate, type of feed material, The first recorded instance of use of the waste containing high solids mixing of digester content and type of anaerobic contact process occurred in concentration (> 3-4%), as it may lead to digester, the retention may be increased 1955 for treating meat packing house clogging in the packing media. to have maximum treatment efficiency. waste (Schroepfer et al. 1955). DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Digester Mixing: This is done in order to Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Design of anaerobic installations, is based have a homogenous condition This process was developed by Lettinga on a fundamental understanding of the et al. (1979) in the Netherlands. The anaerobic processes, the type of waste, the reactor consists of a circular tank (H/D = amount of dilution water to be added, 2) in which the waste flows upward loading rate and the desired retention time through an anaerobic sludge blanket with minimum “washout” of biomass. comprising about half the volume of the reactor. An inverted cone settler at the Control Parameters In Anaerobic Process: top of the digester allows efficient solid- The raise in digester temperature should liquid separation. not be more than 1˚C/day as it will lead to thermal shocking, optimum pH range Inclined Tubular digester (6.5-8.5) and volatile acids content in the The inclined tubular digester is a digester (200-1500 mg/l). The ammonia

modified form of the horizontal which results from protein degradation Vijayaraghavan displacement digester. The digestion should not be more than 3000mg/l as Closed type anaerobic lagoon vessel is tubular, but inclined at an acute ammonium ion and 150mg/l as free NH3. angle to the horizontal. Thus, the main advantages of a horizontal displacement Type Of Waste: The primary limitation on throughout the reactor with respect to digester are retained, while the exposed livestock waste loading rates is the high pH, temperature and volatile fatty acid surface area of the digester contents, nitrogen (N) content compared to its concentration. where scum and crusts can form, is carbon (C) content. The ratio of carbon to minimized. It is also mechanically nitrogen in the waste added to the CONCLUSION simpler to remove any scum and crust. digester should be 20 parts C to one part The Biogas can either be used as fuel for N for optimum methane production. burning lanterns, for cooking in domestic Crop residues and leaves, which are or other uses. Adopting the anaerobic REFERENCES usually low in nitrogen content but high digestion in the (urban) agricultural - Fry, L.J. (1975) Practical Building of Methane Power Plants for Rural Energy in carbon, could be useful in improving sector would help to treat the waste and Independence, D.A. Knox, Andover, digester performance. Mixing crop would benefit the community in term of Hamsphire, USA. - Lettinga, G., van Velsen, A.F.M., de Zeeuw, residue with high nitrogen livestock value added return in the form of biogas W. and Hobma, S.W. (1979) Proc. Nat. Conf. Environ. Engin., Am. Soc. Civil Engin., New waste provides a more favourable C:N / power and nutrient. The anaerobically York p. 35. ratio for biogas production. digested sludge is useful not only for - Levanon, D., Dosoretz, C., Motro, B. and Kahan, I. (1983) Mushroom News, 31(4):16- raising the fertility of soil, improving soil, 19. Amount Of Dilution Water: The maximum increases agricultural production, but - Lusk, P. (1997) Biogas and More. Systems and Markets Overview of Anaerobic solids content in the feed material to the also be used for feeding fish, finless eel, Digestion. IEA Bioenergy Task 24. digester can be 12%, above which causes earthworm and pigs, breeding silkworm - National Office for Biogas Development and Extension (1982) Biogas in China. frequent choking of feed pump and and hatching chickens. Beijing, People’s Republic of China. - Schroepfer, G., Fullen, W.J., Johnson, A.S., mixing of digester content become Ziemke, N.T. and Anderson, J.J. (1955) Sewage and Industrial Waste, 27(4):460-86.

August 2003 35 In India, night soil and wastewater reuse in agriculture is a traditional practice followed in irrigation for centuries. West Bengal is the pioneering state with 279 wastewater fed farms on an area of 4000 hectares, supplying more than 13,000 tonnes of fish per year to customers in the city. De Borhegyi (FAO) Carp raised in aquaculture pond in India Waste-Fed Fisheries freshwater giant prawns in a in Periurban Kolkata wastewater pond receiving wastewater at a ratio of 1:3, yielded about 500 kg/ha/8 he use of municipal garbage fed horticulture and months is another trial (Ghosh wastewater to fertilize ponds irrigated rice production. et.al., 1985). In general, fish yields T began in Kolkata in the from wastewater fed ponds are thirty’s, and it is now perhaps the EXISTING CULTURE 2 – 4 times higher than those from largest wastewater fed PRACTICES ordinary fish culture practices. aquaculture system in the world The culture practice of fish is (Nair, 1944; Jhingran, 1991). basically a composite system ACHIEVEMENTS Kolkata is a metropolis of 14 using different species of fish, AND FUTURE million inhabitants. The Kolkata which utilize different ecological The sewerage based fish culture periurban area especially where niches of pond ecosystem. The with its ancillary activities in wastewater fish farming is poly-culture practices followed in Kolkata, provides employment to practiced supports the livelihood wastewater fed fish farms are about 30,000 people on full time of a large number of people Indian Major Carp, (IMC: i.e. L. basis. There are thirteen through waste recycling and rohita, C. catla and C. mrigala), Fishermen’ cooperatives and 38 natural resource use. It is Exotic Carps and Tilapia poly- Fish Production Groups formed uniquely privileged in having a culture system. In some places by the Department of Fisheries of built-in tradition of using urban also mourala (Amblipharyngodon Kolkata. (One of the fishermen’ waste in fisheries and agriculture. mola) and freshwater giant prawn cooperatives on lotus culture The city sewage undergoes bio- (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) have already was formed 75 years ago). treatment through production of been tried. Apart from these, two Plans are underway to set up a profitable protein and additional species of Indian carps cooperative for women involved environmental purification along (Labeo bata, Labeo calbasu) and in making by products from with employment generation. one exotic carp (H. nobilis) also fisheries. In addition, there is have been introduced in Kalyani several eco tourism The vast low-lying area to the Sewage fed fishponds. developments, for example, the eastern fringe of the city is Nalban Boating Complex and the popularly known as East Kolkata In an attempt to utilize Mudiali Nature Park which is Wetlands (EKW). The tradition of wastewater for the large scale of managed by a Fishermen’ waste recycling is now in danger tilapia, Ghosh et al. (1980) Cooperative, and provides shelter and under threat of observed that the production was to 10,000 migratory birds. encroachment, by urbanisation. not affected even at very high The wetland ecosystem of levels of ammoniac-nitrogen The Department of Fisheries is Kolkata is a delicate, complex and concentration of 5.13 milligrams trying to raise funds for the under studied area, which per litre. (The maximum improvement of the East Kolkata requires immediate attention for permissible concentration of Wetlands. This money will be the survival of the city. The 3 ammonia is about 0.1 milligrams utilized for increasing the depth main production systems of this per litre). However, the pH level of the ‘bheries’ (the embankment area, are sewage fed aquaculture; at 8.4 and the oxygen levels at of fishponds) by one meter, 4.4miligrams were at the most developing more eco-tourism ______favourable levels for production, facilities, reconstructing the Madhumita Mukherjee which yielded volumes between residential ‘kuchcha’ houses (built Dept. of Fisheries, Govt. of West Bengal, India 8100 – 9400 kg/ha/yr. Similarly, of bamboo/clay/tiles) into ✉ [email protected]/ [email protected] in Titagarh, the production of ‘pakka’houses (built of brick and

