Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Material factors affecting the publication of black British fiction Thesis How to cite: Ireland, Philippa Ruth (2011). Material factors affecting the publication of black British fiction. PhD thesis The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2010 The Author Version: Version of Record Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk Material Factors Affecting the Publication of Black British Fiction Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Open University, in the discipline of English Literature, April2010 by Philippa Ireland, BA, MSc bA,(_ or SouE,fY" ~:s.,o~: 2-3 A t>1L .20 to Df>\,.-C of A w""fU): ':5 Fe£. 2-0 ,\ ABSTRACT This thesis examines some of the material factors affecting the publication of black British fiction during the last three decades of the twentieth century. It argues that a study of the publishing history of black British fiction in this period must take into account wider political and cultural issues, as well as the internal structure and mechanics of book publishing. It therefore explores how shifting cultural, political and commercial contexts influenced the selection, marketing, supply and reception of a number of black British texts. The importance of the interaction between such 'external' factors and the 'internal' modus operandi of book production and distribution is highlighted throughout. A distinctive aspect of this thesis is its use of archives and personal testimonies provided by significant figures in publishing as key sources of information. The Introduction sets out the scope of the thesis, addressing, in particular, the label 'black British' and how it is to be used within the study. It also situates the research firmly within the discipline of Book History, considering some of the most influential models that have been proposed to help us understand the circulation of books in society. Part One establishes the historical context. Beginning with the early publication of black writers from the Caribbean in Britain in the 1950s and 1960s, it moves on to consider the ways in which black writers and writing were affected by changing political and cultural agendas throughout this period. It investigates the effect of multicultural policies and practice upon education and librarianship, as well as the response of local government and the Arts Council strategy to the changing make-up of British society, arguing that the impact of these wider developments had a significant influence upon the publication of black British fiction. Part Two focuses on publishers, publishing and prizes. It opens by offering a critical analysis of the activities and legacy of two pioneering black British publishers, both established in Britain in the late 1960s: New Beacon Books and Bogle L'Ouverture. The contrasting approach of the niche publisher X Press provides an example of the variety of ways in which autonomous black British presses evolved over the course of three decades. ii Comparisons are made with the role played by feminist publishers in Britain in the promotion of fiction by marginal groups, and it is argued that the market success of African American women's writing was an important influence on decisions by feminist publishers to publish black British women writers in the UK. This is followed by a detailed investigation of the literary prize phenomenon and its influence upon the publication of black British fiction. The final chapter of the thesis proffers a critical account of the success of some black British novelists in the light of this phenomenon. It argues that literary prizes with very specific entry criteria were to have a marked influence upon the literary careers ofa handful of black British writers, and that this in turn had the effect of raising the profile of black British fiction more generally, thus demonstrating its commercial viability. In conclusion, it is argued that the period from the early 1980s to the 2000s represented a very specific and important moment in the publishing history of black British fiction. There still remains a role in the current market for a number of different publishers of black British fiction. This now needs to be viewed, however, within a context where the relevance and contemporary significance of the label 'black British' is constantly being reassessed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am sincerely grateful to those individuals who agreed to be interviewed by me in the course of this research, and who have contributed their thoughts and recollections of publishing and the development of black British literature. In particular I would like to thank Margaret Busby, Sarah White and Eric and Jessica Huntley, whose reminiscences are included in the Appendices. I am thankful also to Alastair Niven, Lyn Innes, Vicky Unwin, Liz Gerschel and Anne Walmsley, who kindly agreed to speak with me in person, by email and on the telephone at various times. All of their personal testimonies have helped me to bring this publishing history to life. I would also like to thank all the archivists who facilitated much of the primary research for this thesis. I am indebted to my supervisors at The Open University, Susheila Nasta, Bob Owens and Dennis Walder. Their guidance and support over the past four and half years has been invaluable. I would like to thank Felicity and Jenny who kindly agreed to proofread this thesis in return for chocolate and only small remuneration, and for their highly constructive and enthusiastic comments. Finally, this thesis would have not have been possible without the constant encouragement of my family. Their unwavering support has sustained me throughout the highs and lows of postgraduate research. To my parents I would like to send my love and my thanks for all the time they have given to reading and re-reading numerous drafts of each chapter, and to being brilliant parents and the best grandparents ever to my children, Gabrielle and Zachary. Gaby was only two when I embarked on this research journey and Zach is my 'PhD baby'. This thesis is for you and for Steven, my wonderful husband and my rock. iv CONTENTS Introduction 1 Part One - Contexts Chapter One Precursors and Influences: post-war publication of black writers in Britain 34 Chapter Two Multiculturalism in Britain, 1970s - 1990s 54 Chapter Three Education, publishing and black British fiction 68 Chapter Four Multiculturallibrarianship and black British publishing 102 Chapter Five State support for black British literature 120 Part Two - Publishers and Publishing Chapter Six Laying the foundations: New Beacon Books, Bogle L'Ouverture Press and the Politics of black British Publishing 142 Chapter Seven Redefining black publishing in Britain: the X Press Model 157 Chapter Eight Publishing women: the rise of feminist publishing and the development of black British fiction 170 Chapter Nine Literary prizes and the publication of black British fiction 188 Conclusion 222 Appendices Appendix One Interview transcript: Margaret Busby, 25 May 2006 225 Appendix Two Interview transcript: Sarah White, 10 August 2006 232 Appendix Three Interview transcript: Eric and Jessica Huntley, 9 January 2007 240 v Bibliography Interviews and personal communication 248 Archival sources 248 Electronic and multimedia sources 248 Books and journal articles 250 Newspaper and magazine articles 265 Reports 270 Theses 271 List of Figures Figure 1: Darnton's Communications Circuit Figure 2: Adams and Barker's New Model for the Study of the Book INTRODUCTION The dawn of the twenty-first century saw the occurrence of certain events that put black British fiction firmly on the literary map. Arguably the most high profile of these events was the publication of Zadie Smith's debut novel, White Teeth (2000), which became something of a publishing phenomenon.' It initially drew attention to itself when it became the focus of a bidding war in 1997 on the basis of a few unfinished chapters and Smith accepted a six-figure advance for this as well as a future novel. It has been widely observed that this sizeable advance was particularly remarkable because it was offered when the author was only 21 years old and still an undergraduate student at Cambridge University.i The success of White Teeth catapulted its author to literary fame and fortune. The novel was endorsed by the world-renowned writer and novelist Salman Rushdie, who hailed it 'an astonishingly assured debut'.' It received mainly positive reviews, both nationally and internationally, won several awards (including the Whitbread First Novel Award), and achieved sales of over a million copies." Smith's ethnic origins - her father was a white Englishman and her mother a black Jamaican - were commented upon both prior to and after the publication of White Teeth. Her 'perfect demographic[s]', S combined with the novel's multicultural themes gave credence to the book's standing as a representation of contemporary Britain," Other black British first-time novelists followed in the wake of Smith's success. A good example is 1 Zadie Smith, White Teeth (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000). 2Contemporary Writers: Zadie Smith, The British Council. Available: http://www.contemporarywriters.comlauthors!?p=auth257 [24 January 2010]. 3 Rushdie's comments were printed on the back cover of the 2000 edition of the novel, alongside similarly flattering remarks taken from reviews in the Guardian, i-D, Literary Review and New York Times. 4 See Julie Ellam, Zadie Smith - critical perspective (2007), The British Council. Available: http://www.contemporarywriters.comlauthors!?p=auth257#criticalperspective [5 October 2009]. S Simon Hattenstone, 'White Knuckle Ride', Guardian, 11 December 2000,02, p 6.