THE CONVERSION OF CHRISTIAN II OF IN ROMAN CATHOLIC DIPLOMATIC LITERATURE, 1530–1532

Federico Zuliani

Christian II of Denmark, after his flight from Denmark, became an early convert to in 1524. In 1530 he converted back to Catholicism, and attempted to reconquer his old kingdom in an unfortunate military expedition funded by his hostile brother-in-law Charles V. Christian was the first Lutheran prince ever to convert back to Catholicism, and his conversion had a strong symbolic value both for Rome and for the Empire. Despite this, it has been somewhat neglected in the English speaking world.1 The present article seeks to rectify this omission, making use of the rich diplomatic material on the subject. In the first part I shall introduce Christian, his life and his religious experience, while in the second I shall analyse the particulari- ties of his conversion as witnessed by the diplomatic sources, notably the fact that few believed its sincerity. Having been the governor of , Christian II of Oldenburg (1481–1559) succeeded his father John as of Denmark in 1513.2 Two years later he married Elisabeth of Habsburg,3 the sister of Charles V, and thus linked himself to the most prominent family in Europe. His energetic policy left its mark on many aspects of Danish society. First, he strongly supported its cultural revival:4 he re-founded the University of , or at least tried to reestablish it as an

1 The conversion has been studied from a different perspective by Martin Schwarz Lausten in his authoritative Christian 2. mellem paven og Luther. Tro og politik omkring ‘den røde konge’ i eksiliet og i fangenskabet (1523–1559) (Copenhagen: 1995) especially on pages 341–379. 2 For an English biography of Christian, see Nordstrom B.J., “Christian II”, in Id. (ed.), Dictionary of Scandinavian History (Westport: 1986) 59–62. 3 Bagge P., “Elisabeth (Isabela)”, in Dansk biografisk leksikon, 16 vols. (Copenhagen: 1979–1984) IV, 154–155, and, written from a Spanish and Catholic perspective, Grön- vold M., “Isabel de España, hermana del emperador Carlos V, reina de Dinamarca, Noruega y Suecia”, Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia 143 (1958) 147–153. 4 Lausten M.S., Die in Dänemark (Heidelberg: 2008) 14–18. 40 federico zuliani institution of the new humanism,5 sponsored the production of books,6 and supported the cultural initiatives of the local Carmelites.7 He also attempted a profound reform of the Danish Church, with the aim of strengthening his control over it; such a policy can be seen as part of a broader plan to weaken the nobility8 – since almost all of the higher clergy was part of the aristocracy9 – and support instead the emerg- ing merchant class of Copenhagen and Malmø.10 Today he is perhaps most well-known for his bloodthirsty policy in – which, due to the Union of Kalmar, he also ruled11 – which culminated with the notorious bloodbath of , an event that sounded the death- knell for Danish hegemony in Sweden.12 In 1523 the Danish nobility rebelled against Christian,13 and in April of that year he was forced to escape to the nearby .14 He

5 Lausten M.S., “Der Universität Kopenhagen und die Reformation”, in Grane L. (ed.), University and Reformation (Leiden: 1981) 101–103. The idea of a re-foundation ‘almost from scratch’ has been challenged by Jan Pinborg in “Danish Students 1450– 1535 and the University of Copenhagen”, Cahiers de l’Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin 37 (1981) 98. 6 Hørby K., “Humanist Profiles in the Danish Reform Movement”, in Grane L. – Hørby K. (eds.), Die dänische Reformation vor ihrem internationalen Hintergrund / The Danish Reformation against its International Background (Göttingen: 1990) 32 and 34–35. The idea that Christian commissioned a translation of Machiavelli’s Il Principe should, however, be reconsidered: Torresin G., “Un episodio della fortuna del Machiavelli in Danimarca”, Revue Romande 8 (1973) 304–313. 7 Mesters G., “The Carmelite Province of Denmark 1410 – ca. 1540”,Carmelus 3 (1956) 228–229. For Christian and the Carmelities, with a special focus on the great Paul Helgesen: Valkner K., Paulus Helie og Christiern II: Karmeliterkollegiets opplø- sning (: 1963). 8 Lausten, Die Reformation in Dänemark 12–14. 9 Grell O.P., “The and its leadership”, in Id. (ed.),The Scandinavian Reformation: From Evangelical Movement to Institutionalism of Reform (Cambridge: 1995) 70–113. For a broader study of the situation of the Danish nobility: Dahlerup T., “Danmark”, in Christensen A.E. (ed.), Den nordiske adel i senmiddelalderen. Struktur, funktioner og internordiske relationer (Copenhagen: 1971) 45–80. 10 For the two cities: Grell O.P., “The Emergence of Two Cities: The Reformation in Malmø and Copenhagen”, in Grane L. – Hørby K. (eds.), Die dänische Reformation 129–145. 11 For the political situation in of the period, and its historical back- ground: Schück H., “The political system” and Olesen J.E., “Inter-Scandinavian rela- tions”, in Helle K. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Scandinavia. Volume I. Prehistory to 1520 (Cambridge: 2003) 679–709 and 710–770. 12 Ericson Wolke L., blodbad (Stockholm: 2006). 13 Venge M., Christian 2.s fald, spillet om magten i Danmark januar–februar 1523 (: 1972). 14 Christian was also welcomed by the Scots, although ‘they could not give him any help’, and his finances were poor. Beyer J.C., “King in Exile: Christian II and the Netherlands 1523–1531”, Scandinavian Journal of History 11 (1986) 205.