36 UA-Magazine Canal side plantation

cement); support fish markets; and to Wastewater canal support to the plantation of medicinally important plants. Canal side plantation Canal side plantation in let It is reported that only 30% of the total wastewater is used for aquaculture or Dyke plantation Dyke plantation irrigation purposes. The rest 70% of the wastewater is directly discharged into the Bay of Bengal, which pollutes the total Wastewater-fed estuarine region, and subsequently pond reduces aquatic biodiversity, causes Water hycinth large-scale deaths of fish seeds. culture pond Therefore, if the aquaculture farmers would use most of the wastewater, this problem may be mitigated. out let

Recent advances in information and data processing technologies have dramatically A schematic diagram of sewage-fed fish farming increased the capacity to analyse complex multiple resource-use options and to link up large numbers of people into Where the canal bed and adjacent area is integrated farming should be started for integrated decision–making structures. not suitable for plantation, the different the best possible utilization of farm space There has also been new research on types of animal fodder crops could be and optimum reuse of waste. It is industrial ecology, where the waste grown. Such species are very resistant, economic as well as environmental product of one process is used as an input need little care and creates new market friendly. Ducks, poultry, dairy, pigs, and for others. Improved management along opportunities for the local people. This goat farming could be started along with the industrial ecology model in Kolkata, new dimensional farming system may the fish culture. Dyke cultivation is also a would ensure the utilization of waste from also encourage livestock farming in this part of integrated farming. one sector by another, but also improve region. Fodder crops absorb some environment quality, improve food amount of pollutants from the The involvement of fishing community security and guarantee employment. wastewater and so it has an added women in integrated farming efforts economic and ecological value. needs to be encouraged. They should also A SUGGESTED MODEL be assisted in increasing the production The dense plantations on the canal side The farmers should further be of fish by-products such as dried fish maintain the environmental stability encouraged to start dyke plantation on pickles. This would enhance their through preservation and restoring the the ‘bheries’, embankments of fishponds. economic stability as well as they dignity ecological balance. It controls soil erosion Dyke farming is essentially about and social status. as plants can absorb some amount of gathering excavated mud on the dyke of The author also recommends that every pollutants from wastewater and produce the pond on which vegetables such as cooperative society maintain a nutrient rich water for aquaculture. These drumstick tree (Sagne), mustard, and freshwater pond, where the harvested mangrove plans (such as Neem, Banyan, sunflowers can be grown. Dyke farming fish are stocked for one day. This will Kadom, Mango, and Guava) decrease the could also control the soil erosion, enable the remaining sewage odour and pollution level of wastewater and as well increase space for farming and to any pathogens to be removed from the as produce fruits, which bring an extra maintain the ecological balance of the harvested fish. income for the local people. wetland ecosystem. The independent and government fishermen’ cooperatives This holistic approach will only be Mainly different types of large, fruit could start lotus farming inside fish possible if social planners, who have a bearing plants are used upstream (where culture ponds. Lotus farming attracts pivotal role to play in this process, engage the soil is not saline) of the wastewater aquatic insects and birds, which helps in in sensible land use planning. This no or canals of Kolkata. Neem, Banyan, Kadom, pollination. The lotus flower itself has a low waste industrial ecology system for Mango, Guava etc. are planted on the high economic importance; it is the the East Kolkata Wetland, has been both side of the wastewater canals. national flower of India. designed to involve people’s Downstream of the canals, where the soil participation, aiming at increasing and water characteristic is saline, INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE economic growth and environment different mangrove plants are used in In the waste-fed zone of Kolkata, sustainability. plantation programme. The plants are mainly Sundari, Garan, Kankara, Keya, etc. These plants are able to control the REFERENCES - Ghosh, A., L.H. Rao and S.K. Saha, 1980. Culture prospects of Sarotherodon mossambicus in small ponds fertilized with soil erosion as well as maintain the domestic wastewater. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India, 12: pp. 74 – 80. ecological stability of this zone. - Ghosh, A., G.N. Chattopadhyay and A.B. Mukherjee. 1990. A modular project for recycling sewage effluents through aquaculture and its economic validity. In: P. Edwards and R.S.V. Pullin (eds.), wastewater-fed aquaculture, Proc. Int. Sem. Wastewater reclamation and reuse for aquaculture, Calcutta, India, pp. 111 – 118. - Jhingran, V. G., 1991. Fish and Fisheries of India. Hindustan publishing corporation (India) 3rd ed., Delhi. - Nair, K. K., 1944. Calcutta Sewage irrigation fisheries. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 10: pp. 459-462. August 2003 Improving Agro-Enterprises in Duong Lieu Commune, Vietnam

