The 2015 Banks Memorial Lecture: Advocating for nature conservation in New Zealand: Is there a dilemma? Alan F. Mark1

Introduction Island; the second the two largest much later, was that the large above- Given the many issues in nature lakes in Fiordland and the major ground snow tussock biomass (of up conservation that I have been involved gateway to New Zealand’s most to 8.7 kg m-2) had been accumulated with as an aspect of my professional prestigious national park. over several years and was not the career as an academic plant ecologist annual production. Nor would he There were many other conservation over more than half a century, and have appreciated (as distinguished issues along the way that I became despite many successes, it has botanist Lucy Moore emphasised in involved with, by invitation or by my become apparent over time that there the mid-1950s) that the tussocks are own initiative. These issues included are inherent dilemmas which must very long-lived, rivalling our oldest the South-West New Zealand World be accepted. For me there were two trees. I have even claimed the snow Heritage Area proposal, the Lake major research fields, both inherently tussocks are ‘potentially immortal’ and Sumner damming proposal and the controversial. The first involved my if this is debated, my challenge is to Denniston Plateau open-cast coal main research field of investigating ‘find a dead one in a healthy tussock mining proposal, through the Forest the pure and applied ecology of the stand’: they’re rarely if ever present! and Bird Protection Society, and upper tussock grassland high They function like a perpetual motion Clutha Hydro-electric development as country. This research began with my machine. These features would justify a member of the Otago Catchment MSc ecological study of Maungatua recognition of our upland snow tussock Board. Involvement with the Aramoana (a 980 m altitude range near Dunedin) grasslands as ‘old-growth indigenous salt marsh/aluminium smelter in the mid-1950s, with an objective of grasslands’ such as recently proposed proposal, proposed logging of the defining their sustainable management for ‘the world’s ancient grass- Waitutu forest sequence, the open- from a runholder perspective. The dominated biomes’ in North and South cast coal mining proposal in North second I refer to as a diversion since, America and Africa. Westland’s Happy Valley (Cypress immersed in the high country research, mine), the Nevis Valley hydro-electric So from the earliest days of high I was requested in 1969, by the development proposal and formation country farming, which involved New Zealand Electricity Department of the Wise Response Society were traditional practices of extensive (via the DSIR Botany Division) to exercised more or less on my own grazing with mostly merino sheep undertake an ecological study to behalf, but all with other like-minded and periodic large-scale burning, and describe the shoreline features of Lake concerned participants. negligible post-burn spelling (partly in through inadequate fencing) there was ahead of government’s proposed lake Each of these had their distinctive yet concern with the obvious degradation. raising (by up to 26 m; the level of often similar aspects, as I will discuss The botanist/artist John Buchanan Lake , upstream). The highly in turn, and some (but not all) were was one of the first to record his controversial nature of this proposal associated with a range of dilemmas concerns, noting in 1868 that “nothing only became obvious to me over time. or ‘brick-bats’, not all necessarily can show greater ignorance of grass obvious at the outset. One either Both of these issues introduced conservation than repeated burning adjusts and copes with these or seeks me to the field of ‘ecopolitics’: one which is so frequently practiced.” an alternative vocation. These aspects aspect involving recommending However, nothing really changed and will be discussed together at the end of changes to a highly traditional by 1910 agriculturist Alfred Cockayne this article. method of pastoral farming in order and others reported on problems to address obvious land degradation South Island pastoral high country caused by burning. Distinguished and attempt to achieve sustainable management: effects of burning plant ecologist Leonard Cockayne management of the high country; the and grazing reported that indiscriminate burning second contesting the aspirations The comments of early surveyor had turned areas of tussock grassland of government politicians and Charles Kettle when he looked inland “into stony debris”. Lease conditions senior engineering staff in two large from Maungatua in 1847 were typical were modified to give greater security government departments, Electricity of many: the extensive grasslands to the runholders (Fig. 1) but to little and the Ministry of Works and to the west looked highly suitable for avail. Furthermore, the Tussock Development. The first implicated grazing purposes. But what he didn’t Grasslands Research Committee of some 20% of the area of the South know, and which was only revealed senior government ecologists reported

1 Department of Botany, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; [email protected]

18 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) in 1954, based only on observations (Fig. 2A–C), that the upland snow tussocklands lacked regenerating tussocks and were assumed to be relic, out of phase with the prevailing climate, and pastoral farming was merely hastening the inevitable demise of these grasslands.

Fig. 3 Eastern slope of the central Old Man Range, Central Otago, showing the major vegetation zones in relation to patterns of measured annual precipitation and mean air temperature.

But there had been no detailed studies of the dominant tussock grasses. These began with Kevin O’Connor of Lincoln and me, funded by the Hellaby Indigenous Grasslands Research Trust, in Otago. These studies, however (Fig. 3), showed that the A tussocks were highly adapted to their Fig. 1 Map showing the outline of the South environments, even with local ecotypes Island high country (purple) in relation to adapted to a particular elevation the western (red) and eastern (green) major on the mountainside, so that their regions of the South Island. High country lessees have rights to the pasturage, quiet irregular flowering was synchronous occupation of the land, trespass protection across a mountainside and related to and renewal of the 33 year lease upon expiry; relatively warm summer temperatures their privileges are to burn, cultivate, plant at a particular elevation (Fig. 4A–B). trees, fence, change stocking rates, etc. They also showed tolerance, even B adaptation to periodic burning, but post-burn grazing was a different story Snow tussock reciprocal transplant. Fig. 4 (Fig. 5). While the snow tussocks were A, ‘top garden’ on the crest (1590 m) of the Old Man Range. Portions of the same 20 recovering from a fire their new foliage tussocks from each of (left to right) Old Man was nutrient-rich and very palatable, 1590 m, 1220 m, 910 m and Maungatua but extremely vulnerable to heavy 850 m, were planted at each of these four grazing over these first 1–2 years of sites, as well as in the Botany Garden, in Dunedin (10 m). B, the same snow tussocks regrowth. This lack of tolerance of A four years after transplanting to Dunedin, heavy post-burn grazing by sheep (or showing the prolific flowering of plants of all cattle) is perhaps not surprising since populations at this low-altitude site. New Zealand ecosystems evolved with the absence of mammalian grazing. The runholders’ apparent ignorance of this aspect seemed to be the main reason for the widespread degradation of the upland snow tussocklands under B pastoral farming. It seemed traditions died hard among some runholders and as a consequence they contested my results and recommendations. Fig. 5 Study site at 1220 m, Old Man Range, showing various treatments, some separated Tussock grasslands and water by a firebreak (A) built in 1961: unburnt since c. 1945 and grazed (B & D); unburnt production since 1945 and ungrazed since 1961 (inside Some runholders tried hard to C exclosure) (C); burnt 1961 & 1992 and heavily undermine my credibility with grazed after 1992 fire (note the sparse snow Fig. 2 Examples of rangeland degradation. the sustainable management tussock and numerous smaller tussocks of A, Molesworth. B, Craigieburn Mountains. unpalatable Festuca matthewsii) (E & F). recommendations of post-burn spelling C, Garvie Mountains.

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 19 based on these studies and even or two but when they lost interest more so, our findings on water yield my proposal was given serious from these upland snow tussocklands. consideration and I visited the area We found from two student projects with Reserves Ranger Colin Bassett over more than ten years that the who undertook to proceed with the unmodified tall snow tussocks proposal. Meanwhile I had discussed maximised water production on the it with two adjoining neighbours, eastern Otago uplands compared with A Archie Reid of the Allendale Run any alternative cover, even bare soil. to the west and his brother Ken Our use of small tanks, lysimeters, Reid of Horsehoof to the east. Their containing single tussocks or other father had been the first lessee on types of cover (Figs. 6A–B), meant Maungatua and all had a real affection we could have adequate replicates at for the area. Both Archie and Ken each of the seven sites we studied, were interested in contributing to the ranging from 490 m on the Lammerlaw proposal, Archie the remainder of the Range to 1340 m on the upper slopes B crest, including many cushion bogs of the Rock and Pillar Range. To and the largest area of sub-fossil bog our surprise, we found that the tall Fig. 7 A paired catchment water yield study pine-pink pine (Fig. 8A) woodland (the at Glendhu, Lammerlaw Range, initiated snow tussock grassland yielded the by the FRI, now managed by Landcare boundary fence ran along the summit maximum water, from 50 to 86% of the Research, which has shown the long-term and he planned to run cattle on his measured rainfall at most sites above effects of exotic afforestation in significantly top block) and Ken an area of cushion 700 m, whereas short blue tussock reducing water yield. A, Pinus radiata bog and a large rock tor near his afforestation site. B, snow tussock grassland (Poa colensoi) grassland yielded site. boundary (Fig. 8B); neither requested significantly less. Grassland recovering compensation. So I provided Lands from burning or severe grazing also Conservation of high country and Survey with three options: all yielded less but the yields increased tussocklands: Maungatua Scientific three areas; minus Ken’s piece; and over the recovery period to equal that Reserve minus both Reid areas before leaving of the normal tussocks when fully One of the problems I faced in for my first overseas study leave early recovered. The contribution of fog, researching the native snow in 1966. I was assured of a ‘prompt which is efficiently intercepted by the tussocklands of the South Island response’ by Lands and Survey but long fine leaves of a snow tussock (we high country was that there were on revisiting late that year I was could catch up to half a litre of water no reserved areas, protected from dismayed to find a new fence along an hour with a single snow tussock the pastoral practices of burning Archie’s legal boundary and cattle from a thick fog when no rain was and grazing. All 2.6 million hectares causing obvious damage to old shrubs falling), was the most controversial had been allocated to pastoral of inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium) aspect of our conclusions, even farming (so often referred to by the and the large daisy Celmisia though we later confirmed this by American term, rangelands) and so semicordata subsp. aurigans, and analysing the stable heavy isotopes of had been modified to some extent. also serious pugging of the cushion oxygen and hydrogen (which are more This meant there were no areas bogs. Ken had already re-fenced and enriched in fog than rain). This debate available as baselines with which to excluded his promised area. Archie continues but there is now no disputing compare the effects of various types had given up in despair, but offered to that the tall snow tussocklands of pastoral management, singly or in remove his cattle if the fence could be maximise water yield from the uplands, combination. shifted, which it shortly was. Finally, where most of the rain falls and fog the first formally protected area of My first opportunity to begin correcting often lingers (7A–B). c. 660 ha was achieved in the South this situation came on Maungatua, Island pastoral leasehold high country my MSc study area. Soon after I (Fig. 8A–C). I couldn’t persuade the began my research with the Hellaby department on a scenic reserve; no Trust, when I had chosen Maungatua perceived scenic values meant it had as an eastern region (and the Old to be a scientific reserve but it later Man Range, Fig. 3, and Coronet achieved scenic status when areas of Peak as central and western regions, native forest were added at both ends respectively), Alan Weatherall, who A in the 1970s. had a central lease on Maungatua’s upper eastern slope, decided not to renew his lease when it was due for renewal in 1960, since he considered it uneconomic. I discussed with him and he agreed on the possibility of having it formally reserved, so I B approached the Lands and Survey Fig. 6 Water yield study of a range of cover Department in Dunedin. The Forest types in upland snow tussock grasslands. A, Service also showed an initial interest lysimeter site. B, lysimeter profile. which delayed progress for a year

20 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) A

B

Fig. 9 Black Rock low-mid altitude snow tussockland reserve, showing temporal changes in the biomass index (BI) and height of snow tussock, co-dominant shrubs, sub-dominant shrubs and moss ground cover. Species names have been abbreviated.

The Nardoo catchment was next the basis that the lower part of the in line when Lands and Survey catchment could not be justified as Department acquired the adjoining a reserve and that deferment would C Waipori Station (15,624 ha) for detrimentally affect the development Fig. 8 Maungatua tussockland reserve, the intensive farm development in plans. And so the lower catchment was first achieved from the South Island pastoral 1974. Environmental Impact developed, despite further attempts to leasehold lands. A, subfossil Halocarpus Statements were now required for protect it (Fig. 10A–B). biformis and H. bidwillii. B, summit plateau. C, boundary extension. all major government developments (an outcome of the Manapouri Later tussockland reserve efforts controversy). It provided for protection leading to tenure review of 400 ha, mostly riparian strips and My next opportunity for a tussockland lakeshore verges, but also the only reserve came with the development stand of native forest, a 10 ha stand of of the Black Rock area as part of silver beech in the Nardoo catchment. the Lands Departments programme A group of nine local scientists, A of agricultural intensification, for university and government, submitted settlement of returned servicemen a proposal for much of the c. 1050 ha following World War II. Black Rock on Nardoo catchment to be set aside as the eastern slopes of the Lammerlaw a representative regional reserve for Range provided an opportunity to baseline research and conservation: protect a mid-altitude area ahead of it well satisfied the established criteria development. A 120 ha reserve was for such a reserve. Our proposal achieved despite a prediction by the was endorsed in both a subsequent B Department’s reserves adviser, Prof. independent audit and by a department Lance McCaskill of (the then) Lincoln scientist, as well as the Royal Society Fig. 10 The controversial Nardoo case study. A, pre-development (1982). College, that the area would soon and Ecological Society. However, B, post-development of the lower catchment revert to a boxwood (Hebe/Veronica these endorsements were not (1987). odora) dominated shrubland, if not mentioned when the department later However, the Ombudsman’s statement grazed, periodically burned and top- announced its intention to protect only “I am aware that tussock grasslands dressed. I disputed this and undertook the upper half: the lower half was said are seriously under-represented in the to monitor it if reserved which it was in to be too valuable for development. reserves system” proved most useful 1972. Subsequent monitoring in 1986 Dissatisfied with this outcome, we in future conservation campaigns. and 2003 has shown increasing height took the issue to the Ombudsman, Moreover, the Ombudsman’s comment and cover of snow tussock, negligible who accepted our view: his first case on the lack of scientific representation co-dominant shrubs, but, unpredictably, dealing with a conservation issue. After on the Board was corrected with the a significant increase in several sub- several exchanges of information, new Labour Government in 1983, dominant native shrubs and abundant which delayed the development, he when Allan Evans, then President of moss (Hypnum cupressiforme) as a recommended in 1982 that the whole Federated Mountain Clubs and I were ground cover. Significantly hawkweeds, catchment be reserved for 15 years, appointed for the last three years of the which are generally aggressive in open and then its value as a scientific Board’s existence. tussock grasslands, remain rare here reserve be reviewed. This was rejected (Fig. 9). by the Land Settlement Board on

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 21 A A

Fig. 11 Outcome of Mt Aspiring Station’s tenure review, showing a typical outcome of the lower slopes and valley floor being free- holded (pink) and the upper slopes transferred to Crown ownership (green), to be managed by the Department of Conservation.

B B

C C

Fig. 12 Map of the ten South Island conservation parks, totalling 581,167 ha, D D established partly or wholly through the outcome of tenure reviews since 2000, in Fig. 13 Aspects of Te Papanui, a 20,590 ha Fig. 14 Aspects of the 60,815 ha Oteake relation to the other seven, mostly forest Conservation Park, opened in March 2003 and Conservation Park, on the Otago-Canterbury parks. the first in Otago.A , opening day with fog. divide and opened in 2010. A, Park opening B, the ‘Waterland Park’. Photo: G. van Reenen. in Manuherikia Valley. B, Hawkdun Range SW Concerns with privatisation of C, snow tussocklands and wetlands. slope. C, Hawkdun Range summit plateau some pastoral leases in the Teviot D, Dunedin City’s water catchment. (1800 m). D, boulderfield crest (1830 m). region of Central Otago in the early 1980s led to the Clayton Committee reallocation exercise in the country’s parks include Te Papanui on the (1983) assessment of public history. To date (January 31, 2015) 99 Lammerlaw Range, eastern Otago interest in the high country: they of the 303 pastoral leases (involving uplands, often referred to as the recommended public involvement in 7.9% of New Zealand’s land area) had ‘Waterland Park’ (Fig. 13A–D), Oteake any future freeholding. Trial studies completed reviews (Fig. 11), 17 were in North Otago (Fig. 14A–D), the in Marlborough (Awatere Ecological near completion and five properties Eyre Mountains / Taka Rā Haka in District), Canterbury (Mackenzie had been purchased outright, involving northern Southland (Fig. 15A–E) and Ecological Region) and Otago (Rock 738,739 ha, of which 56.4% had been numerous conservation areas (total & Pillar Ecological District), confirmed acquired as conservation lands, mostly area unknown) (Fig. 16A–B). at higher elevations, and 43.6% had this and the subsequent tenure review Several important wetlands in the high been made freehold, sometimes with process, initiated in the early 1990s, country, including Nokomai (Fig. 17) conservation covenants included. provides for this. Tenure review and Teviot Swamp, have not yet been Despite the importance and often is an ongoing process, aimed at protected through tenure review. contentious nature of this process, addressing land degradation and the However, many smaller wetlands, there has been relatively little public multiple inherent values (landscape, important for their biodiversity and interest, though most conservation and ecological, biodiversity, recreation, hydrological values, particularly water recreation organisations are involved. historic, cultural) in the South Island regulation (Fig. 13A–D), have been In addition to the establishment of high country. Formalised with the included. Crown Pastoral Land Act 1998, this ten tussockland conservation parks, review process is the largest land totalling 581,167 ha since 2000 (Fig. 12), some notable conservation

22 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) A A

A B

B Fig. 16 Other rangeland conservation areas, mostly derived through tenure review. A, Remarkables Conservation Area. B, Old Woman Range Conservation Area.

B C

Fig. 17 Nokomai patterned low-alpine D wetlands of c. 220 ha in the upper Roaring Fig. 18 The wilding pine threat to the South Lion catchment on the southern Garvie Island high country is demonstrated on Mid Mountains, ranked as internationally Dome, northern Southland. A, sprayed trees in significant, but still within a pastoral leasehold C the background. B, volunteers at work. property. C, an area before clearance. D, after clearance. Threats to the indigenous tussock grasslands: wilding conifers around the eroded upper western One of the greatest threats to the slopes of previously mismanaged indigenous tussock grasslands is pastoral leasehold land. The eroded wilding conifer invasion, sourced from slopes remained bare but seedling plantings made in the past for various pines readily established among the reasons including commercial or snow tussocks, downwind, in generally land-restoration plantations, shelter remote country. By the time corrective belts or gardens. The problem has action began, some 80,000 ha was D been steadily increasing, and it is now infested and consolidating fast into widely accepted as a national issue in dense stands, eliminating most urgent need of addressing. Indeed, a native cover. Not only was the upland national wilding conifer management landscape affected, but future options strategy was recently developed by for land use and predictably water the Ministry of Primary Industries yield are both seriously reduced. I was (MPI), aimed at addressing the invited to join the Mid Dome Wilding spread and containing or eradicating Trees Trust when established in established infestations by 2030. The 2007 to more effectively address the cost of inaction and procrastination issue. A strategic 12-year eradication E has been enormous. Typical of the plan, estimated to cost c. $12 problem is at Mid Dome in northern million, was established, based on Fig. 15 Aspects of the 65,160 ha Eyre Southland where some 250 ha of Mountains / Taka Rā Haka Conservation both manual and chemical methods Park in northern Southland, opened in 2003, mostly lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) using professional foresters and and a biodiversity hotspot. A, entrance to was planted by central and local helicopters (for both access and boom park. B, altitudinal sequence. C, Celmisia government agencies (Ministry of spraying). But at year-7 we are behind philocremna. D, Celmisia thomsonii. Works and Southland Catchment E, Ranunculus pilifera. schedule, mainly through limitation Board) in the 1960–1970s, on and of funding and also because of less

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 23 the courts. But various forms of development, viticulture, agriculture and lifestyle housing are the more common outcomes of these lower areas following tenure review.

New Zealand as part of the world’s temperate indigenous grassland resource Despite its small size, New Zealand makes a notable contribution to the Fig. 19 Planting of conifers for commercial purposes continues, despite an acknowledged temperate indigenous grasslands of wilding threat to an adjoining tussockland conservation park downwind; a 180 ha Douglas fir planting by Landcorp on their Waipori Farm, Lammerlaw Range, upland eastern Otago. the globe, with its unique biodiversity and with some 15.4% of the baseline than effective sprays. However, with (1840) extent of 82,436 km (c. 31% recent development of more effective of the land area) formally protected, chemicals, an ‘Armageddon brew’, based on an assessment in 2007. more precise GPS-assisted flying and This compares favourably with the aided by periodic volunteer assistance world average of c. 5% protected, as (Fig. 18A–D), we remain hopeful of of 2008 (Fig. 21). We have gained achieving our mission here, though some 2.6% since 2002, largely through perhaps later than the 2019 target. tenure review, but as in the rest of the world both the areas remaining Control measures are also in place (all modified to varying extent with elsewhere but forestry encouragement human influences) and also the level loans, the Climate Change Response of protection, increase with elevation Act 2002 and the Emission Trading reflecting the lower productive potential Scheme (ETS) all still encourage associated with the temperature plantings for carbon sequestration as decline as altitude increases. well as timber production. And with locally inadequate planning restrictions Fig. 20 Free-holding of lower elevation Of the lower elevation (montane there are still cases of commercial pastoral leasehold high country often results and subalpine) grasslands, some plantings that carry a serious wilding in its intensive development and the loss of 25% of the original short (silver- threat. An example is Landcorp’s unique biodiversity and landscape values, fescue) tussock grassland remains planting of 180 ha of Douglas fir in as shown in the Lower Mackenzie Basin, c. 500 m. with only 5% of this protected, while 2012 on the upper slopes of their c. 20% of the tall red/copper tussock Waipori Farm on the Lammerlaw The lower Nevis Valley in a remote (Chionochloa rubra) grassland persists Range, eastern Otago, only 250 m part of Central Otago, recognised for with 21% of it protected, and c. 84% upwind of wilding-free Te Papanui its outstanding landscape, unique of the tall snow tussock (Chionochloa Conservation Park (Fig. 19) and native galaxiid fauna and white- spp.) remains with 39% of it protected. despite their consultants advising that water rafting, was saved from the At higher (low-alpine) altitudes, the wilding threat would be serious. threat of inundation for hydro-electric some 98% of the original tall tussock development when contested in grasslands persist with 61% of it Loss of low-to-mid altitude rangelands With tenure review of the high country leasehold lands achieving most of its protection on the more vulnerable uplands, there inevitably has been relatively little conservation of low-to-mid altitude areas and once freeholded there may be inadequate constraint on intensification of development. The Mackenzie Basin is one region where this has resulted in extensive modification, mostly for dairying, with associated irrigation and serious loss of indigenous plants and invertebrates unique to this particular environment (Fig. 20). This has been recently addressed by the main stakeholders in a ‘Shared vision forum’ which reached a compromise, ‘The Mackenzie Agreement’, that is Fig. 21 New Zealand is a small but nevertheless significant component of the world’s yet to be implemented. temperate indigenous grasslands.

24 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) Fig. 22 My books on New Zealand’s unique alpine flora, initially illustrated by the late botanical artist Nancy Adams, but recently with photographic images, have highlighted Fig. 23 Mount Aspiring National Park vegetation map based on a survey in 1968–1970 the regional variation, including the South when the more remote areas were seriously degraded by uncontrolled red deer. Some 89 Island pastoral leasehold lands. representative sites were established at this time for periodic photo-point monitoring. formally protected. Not surprising, the shoreline (Fig. 25) South Island high country region has pursuant to raising the lake some 28 m, somewhat lower levels of protection to that of Te Anau, as provided for in than in the North Island and also the Manapouri-Te Anau Development the South Island western region, Act of 1963 (Fig. 26), it landed on along and west of the main divide, my desk. Encouraged by a student where most of our national parks are interested in wetlands, Peter Johnson concentrated. who was looking for an Honours project and interested in this exercise, Many of our native plants confined to I accepted the request. We first visited the rangeland areas, and the alpine Fig. 24 One of the photo-point monitoring together in October 1969 and initially plants here (Fig. 22) can be quite sites, here in the upper Dart Valley, showing the obvious recovery of the alpine vegetation; looked at the trial clearing at the head diverse but are generally smaller, less increased height, cover and diversity, over of South Arm which had just been showy and, as might be expected, 37 years with greatly reduced deer numbers, completed with heavy equipment generally less palatable to introduced achieved mostly with efficient commercial hunting using helicopters. accessed via the new Monowai- herbivores than those which occur West Arm access road. When later in the higher rainfall western quizzed by a Radio NZ reporter I aired regions. Here the more palatable my reasons for being unimpressed snow tussocks (mid-ribbed tussock, (Fig. 27A–B) and when these were Chionochloa pallens) and some of the later broadcast with the quite contrary large herbs, such as the buttercups views of the Electricity Department’s (Ranunculus lyallii and R. buchananii), general manager, I was concerned with snow marguerite (Dolichoglottis the possible implications. Fortunately scorzoneroides), Anisotome haastii, the Vice Chancellor of my University Astelia petriei and Ourisia spp., are Fig. 25 View northwest across Lake Manapouri to the Kepler Mountains from was reluctant to accept cancellation now returning to their earlier prominent The Monument, showing the steep glaciated of the contract and requested we role following the control of feral deer, terrain and a few small sandy beaches among continue. Indeed we had completed as I have found since surveying the a generally forested landscape. the study before being advised in May Mount Aspiring National Park in the 1970 that the contract was off, and the late 1960s (Fig. 23, 24) when very report was duly submitted. It was later effective commercial hunting using endorsed by four senior government helicopters was introduced. The future ecologists for the Manapouri Officials of these spectacular alpine plants will Committee and so became a basis depend on continuation of effective for several public meetings on the animal control. controversy. A diversion: the Lakes Manapouri – