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The Case of Rwanda and East Timor Accountability for International Accountability for International Humanitarian Law Violations: The Case of Rwanda and East Timor MohamedMohamed C.C. OthmanOthman AccountabilitAccountabilityy forfor InternationalInternational HumanitarianHumanitarian LawLaw Violations:Violations: TheThe CaseCase ofof RwandaRwanda andand EastEast TimorTimor ^12S MohamedMohamed C.C. OthmanOthman Judge,Judge, HighHigh CourtCourt ofof TanzaniaTanzania P.O.P.O. BoxBox 1478914789 DARDAR ESES SALAAMSALAAM TanzaniaTanzania [email protected]@yahoo.com ReprintReprint ofof covercover picturespictures byby courtesycourtesy ofof Dr.Dr. AlessandroAlessandro CaldaroneCaldarone andand ICTRICTR ISBN-10ISBN-10 3-540-26081-13-540-26081-1 SpringerSpringer BerlinBerlin HeidelbergHeidelberg NewNew Yor Yorkk ISBN-13ISBN-13 978-3-540-26081-3978-3-540-26081-3 SpringerSpringer BerlinBerlin HeidelbergHeidelberg NewNew Yor Yorkk Cataloging-in-PublicationCataloging-in-Publication DataData LibraryLibrary ofof CongressCongress ControlControl Number:Number: 20059293372005929337 ThisThis workwork isis subjectsubject toto copyright.copyright. AllAll rightsrights areare reserved,reserved, whetherwhether thethe whol wholee oror partpart ofof thethe materialmaterial isis concerned,concerned, specificallyspecifically thethe rightsrights ofof translation,translation, reprinting,reprinting, reusereuse ofof illus-illus­ trations,trations, recitation,recitation, broadcasting broadcasting,, reproductionreproduction onon microfilmmicrofilm oror inin anyany otherother wa way,y andand storagestorage inin datadata banks.banks. DuplicationDuplication ofof thisthis publicationpubhcation oror partsparts thereofthereof isis permittedpermitted onlyonly underunder thethe provisionsprovisions ofof thethe GermanGerman CopyrightCopyright LawLaw ofof SeptemberSeptember 9,9, 1965,1965, inin itsits currentcurrent versionversion,, andand permissionpermission forfor useuse mustmust alwaysalways b bee obtainedobtained fromfrom Springer-Verlag.Springer-Verlag. ViolationsViolations areare liablehable forfor prosecutionprosecution underunder thethe GermanGerman CopyrightCopyright Law.Law SpringerSpringer isis a partpart ofof SpringerSpringer Science+BusinessScience-hBusiness MediaMedia springeronline.comspringeronhne.com °© SpringerSpringer BerlinBerlin ´• HeidelbergHeidelberg 20052005 PrintedPrinted inin GermanyGermany TheThe useuse ofof generalgeneral descriptivedescriptive names,names, registeredregistered names,names, trademarks,trademarks, etc.etc. inin thisthis publica-pubhca­ tiontion doesdoes notnot imply,imply eveneven inin thethe absenceabsence ofof a specificspecific statement,statement, thatthat suchsuch namesnames areare exemptexempt fromfrom thethe relevantrelevant protectiveprotective lawslaws andand regulationsregulations andand thereforetherefore freefree forfor generalgeneral use.use. Hardcover-Design:Hardcover-Design: ErichErich Kirchner,Kirchner, HeidelbergHeidelberg Layout:Layout: Schreib-Schreib- undund KorrekturserviceKorrekturservice ManuelaManuela Ebert,Ebert, MannheimMannheim SPINSPIN 1143134311431343 64/3153-564/3153-5 4 3 2 1 0 ±- PrintedPrinted onon acid-freeacid-free paperpaper Preface The main objective of this book is to make available to an informed audience a le­ gal and policy oriented study on accountability for serious human rights and inter­ national humanitarian law violations. It is an attempt to share the lessons learnt in accountability for atrocity crimes as conducted by the International Criminal Tri­ bunal for Rwanda (ICTR), and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET). The former established subsequent to egregious atrocities that took place in 1994, and the latter following the massive outburst of violence in 1999. The book is based on two cases: Rwanda and East Timor. It is expected that it will serve as reference literature to both the legal community and policy makers on accountability for heinous international crimes. As the international community and States, following serious human rights and international humanitarian law violations have painfully come to terms with their obligations to bring to justice persons in high offices or leadership positions, de jure or de facto, alleged to have committed such crimes, it has also become im­ perative that beginners mistakes be avoided. When the International Criminal Tri­ bunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established in 1993, and the ICTR in 1994 and commenced their pioneering mandates there was no template on which the prosecution of individuals most responsible or with the greatest responsibility could be cast. Accountability had to be experimental. Ten years later, this book subjects the accountability process by the ICTR and UNTAET to testing cross ex­ amination. It exposes, from a legal