Dong Lieu commune in Hay Tay province separated starch by hand, and only one Duong Lieu developed technologies lies some 20km from Hanoi. The area is separation was enough. Canna starch on appropriate for the nature of the roots traditionally agricultural but has, since the other hand, is difficult to extract and is and starch and the profitability (Table 3). the late 1960’s, specialized in household- usually separated by feet action in order to level root crop – cassava and canna – apply one’s body weight to extract the THE CONSTRAINTS—HOW THEY processing, due to its proximity to Hanoi starch. However, it requires less time to EMERGED and access to its growing markets. settle and less time to drain. One As the starch processing developed, a Since that time this processing capacity interesting technology employed by the starch-based cluster of enterprises has increased 3-10 times. cassava starch processors, is the use of a emerged in support or in association with layer of ash on a piece of cloth laid over the starch processing. The ever-increasing starch in order to draw out the moisture. enterprises are packed in the small village he average cassava processing has Once the starch is sufficiently dry, the ash is area, with little space to operate and no increased from 0.05 tons/hh/day in taken outside, along with the cloth, to dry. space to expand. The major constraints T 1978 to 3 tons/hh/day in 2001, while facing the starch processors are not the the average canna processing has The profitability has also affected the technologies, as they are developed increased from 0.04 tons/hh/day in the development of the technologies used for appropriately, but the limited space and 1960’s to 9 tons/hh/day (partly because of cassava and canna starch processing the constraints to production associated increased demand and also because of (Table 2). Processors were more willing to with it. improved technologies). The volume of invest in canna starch, because it roots handled by each trader has increased provided higher profits when larger As starch processing activities increased by 200 to 300% over recent time. Of the buyers from the south came to Duong over the years, the procurement of the 2,193 households in the commune, 1410 Lieu in search of cassava starch for raw material (i.e., the roots) became households (64%) are directly involved in industrial purposes. Once cassava starch increasingly problematic, as the village root crop processing, while others supply began to yield higher profit, separators for was not set up to accommodate the root raw materials, trade end products, make cassava starch emerged. trading in an organized manner. Since use of by-products, or provide a wide the village is already congested and the range of support services (Table 1). Until then, the separating machines were interior roads are too small to be passable generally purchased for canna processing. by truck, all root trading must be handled Pig farming using the residues from In addition to investing in separating in one market location. cassava processing, as a major feed machines some processors were observed ingredient is a common supplemental to employ the “sour-liquid method” (a During the processing season, the livelihood activity in the root crop method of applying a certain amount of women queue for hours (some claim 3-4 processing households. Approximately the used processing liquid to balance the hours) to obtain roots before pushing or 1409 or 64% of households raise pigs. pH level of the settling water), and a pulling the heavy cartload back home. Only 4% of households obtain a starch-stirring machine, both of which Thus, much time and labour is wasted on livelihood from crop production alone. In were designed to improve extraction rates. root procurement. the 2000/1 processing season Such elaborate processing procedures have (approximately September to April) the not been applied to cassava starch There is also limited space for drying starch commune processed 680 tons of cassava processing. or starch sheets for noodles. Many roots and 314 tons of canna roots daily. processors push cartloads of starch to the In summary, the processing procedures fields and spread them out to dry in the DEVELOPMENT for cassava and canna are quite different morning, and return in the afternoon to OF THE TECHNOLOGIES from one another, as the processors in collect them. Again, depending on the Cassava and canna are different crops, in the type of roots, properties of the starch, and different profitability of the starch. Table 1. Household types in Dong Lieu, Cassava starch contains cyanide which defined by their main economic activity requires the skin to be peeled, and peeled roots to be well washed, for food safety. Household type Number As % of households Canna on the other hand has a more in commune uniform shape, which makes peeling easier. Agricultural production (only) 98 4 Cassava processing 656 30 The cassava starch is easy to extract; Canna processing 143 6 therefore up until 2001 most processors Starch filtering 300 12 Maltose production 146 6 ______Noodle production 150 6 Dai Peters, SIUPA-Hanoi, Vietnam Other 786 36 ✉ [email protected] 38 UA-Magazine Table 2. The difference in profitability of cassava and canna starch and how it has affected the development of processing methods. wide range of starch products for export. Profitability Implications for processing However, the two aspects of the Cassava Starch prices were ❖ Processors did not invest in separating production systems that impressed the generally low machines and most separated starch by hand Duong Lieu delegation the most were the until 2001 until the prices became higher in 2001 continuous filtering tank system, which Canna Due to the popularity ❖ Most processors invested in separating accounted for the high quality of the of canna noodles, machines, those who didn’t, separated starch, and the way the wastes were canna starch prices 2-3 times to increase extraction. processed and disposed. are generally higher ❖ Some also were willing to invest in “sour liquid” (i.e., to balance the pH level) and stirring Upon returning from the visit, the machines to increase extraction. community brainstormed the idea of creating a processing zone in Duong Lieu, derived from the need to create a space to location of the house in relation to the field, POLICIES, TRAINING, AND accommodate the continuous filtering tank this can also be a time-consuming activity. SUPPORT FOR ENTERPRISE system and a better-organized processing DEVELOPMENT set up. In the discussion, it became clear The limited space also contributes to low After an extensive study of the situation, that the processing zone they envisioned starch quality, as there is not enough and during a stakeholders’ meeting with was very similar to that established in room to set up various settling tanks to the community leaders and processors, Pingying County in Shandong Province, produce high quality starch. The starch the main constraints to enterprise China, where further lessons can be quality is further adversely affected by development were identified as limited learned and training arranged. drying on the very dusty or muddy space, wasted labour, and environmental roadside, as there is limited space pollution. The constraints were evident, CONCLUSIONS available for drying. Thus, the limited but solutions were not so clearly obvious. The improvement of an agro-enterprise, space has resulted in serious wasted whether urban, periurban, or rural, labour and low starch quality. Subsequently, a trip to Dong Nai Province requires the accurate identification of in southern Vietnam, to visit some where the problems and constraints lie. In addition to the adverse effects it has on medium-size processors was organized In the case of Duong Lieu processing, the production, the confined space has caused and funded by SIUPA, to generate ideas processing technology was developed another serious problem—environmental for possible solutions. A visiting appropriately and effectively. The pollution—as starch processing generates a delegation consisting of five people from problems were limited space, wasted large amount of wastewater and solid Duong Lieu: two small processors, one labour, and environmental pollution. matter. On average, processing one ton of large processor, one processing machine The solution came from within the cassava roots generates 10.7 m3 of manufacturer, and one commune official community itself, when they observed wastewater, while processing the same in charge of local enterprises. other production systems and compared amount of canna generates 12.9 m3. it with the constraints they were facing. Duong Lieu processed 75,000 tons of In Dong Nai, the delegation observed Concrete steps to implementing the cassava roots and 50,000 tons of canna production systems, where processors solution may be learned in another visit roots during the 1999/2000 processing were fewer in number than Duong Lieu, to a processing zone of the similar nature. season, thus generating almost 1.45 million but larger in production sizes, processing m3 of wastewater during this season. At 20-30 tons of roots per day per household. This is a case of an innovative and the same time, an average of 47% of These medium-sized processors used participatory approach that has cassava roots and 33% of canna roots were more modern and advanced technologies empowered the local population to turned into solid waste material. Thus, in and produced higher-quality starch. In solve problems and overcome the 1999—2000 season, and estimated addition to starch, they also produce a constraints. 51,750 tons of solid wastes were generated.

Nearly all of the inhabitants in the Table 3. Summary of the differences in cassava and canna starch processing processing villages said that the solid waste procedures. was odorous and unsightly. Most of the people in the processing village have had Cassava Canna Reason for difference solid waste dumped in front of their Peeling Peeled Not peeled Nature of roots houses, which has been a source of conflict Washing Well washed Roughly washed by hand Nature of roots among the residents. The most notable by machine impact in the non-processing village was Separating Separate once Separate 2-3 times either Starch properties the processing wastewater in the canals. (starch either by hand by feet or by machine Profitability The residents in the non-processing village extraction) or by machine May use “sour liquid method” often complained about the pollution and and a stirring machine also odour and pleaded for solutions. Settling 8-12 hours 4 hours Starch properties Draining 12 hours 3 hours Starch properties Withdraw With ash None Starch properties August 2003 moisture Treatment of Organic Household Waste Used as Pig Feed in Montevideo

The population of Uruguay is highly concentrated in urban centres. More REFERENCES than 90% live in cities and 42.5% of the country’s population is found in -Anchieri, L.; Lozano, W.; Vitale, E.; Montevideo, the capital. Over the last decade the socio-economic crisis and Lozano, A.; Krul, C.; Castro, G. and Rodríguez, D. 2000. Estudio experimental an increase in unemployment forced a growing number of people to resort to sobre el tratamiento de los residuos alternative strategies to ensure their survival and the survival of their orgánicos destinados a la alimentación de suinos y su efecto sobre la viabilidad de families. The informal collection, sorting and sale of household waste, is one formas juveniles de Trichinella spiralis. Magazine In Vet, Veterinary Sciences of the most widespread activities and is strongly related to the domestic School, vol. 2, nº 1. Buenos Aires, breeding of animals (mostly pigs and poultry). It is estimated that 25% of the Argentina. - Anchieri, L.; Rodríguez, D.; Tommasino, 5,312 sorters (informal waste collectors) that roam the streets of Montevideo H.; Vitale, E.; Castro, G.; Lozano, A. and (IMM, 2002) gather 175.2 tons of organic waste per week, which is used to López, C. 1998. Tratamiento de residuos sólidos domiciliarios para la alimentación feed pigs in urban and per urban areas. de cerdos a fin de evitar posibles zoonosis. 1st Latin American Congress on Emerging Diseases. Buenos Aires, Argentina, April 14 - 17. - Municipal Intendance of Montevideo. unicipal authorities are usually Based on this reality, the Veterinary 2002. Census of informal collectors. reluctant to accept this productive School of Montevideo developed a series -Santandreu, A.; Castro, G. and Ronca, F. 2000. Urban pig farming in irregular M activity because of the of experiments aimed at assessing and settlements in Uruguay. Urban Agriculture environmental and health risks it entails. commercialising technologies for the Magazine, vol. 1, nº 2, October. The Netherlands. However, and in spite of the norms and processing and collection of organic regulations prohibiting it, it is practiced waste, to be used as pig feed. The on a significant scale. objectives are also to ❖ Reduce risks for public health and CONCLUSION SEEKING ALTERNATIVES FOR THE animals The experience shows that this MANAGEMENT OF PIG FEED ❖ Lower environment impact technology (controlled fermentation), Due to the fact that feed represents 70% ❖ Ensure the technologies are applied at small scale, is very useful for to 80% of the total production cost of a economically viable the treatment of household organic pig farm, they tend to establish near cities ❖ Ensure that they are replicable in waste, making contributions to four (and sometimes within cities), because it cities and countries with similar aspects: is in cities that the availability of pig feed problems (Anchieri et al, 1998; Anchieri ❖ Health: the fermenting process kills is concentrated (as by-products of the et al, 2000). microorganisms and parasites that cause food industry and household waste). Pig serious diseases both for humans and breeding in informal urban habitats In order to do this, the University used animals. (although illegal), implies a significant the organic household waste collected by ❖ Environment: fermenting and storing reuse and recycling of organic household informal collectors in Montevideo. The organic waste in a controlled place, waste, although in many cases this waste was placed in 200 litre containers facilitates handling, decreases unpleasant generates environmental problems and and submitted to a controlled odours, ensures clean facilities, public health risks (Anchieri et al, 1998). fermentation process with an addition of considerably lowers the presence of molasses (a by-product rich in rodents, flies and other insects, helping Traditionally, organic waste is given to carbohydrates obtained from the to control the vector-borne diseases). animals with no prior treatment and, if processing of sugarcane) and a proteolitic ❖ Nutrition: although the fermentation treatment is performed, it consists yeast (Hansenula Montevideo). The process does not improve the nutritional heating the waste. This is costly and product remained under observation for values of the waste itself, it favours the harmful, as the materials generally used 45 days; samples were taken every day to assimilation thereof by the animals, by for combustion, car covers and plastic, verify variations in pH (acidity) and every hydrolysing proteins and lowering pH. emit toxic gases when burnt. On the 5 days for microbiological indicative In addition, the product lasts longer, other hand, the risk of zoonosis (such as analyses (total coliforms and Escherichia making it available at times when it brucellosis, leptospirosis, trichinosis and coli). Also, meat morsels experimentally would otherwise be scarce. cysticercosis) increases when pigs are fed infested with Trichinella spiralis ❖ Socio-economic: the entire controlled with untreated waste. (trichina) were introduced in the fermentation process requires labour and containers and removed 15 days later to as become a source of employment for ______verify whether the larvae had survived or the family. Daniel Rodríguez not. During the process, the pH dropped Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fishery to 4.3 and total coliforms and Escherichia Delvey Anchieri, Alejandra Lozano, coli disappeared 15 days after the Gustavo Castro, Edgardo Vitale treatment began. Trichina larvae lost Veterinary School, Winston Lozano, Medical vitality, losing their normally rolled School, Montevideo, Uruguay shape. ✉ [email protected]

40 UA-Magazine RUAF Mid-Term Progress Review

During the past nine months, RUAF The external review team summarises the impacts of the RUAF project as partners have been actively engaged in follows: reviewing and evaluating RUAF’s “… a large number of high-quality products have been produced in topics activities with the support of an external related to urban agriculture. These products and services provide a wide range review mission. of information to identified stakeholders as demonstrated by their self- assessments and confirmed by the field visits. …..The project has achieved success with regard to the production of products and services and the he pre-review process began in mid establishment of process outputs that have resulted in clear but initial impacts 2002. All seven regional RUAF partners on local authorities, researchers, NGOs, and international programs. T prepared self-evaluation reports, using However, much more work needs to be done, especially with regard to the the results indicators established at the integration of urban agriculture in the policies and programs of national and start of the programme. Meanwhile ETC local governments and other relevant actors. ….Awareness has been raised conducted a ten-percent sample survey effectively. …The RUAF partners have advanced local networking and amongst the users of the RUAF services advocacy to different degrees. Latin America is most advanced; whereas, in that had email addresses, and another Africa, and especially in most parts of Asia, and the Middle East these efforts evaluation questionnaire was circulated to are just starting”. fifty urban agriculture experts (see page 43), to the participants of major RUAF events. The findings were consolidated by the programme coordinator into a As the major product outputs of RUAF, the external review team highlights the: comprehensive pre-evaluation report, ❖ Eight thematic issues of the Urban Agriculture magazine, produced in five languages which is published on the RUAF website: and which addresses the priority topics identified by the main client groups. www.ruaf.org ❖ Bibliographic database of over 5600 entries. ❖ Contacts database of over 4500 names and addresses of individuals and organizations with experience in urban agriculture. THE REVIEW PROCESS ❖ Main RUAF website as well as websites established by the regional focal points in An external review team, set up by IDRC, English, Spanish, French, and Chinese. consisted of Michael Graham, Canada and ❖ Various publications on urban agriculture, including an annotated bibliography, a Axel Dresher, Germany. The team was resources guide, the leading publication “Growing Cities Growing Food, the video requested to review the performance data, “Urban Agriculture”, a CD-rom “Urban Agriculture Today”. These products have also been translated into several languages. compile the ‘lessons learnt’ and provide ❖ Round table discussions, poster sessions, presentation of papers and the distribution recommendations for the remainder of the of three special issues of the UA-Magazine during international conferences. project as well as on an eventual phase ❖ International and regional workshops, electronic conferences and expert meetings, two of the RUAF programme. Both, RUAF often in cooperation with an international organisation. ❖ products and processes were considered. Assistance on the development and dissemination of policy guidelines and instruments. ❖ Collection and dissemination of reliable data on the presence and impacts of urban In the period between November 2002 agriculture. and January 2003, one of the two external ❖ Assistance on the preparation and evaluation of urban agriculture projects. reviewers paid short visits to three of the ❖ Question and answer services. regional focal points (MDP, IAGU and As the main process outputs, the external review team identifies the: UMP-LAC/IPES). In February 2003, both ❖ Seven Regional Focal Points on urban agriculture external reviewers visited ETC in the ❖ Capacity, commitment and local ownership of regional focal points, which were Netherlands for two weeks to review the strengthened through: products and services developed by RUAF, - training regional partners on the joint management of the RUAF databases, analyse the pre-evaluation report and the - involving the regional partners in the editing and publication of the UA-Magazine, - involving all RUAF partners in the yearly evaluation and planning of RUAF activi- materials on which it is based, and to have ties and in obtaining additional funding. individual and joint discussions with the ❖ Implementation of the regional analysis of information and communication needs, RUAF partners. Towards the end of the which led to the unearthing of ongoing initiatives and the subsequent identification of second week, the external review team priority areas for future study and action. ❖ presented their preliminary findings and RUAF Partners contributions in strengthening of regional and national networks. ❖ Establishment of multi-stakeholder platforms, interdepartmental working groups, and recommendations to the RUAF partners. city networks for situation analysis and action planning. This lead to valuable discussions on results ❖ Support provided to bilateral and international agencies and the RUAF response to realised, the effectiveness of the various their requests for information and technical support. RUAF strategies, and moreover, on the ❖ Support provided on: need and priorities of the eventual second - integration of urban agriculture into the international research system (CGIAR) and in regular programs of UN-FAO, phase of the RUAF programme. - facilitating internal discussion on urban agriculture in UNCHS-UNDP, and the ______European Community (EC), Jac Smit, TUAN - and stimulated the participation of bilateral and international agencies in the René van Veenhuizen, ETC SGUA. ❖ Continuous cooperation with international organizations in the planning and Henk de Zeeuw, ETC implementation of RUAF activities and promotion of complementary funding.

August 2003 RECOMMENDATIONS ❖ Launch a second phase of the RUAF programme. The The external review team made the following main main objectives should be to provide recommendations for the future work on RUAF: - training and capacity development, ❖ Increase the visibility of the RUAF programme and its - information to support policy development and regional partners and publish the results of the first phase implementation. of the programme to a broad international audience. During this second phase, a real effort must be made to ❖ Further strengthen the information and knowledge further devolve responsibility and accountability to the management capacities of the regional partners as well as Southern partners as well as increase the funding of the their capacities to assist local partners in the formulation activities in the South. Also, further reflection is needed on and funding of development projects, to implement what mix of partners would be best and what their roles lobbying and advocacy activities and assist in policy review should be. Capacity development and policy advice might and policy formulation. require the involvement of new partners in the future. ❖ Focus on the preparation and distribution of the most ❖ Review the position of RUAF among other international appropriate material to specific target audiences as a organizations engaged in urban agriculture (e.g., FAO, response to their specific needs. SIUPA, IDRC, and UMP-Habitat and the International ❖ Develop methodologies for systematic monitoring of Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA). The role of urban agriculture activities and quantification of urban the latter in ensuring coordination between such farming activities and their economic impact. programmes has to be reviewed and perhaps revised. ❖ Upgrade the contacts database and to further enhance access to full text documents and abstracts of grey literature. CONCLUSION ❖ Create an advisory group of persons with experience in The mid term review demonstrates the progress made in the gender and urban agriculture to advise RUAF partners on past three years and the need to build on the results realised. the mainstreaming of gender in urban agriculture and on It also clearly indicates the need and potential of the the planned expert consultation on gender and urban international RUAF network in capacity development, agriculture related thematic issue of the UA-Magazine. enhancing public – private partnerships and supporting ❖ Strengthen the efforts to facilitate policy change, including policy development and implementation. local policy lobbying, stimulation of the establishment of local stakeholder platforms and support to their development, as We sincerely thank all our partners and users’ for their support well as improved international links with such organizations and look forward to continued collaboration and exchange in as FAO, UN-Habitat, and other organizations that are building and expanding RUAF in the years to come. implementing the Local Agenda 21 (LA 21). RUAF Users Surveys

A sample of the users of the RUAF services and products were attention was given to building invited, through an e-mail survey, to comment on the relevance adequate information systems and and quality of the RUAF materials and to describe how they use enhancing access to empirical this information in their work. They were also requested to information, awareness raising, indicate their priorities for RUAF activities in the coming years. networking and facilitating discussion. More attention is now being given to promoting local platforms for multi he majority of the respondents were UA-Magazine. Highest impact of the stakeholder dialogue and action, as very positive about the RUAF RUAF programme was regarded as: well as the continuous review and T products and services and requested increasing exchange and discussion on updating of RUAF policies. that the programme be continued. urban agriculture, improving access to Valuable comments on how products information and enhancing USE OF INFORMATION and services could be improved were networking and capacity building. The SUPPLIED BY RUAF also received. three services identified as areas for Respondents mention that the RUAF improvement are: the organisation of services provide them with When invited to rank 12 given RUAF ‘Multi-stakeholder platforms’, the inspiration. For example, one services and products that were most upgrading of the Contacts Database respondent from the Philippines writes used, the respondents ranked the UA- and the supply of ‘Direct Information that RUAF inspires them to the Magazine as highest followed by the E- and Support’ to local initiatives. information provided to “bring real mail Conferences; and the publication improvements for the urban poor i.e., “Growing Cities, Growing Food”. These findings fit in neatly with the more food on the table, lower costs and Responses indicated an average development objectives of the RUAF increase disposable income for other readership of 10 for each copy of the programme. At the onset, most basic necessities such as education,

42 UA-Magazine the environmental network GRUTA, and in Nepal, a respondent distributes the information to 12 partner municipalities of the Rural-Urban Partnership Programme.

Various users indicate that the information supplied by RUAF gives them more leverage to convince local decision makers. A respondent from Tanzania reports “The information

Cai Jianming provided by RUAF assisted us (the The RUAF Partners met in Johannesburg to discuss future activities project) to intensify awareness of policymakers of the importance of urban agriculture, especially officials health and housing”. Another would not have been possible in this from the Ministry of Agriculture who respondent indicates, “knowing that extent without RUAF and the channels did not believe in its potential”. A similar actions are taken elsewhere maintained by them”. A partner in partner from Uganda states: “A number inspires us to used the information Vietnam indicates that the information of articles from the UA-magazine were provided by RUAF to validate our own supplied allows to compare the distributed and discussed with the experiences”. situation in their own cities with those district policy makers during a in other countries and to compare sensitisation workshop on the situation Many respondents frequently visit the technical and institutional solutions. in Kampala City”. website and use the UA-Magazine to keep up to date on recent Several respondents indicate that they A large number of respondents developments, ongoing debates, new use the information supplied by RUAF reported to use RUAF information to publications, upcoming events and to further develop or adapt research facilitate policy and programme results, etc. “RUAF assists us in publications and to prepare research development on urban agriculture in defining the cutting edge in urban proposals. A respondent from the their organisation, municipality or agriculture and resource availability Netherlands writes: “It broadened our country. As one respondent from the and expertise”. Many users also refer to perspective. We use this information to Philippines writes, “The information the bibliographic and contacts put our ongoing and new research was useful as inputs in refining, information to find relevant projects in a wider context and to detailing, moulding and grounding the literature and resource persons. include certain research questions we concept of urban agriculture into would otherwise not have thought practical, adaptable and realistic steps Respondents indicate that the RUAF about. Through your network, we make for implementation in urban poor food services facilitate networking, finding contacts with potential research security”. A respondent from Botswana partners and exchange of experiences, partners or clients, and collect case reports “I have incorporated some of both within countries and study material”. the knowledge acquired into the internationally. For example, Action preparation of long-term physical Aid in Ghana states that they used When asked how RUAF information development planning for one of the information provided by RUAF to is used, respondents frequently stated cities in Botswana (Francistown)”. In establish working relations with staff training and teaching, in the Nepal the information received from organizations in Kumasi, Accra and preparation of lectures, as reading and RUAF is used in discussions with the Dar es Salaam. research material for students and for Planning Commission of the Ministry preparing presentations and papers for of Planning in Kathmandu, leading to Many respondents emphasised RUAF’s seminars and workshops. Ryerson the incorporation of urban agriculture function as a platform to share University, Canada, extensively used in the work plans. experiences and new ideas. The UVVP the RUAF materials to develop A partner from Brazil writes” I have project in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania modules and materials for their course used the information provided to plan writes us “an initiative like RUAF is on Food Security. development policies for the North necessary and very useful to East of Brazil”. An NGO in Burkina complement ongoing UA activities and Some respondents, like ECHO in the Faso writes: “The findings and initiatives on local and partially regional USA, use the RUAF- materials for recommendations of the workshop on level. It can provide the environment for providing Question & Answer reuse of wastewater in Ouagadougou sharing of experiences and ideas beyond services in the field of urban helped us to reorient our work”. the local level. RUAF has helped to agriculture. RUAF also learned that its broaden the Dar es Salaam UA materials are distributed and used in experiences and make them accessible other networks. For example, CARE, to a wider and interested audience. This in Peru, diffuses RUAF information in

August 2003 43 http://www.cipotato.org/SIUPA This is the official website of the Torontonians, and support food-based initiatives that benefit Strategic Initiative on Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture SIUPA. Toronto’s economy, environment and quality of life. SIUPA was launched in 1999 by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). In collaboration http://www.ingenta.com Ingenta is a global research gateway with the many national and international efforts that have started serving online information needs of over 1.4 million visitors a in recent years to address the issue of urban and peri-urban agri- month and is one of the UK’s top 20 Web services. It provides a culture, SIUPA is establishing, in regional sites, a set of research free online search service of published content from reliable activities collectively known as Urban Harvest. Summaries of the research sources, information and links to a wealth of other Regional Stakeholder Workshops in Hanoi and Nairobi, reported institutions, a broad based article search and delivery service on in former issues of the UA-Magazine can be found on this site. and subject-focused websites, built in conjunction with soci- eties, publishers and university presses. http://www.planetizen.com/books/ All-time greatest planning titles by PLANetizen Books Planning professionals may want to http://www.ems-sema.org/castellano/proyectos/solidaria/ go down memory lane to some of the greatest “must-read” titles ppp/eng_index.html Information on the project “Study, analy- in urban planning. Visit to see the top twenty greatest as per sis and proposals to strengthen public-private management surveys by PLANetizen Books and see whether you agree with programmes in the management of solid waste and environ- their selection. mental sanitation in the metropolitan area of San Salvador” is found on this website of ems-sema. Lots of other information on http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu/pui/ This is the website of the Latin America also can be found here. Peri-urban Interface Project: “Strategic Environmental Planning and Management for the Peri-Urban Interface”, of the http://www.ecoiq.com/urbangreening The Urban Greening University College London. This research project aims to website is for everyone interested in making choices about the identify key components and principles of a workable strategic green and living environments of communities that are both approach to planning and managing environmental dimensions economically and ecologically intelligent. Of particular interest of the rural-urban interface, which will benefit the poor. is the assortment of educational and media resources offered. This website has been designed with the aim to share research USA focused. findings and the views and other experiences of researchers and practitioners around the world. http://www.ibiblio.org/farming-connection/fffconf/ On this site you will find information about the Summit on “the Future of http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~garten/garten our Food and Farms”, which will be held in Philidelphia, USA. konferenzEnglisch.html Here you will find information on a November 29 to 30, 2001. The Summit is creating a place where conference held in Berlin, in July 21-25, 2000. The title was those interested can come together to share ideas about problems Gardening-Conference 2000, Perspectives of Small-Scale and solutions affecting the farm and food system in the USA. Farming in urban and rural areas - about the social and ecologi- cal necessity of gardens and informal agriculture. It was organ- http://www.sapling.org.uk/ Sapling is a multi disciplinary por- ised by the working group “Small-Scale Farming and Gardens in tal site around the fields of architecture, planning and land- urban and rural areas” in co-operation with the working group scape. Over 400 links are organised into nine key themes - plan- “Agriculture and Social Ecology” of the Humboldt University ning, technology, design, housing, heritage, sustainability, con- Berlin - Faculty for Agriculture and Gardening struction, transport and regeneration - with additional ‘Online Library’ (information resources) and ‘Web Search’ sections. http://www.un-urbanwater.net/ Managing Water for African Cities (MAWAC) is a joint initiative of United Nations http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/sbe/planbiblios/ A compre- Environment Programme UNEP and United Nations Centre hensive list of bibliographies designed primarily for use by stu- for Human Settlements UNCHS (Habitat): to build capacity in dents of the Institute of Urban Planning, School of the Built seven demonstration cities in the water sector to avail informa- Environment, University of Nottingham, U.K. The lists cover a tion on best practices in urban water management, and to link very wide, but not comprehensive, range of current planning sector professionals working in the field of water management topics. Most of the bibliographies are regularly updated. The with each other and with other networks, institutions, govern- lists particularly focus on items on planning in England. There is ments, municipalities, NGOs and the private sector. a separate list of Planning and Planning-related organisations, contact details and websites. http://metrofarm.com This is a website on farming in the city, focusing on high intensive agriculture in the USA. According to http://urban.freeservers.com/agri.html This site called: “Urban

sites a recent Census of Agriculture, the most productive farmland in Issues in Developing Countries”, is presented as a portal site with the United States is in the Borough of the Bronx, while the sec- urban agriculture as one of the issues. The site does not give ond most productive farmland is in the City of San Francisco! institutional or personal information, and is a work in progress. One can order books or subscribe to regular radio programmes. http://www.urban.uiuc.edu/faculty/talen/GISweb/main.html http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/food_hunger/index.htm This site of the university of Illinois, USA, gives information The Food and Hunger Action Committee was formed in about a project on the uses of computer-mapping software December 1999 to study food security in Toronto and recom- (geographical information systems) as a tool to survey neigh-

Web mend ways to reduce hunger, improve the nutritional health of bourhood residents about their local environment.

44 News & Networking AU A INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ONURBAN details: http://conference.ifas.ufl.edu/wca agroforestry. Visitthecongresswebsiteforfurther strategies forresearch,educationandtrainingin objective istoshareknowledgeanddevelop inOrlando,Florida,USA.Themain Agroforestry groups, willgatherforthis1 organisations, theprivatesectorandvoluntary academic institutionsandgovernment professionalsworldwide,from Agroforestry 27 June–2July2004 USA) (ORLANDO, C EVENTS Symposium tobecome anannualforum.This institution toreconnect. TheBanklikestoseethe interest intourbanresearchand allowedthis That conferencemarkedtheBank’s renewed recent andongoingresearchon urbanpoverty. the worldjoinedWorld Bankspecialiststoreview and membersofresearchnetworks fromaround representatives ofpublicandprivateorganizations In December2002,individualresearchers, 1 (WASHINGTON, USA) URBAN RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM www.ifpri.org/2020AfricaConference/sponsors.asp Government ofUganda.For moreinfo: K will facilitateaninternationalconferencein under theauspicesofits2020VisionInitiative, International Food Policy ResearchInstitute, action toassurefoodandnutritionsecurity. The deliberate onhowtobringaboutchangeand traditional andnewactorsstakeholdersto This all-Africaconferencewillbringtogetherthe momentum bothinsideandoutsidethecontinent. There arenewpoliticalinitiativesgaining However, Africahasclimbedbackontheagenda. fundamental challenge. F 1-3 April2004 UGANDA) INAFRICABYSECURITY 2020(KAMPALA, ASSURING FOODANDNUTRITION Australia. www.urbanag.info [email protected]. 1 information: GeoffWilson. Phone+61 73349 tends intheWestern Pacific region.More practices, aswellemergingurbanagricultural and itsroleasgloballeaderinurbanagricultural U Mid-2004. 422; fax61 733438287; e-mail: 5-17 December2003 ood andnutritionsecurityremainAfrica’smost ampala, Uganda,inpartnershipwiththe ONGRESS ONAGROFORESTRY GRICULTURE, URBANAG 2004(BRISBANE, rbanag 2004 S TRALIA) will focusonthecityofBrisbane, st W orld Congressof 12 RECLAMATION ANDREUSE(MEXICO CITY, MEXICO) 4TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ONWASTEWATER http://www.wsscc.org/load.cfm?edit_id=332 on thiseventwillbemadelateryear. Web address: strengthening ofregionalandnationalpartnerships.Furtherannouncements andthe reforms anddevelopmentpartnershipsontheeradicationofpoverty; successful water, sanitationandhygieneprogrammes;theimpactofsector organising thisForum, withtheobjectivesofexamininglessonslearntfrom The Water SupplyandSanitationCollaborativeCouncil(WSSCC) is 1 -5December2003 (DAKAR, SENEGAL) FIRST GLOBALWATER, SANITATION ANDHYGIENE (WASH) FORUM 3232. orwww.worldbank.org/urban/symposium2003 [email protected]; telephone:202-473-0539;fax:202-522- Economic GrowthandPoverty Reduction”. Contact: Headquarters inWashington, DCandistitled“Urban Developmentfor second Urban ResearchSymposium istakingplaceattheWorld Bank issues. Presentations willfocusontheimplementation ofsustainable poverty inthePUI andtheresultingpressureson landandwateraremajor research andfindings.Theimpacts ofrapidurbanisationonlivelihoodsand Department ofGeography)isorganising thiseventtopresentongoing Areas ResearchGroupofRoyal Holloway, University ofLondon(CEDAR, pressure onnaturalresourcesby increasinghumanactivity. TheDeveloping The periurbaninterfaceindeveloping areasischaracterisedbyintense 3 -5September, 2003 USE. ANNUAL CONFERENCE (LONDON,UK) APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE NATURAL ANDHUMANRESOURCE THE PERI-URBANINTERFACE INDEVELOPINGAREAS: discussions oneachpartwillbeavailableatwww.ruaf.org/conference ofthe the developmentofadequatelaws,normsandregulations.Asummary strategies usedtopromoteaccessland,whilethesecondpart willdiscuss via email.Thefirstpartoftheconferencewillinventorizeandanalyse the follow thediscussionandmakecontributions.Thediscussions will takeplace studies developedbytheresourcepersons.Otherparticipants are invitedto to activelyparticipateinthediscussions,drawingfromfourmaincase partners willselect5-10 resourcepersonsineachregion,whowillbeinvited group ofparticipantsthathavevaluableexperienceonthetopic.TheRUAF It isintendedtobasetheconferenceondiscussionswithinapre-selectedcore regulations onaccesstolandforurbanagriculture. ❖ the cityboundariesforfoodproduction; ❖ experiences on The objectivesofthisElectronicConferenceare:toshareanddiscusslocal 3-22 November, 2003. “OPTIMISING AGRICULTURAL AREA” USEINTHECITY LAND ELECTRONIC CONFERENCE: acm atpumas.iingen.unam.mx Ingeniería, UNAM,iwaatpumas.iingen.unam.mxorAlmaC.ChávezMejía, http://pumas.iingen.unam.mx/isw/ orcontact:BlancaJiménez,Institutode Visit: reuse; potableindustrialandpublicservices. UNAM). Itwillfocusonregulations;integratedmanagement;agricultural Institute ofEngineering-NationalAutonomousUniversity ofMexico(II- (FEMISCA), MexicanAssociationofEnvironmentalEngineers(CINAM), Mexican Federation EngineeringandEnvironmentalSciences ofSanitary This eventisorganisedbytheInternationalWater Association(IWA),

- 14 November2003 The developmentandenforcementofmunicipalbylaws,norms Alternative strategiestoimproveaccessoftheurbanpoorlandwithin 46 News & Networking solutions, the problem of reconciling human needs and with resource historical city. Recognizing the need for such sustainability. Contact: Duncan McGregor ([email protected]) initiatives in other parts of the country, HUDA organised this 3-day International Workshop, in NATIONAL WORKSHOP ON FOOD POLICY COUNCILS an effort to focus national and international (DES MOINES, IOWA) attention on this long neglected area. September 4 & 5, 2003 Contact: Vishwanath Sista, Planning Officer, This National Workshop aims to promote the IOWA officially bodies of the HUDA, Website: hudalakesmission.org e-mail: Local and State Food Policy Councils, which comprise of stakeholders from [email protected] various segments of state or local food systems. The workshop is sponsored by Drake University (Agricultural Law Centre) and the Iowa Food Policy FOOD AND SOCIETY (FAS), HOUSTON TEXAS Council. For more information, please check: www.statefoodpolicy.org May 2003 This was the third annual meeting of the FAS XI INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RAINWATER CATCHMENT programme, a networking conference sponsored by SYSTEMS (MEXICO CITY, MEXICO) the Kellogg Foundation. The focus of the discussion 25 - 29 August, 2003 was on food systems that that promote healthy This conference is an annual event organised by the International Rainwater communities, people and ecosystems, and the main Catchment Systems Association (IRCSA). The 2003 theme is “Towards a New the driving forces. Remarkable events were the face Green Revolution and Sustainable Development Through an Efficient Use of to face conversation between Unilever and the Rainwater”. The main topics to be discussed are: food security, prevention of Burlington, Vermont Intervale Collaborative of 15 land degradation, impact on society, economy and ecology; supply/sanitation small-scale urban farmers, and representatives of concerns, water quality; mega cities and rural communities; promotion USDA talking directly to labourers, refugees and through educational programmes and women’s participation; irrigated and inner-city Youth. Jac Smit of TUAN (RUAF partner) dryland agriculture. ran a workshop Entitled: “Location, Location, Contacts: Dr Andrew Lo, President of IRCSA, [email protected] or Dr. Location”, (which is a real estate slogan), examining Manuel Anaya-Garduño, Coordinador General IRENAT, [email protected] Or the significance of promoting and actualising food check Web address: http://www.colpos.mx/ircsa production as close as possible to communities with a high level of food insecurity. Although this 24th ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF THE AMERICAN COMMUNITY meeting was held in one of the five richest countries GARDENING ASSOCIATION (ACGA), (CHICAGO, ILLINOIS) in the world, most of the emerging conclusions are July 31-August 3, 2003 applicable in towns and cities on all five continents This was the yearly National meeting of the Association and the discussions are relevant to low-income (ACGA) to gather people involved in all aspects of community gardening, food communities, global agribusiness, agriculture security, and greening programs to share experiences and learn from each other. ministries and departments and municipalities and metropolises. Many of the Conference 10th REGIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON VEGETABLE CROPS presentations are available at: PRODUCTION (ARUSHA, TANZANIA) www.foodandsociety.org July 7-November 7, 2003. The Africa Regional Programme of the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (AVRDC-ARP) was established in 1992 in Arusha, DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF Tanzania, to help improve nutrition, health, employment, and income of the URBAN AGRICULTURE FOR RESILIENT poor in Africa. COMMUNITIES This intensive training course on vegetable crops production is offered to January 12 – 23, 2004 in Wageningen, The Netherlands African professionals and involves a mix of lectures and hands-on laboratory A course for people involved in policy formulation and and field studies. Emphasis is placed on vegetable crop species identified by action planning, from NGO’s, private and public sector African NARES as deserving high priority. The training course has been involved in urban agriculture for poverty alleviation and designed for research and extension personnel from national research and management or even re-vitalization of new and old extension institutions, including Universities, NGO’s and private sector. cities. The course discusses practical cases and For more information on future courses and the course curriculum, contact: theoretical backgrounds to the problems and The Director, AVRDC Regional Center for Africa, P.O. Box 10, Duluti, opportunities of integration of urban agriculture in Arusha, Tanzania, Tel: +255-27-2553093/2553102; Fax: +255-27-2553125 sustainable urban development. It also provides E-mail: [email protected] methodologies and participatory approaches to assist participants in preparing action plans for their own INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON URBAN LAKE CONSERVATION conditions. The range of specialists and experience AND MANAGEMENT (HYDERABAD, INDIA) represented by the organizers and the participants 16 - 18 June, 2003 themselves guarantees access to up to date information Lakes are important freshwater ecosystems that perform many important and networks. The course is organized by the functions in urban areas. In the last 50 years, lakes have been degraded due to International Agricultural Centre (www.iac.wur.nl) and over exploitation and improper management. Scientists, Governments & Civil the Resource Centre on Urban Agriculture and Forestry society will have to work together in order to preserve and manage this (RUAF) of the ETC-Foundation (www.ruaf.org). More natural heritage. Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA) has information from: undertaken conservation of lakes within the metropolitan boundaries of the http://www.iac.wur.nl/services/training/urbag/ Contacts: [email protected] or [email protected] 47 Forthcoming Issues

THE UA MAGAZINE IN 2004 - agriculture in urban policy development; RUAF is in the final months of its first phase multi-stakeholder approach; mayors and and the partners are working hard to continue senior municipal staff; NGOs Urban the activities in a second phase of work. At the - urban soil and water pollution Agriculture same time, the RUAF partners have decided to - risk management strategies in urban Magazine use this moment to look back and document agriculture in book form the state-of-the–art in urban - urban and periurban-based food industry; GENDER AND URBAN AGRICULTURE agriculture, as well as the achievements and chain of productionproduct quality ISSN 1571-6244 challenges ahead. One major result of this management and private enterprises No. 12, May 2004

project is that only two issues of the UA - (transition strategies to) commercial urban The UA Magazine is published by the Magazine will be published this year. We have agriculture Resource Centre for Urban Agriculture (RUAF), a Programme co-ordinated by ETC Foundation decided that after this issue on gender and and financed by DGIS, the Netherlands, and urban agriculture the next issue (no. 13) will We welcome article contributions on urban IDRC, Canadaand DGIS, The Netherlands. focus on urban and periurban forestry. The agriculture of approximately 2,500 words The UA Magazine is published 3 times a year, and is fully also available on: www.ruaf.org.. planned issue on multi-functional urban land (three pages), 1,700 words (two pages), or 800 Non published articles, together with more use will be postponed until next year. The words (one page), preferably accompanied by book reviews and regular updates on events can also be found on www.ruaf.org articles submitted so far will be used for that an abstract, references (maximum of 5), The UA Magazine is translated into French, issue, unless of course they are appropriate figures and digital images or photographs of Spanish, Chinese and Arabic, and distributed in separate editions through regional contributions for inclusion in issue no. 13. good quality. The articles should be written in networks.

a manner that is readily understood by a wide Editorial Board NO. 13 URBAN AND PERIURBAN variety of stakeholders all over the world. We *Urban Management Programme-Latin America and the Caribbean (UMP-LAC), Quito, FORESTRY, OCTOBER 2004 also invite information on recent publications, Ecuador; Mr. Gunther Merzthal; email Deadline for submissions is 1 July 2004. journals, videos, photographs, cartoons, [email protected]: Magazine in Spanish: www: http://www.ipes.org/aguila/; This issue will be published in collaboration letters, technology descriptions and *Institut Africain de Gestion Urbaine (IAGU), Dakar, Senegal; Ms. Ndeye Fatou D. Gueye; with the European Research assessments, workshops, training courses, email [email protected]: Magazine in French; and Information Centre, the Danish Forest conferences, networks, web-links, etc. *Municipal Development Programme (MDP) - East and Southern Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe; and Landscape Research Institute, and the Mr. Shingirayi Mushamba, email: Forestry Division of FAO. Despite the explicit NOW ALSO A PORTUGUESE VERSION [email protected] *Institute of Geographical Sciences and reference to forestry in the name RUAF, we OF THE UA MAGAZINE AVAILABLE Natural Resource Research (IGSNRR) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Bejing, China; have not had a special issue as yet on the All back issues of the UA Magazine have been Mr. Jianming Cai, email: [email protected]; topic, since other issues have taken priority. translated into Portuguese by Mr Joaquim Magazine in Chinese; *IWMI-India, Hyderabad, India, Ms. Stephanie But the call for attention to urban greening, Moura of Brazil, with the support of RUAF in Buechler, email: [email protected]; parks, agroforestry, etc., has come from a collaboration with UMP-LAC. The articles are *Jac Smit,TUAN, Washington, email: [email protected]; number of different quarters. This special published on the web site *Dagmar Kunze, FAO Regional Office for Africa (RAF), Ghana; issue will therefore focus on the relation http://www.agriculturaurbana.org.br/RAU/ *Luc Mougeot, IDRC, Canada; between urban agriculture and forestry in the *Gordon Prain, CIP- Sustainable Initiative on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (SIUPA), city. Contributions are invited that discuss VIDEO ON-LINE Peru; concepts and methodologies; advantages and A part of the RUAF Urban Agriculture Video *Henk de Zeeuw, ETC - Resource Centre on Urban Agriculture and Forestry (RUAF), the potential; disadvantages and risks of different has been put online, on the Cities Feeding Netherlands;

types of urban agroforestry, and the influence People website of IDRC. The video has been Editors, No. 12 of site-specific conditions therein; the access produced to facilitate a greater understanding This issue has been compiled by René van Veenhuizen (Responsible Editor), together to and the control over resources such as land, of urban agriculture among policy-makers, with Alice Hovorka of University of Guelph, water, and inputs; and legal arrangements. urban planners, NGOs, sectoral organizations Canada and Joanna Wilbers of ETC. and other people who can make a Web Editing and Books THE UA MAGAZINE IN 2005 contribution to the integration of urban Dorine Ruter and René van Veenhuizen The topics suggested for 2005, and on which agriculture into urban planning policies, plans Administration Nathalie Rietman you may start submitting your ideas, abstracts and development programmes. If you would or articles, are: like to have a look at it, please go to: Language Editor - multi-functional land use and agro-tourism http://web.idrc.ca/ev.php?ID=46121_201&ID Chatharina de Kat

- urban food systems and urban agriculture 2=DO_TOPIC or to www.idrc.ca/cfp and click Design, Layout and Printing - urban aquaculture on Publications and then Videos. The same Koninklijke BDU

- contribution of urban and periurban will be done for the video, titled: “Making a Subscriptions agriculture to the Millennium Development living along the Musi river: Wastewater use in The editor Goals and around Hyderabad City”, produced by [email protected]

IWMI-India in 2003, with support of ETC- Address Other topics suggested by the RUAF RUAF and DFID. Urban Agriculture Magazine P.O. Box 64 partners are 3830 AB Leusden - strengthening urban farmers’ groups and The Netherlands organisations