and policy perspective, the accumulated ex­ periences of accountability for the atrocities committed in Rwanda and East Timor. The need to ensure effective, impartial, transparent and fair prosecutions is warranted for at least one basic reason. International tribunals and courts are able to guarantee accountability only for a very few. Less than a fraction of the hun­ dreds and thousands of perpetrators who constitute front-line criminals. As con­ cerns the ICTR for example the plans are for it to prosecute around 70 accused persons by 2010. This will have been after a 16 years life-tenure. The Extraordi­ nary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Commit­ ted during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea (i.e. Khmer Rouge Tribunal) once functional envisions holding accountable up to 10 accused during its planned three year tenure. A work of this nature can only be the result of tangible support. First and fore­ most I wish to fiilly acknowledge the assistance of the United States Institute of Peace without which this book would have been incomplete. A word of apprecia­ tion also goes to the Chr. Michelsen Institute of Development and Human Rights VI Preface and the Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law for un­ heeded access to their vast library resources, and to the Tanzania Red Cross. I am personally indebted to a number of persons who offered advice, com­ ments, encouragement, guidance, and most important critique. Others to be thanked include all those who agreed to be interviewed, and to share information or materials. Particular appreciation goes Judge Navanethem Pillay former Presi­ dent of ICTR, Judge Eric Mose it current President, Adama Dieng its Registrar, Professor Albin Eser, Alessandro Caldarone, Astri Suhrke, Catherine Cisse, Wil­ liam Egbe, Professor Kai Ambos, Adam Kimbisa, Oyvind Olsen, Dr. Michael Po- lannen, Ambassador Juma Mwapachu, Mathias Marcussen, Maxwell Nkole, Nathalie Ndongo-Seh, Roland Amoussouga, Rashid S. Rashid, Taylor Seybolt, Gunar Sorbo, Karim Ahmad Khan, Shyamala Alagendra, Marko Kalbush, Stanley Zankel and Mwamy Sykes. Finally I must also express my most sincere apprecia­ tion to my wife Saada, and children, Said, Aysha and Amin whose petitions to spend time together I simply had to dismiss or at best, adjourn. Mohamed Chande Othman Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Rwanda and East Timor: Pattern of Violence 7 Rwanda 8 Identifying the Enemy 10 Arusha Peace Agreement 15 Genocide: Its Beginnings 20 Response by the International Community 30 Operation Turquoise 36 Violence: An Inquiry 38 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3 Accountability Arrangements: Rwanda 53 Accountability Demand 54 Genocide 63 Jurisdiction 64 Institutional Organs 69 Accountability: Start up to Completion 74 State Cooperation and ICTR's Mandate 16 Conclusion 86 Chapter 4 Accountability Arrangements: East Timor 89 I. Institutional Arrangements: East Timor 90 Subject Matter Jurisdiction 92 Judicial Institutions 95 Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences 96 Ordinary Crimes 98 Serious Crimes 99 II. Serious Crimes Investigations 99 Investigation Capacity 100 Financing of Investigations 102 Equipment and Material Support 104 Information and Evidence Gathering 105 Forensic Investigations 106 VIII Table of Contents III. Specific Accountability Issues 109 (a) Arrest and Pre-trial Detention 109 (b) Accountability for Militia Refugees 113 IV. Prosecution Strategy and Policies 119 Continued Accountability 128 V. Indonesia: Accountability and the Legal Framework 129 Indonesia Ad Hoc Human Rights Court 131 VI. Cooperation in Legal, Judicial and Human Rights Matters 133 Requests to Indonesia 134 Cooperation by UNTAET 135 VII. Human Rights Trials: Indonesia 140 Conclusion 149 Chapter 5 Profiling Perpetrators 153 I. Conceptual Framework on Profiling Perpetrators and Individual Criminal Responsibility 154 IL Profiling Perpetrators 159 Rwanda 164 East Timor 167 UN ad hoc Tribunals 169 Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) 175 IIL A Few Profiling Pitfalls 176 Ntuyahaga Affair 176 Rusatira Affair 185 Conclusion 188 Chapter 6 Conspiracy to commit genocide 191 I. Conspiracy: Law and Practice 192 Definition 196 Overt acts 197 Merger: Conspiracy and the Substantive Offence 198 Legal Elements 199 Procedural Issues 204 Conspiracy and Joinder 207 Evidence of co-conspirators 209 II. Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals: 'Common Plan or Conspiracy' 210 III. The Genocide Convention, the ICC and conspiracy to commit genocide 216 IV. The Rwandan Conspiracy: Investigation and Prosecution strategy 224 Conspiracy: Indicators and Overt acts 227 Dens of Conspirators 228 Meetings 229 Butare: The Rallying Point 230 Government Authorities 232 The'Big'or'Global'Indictment
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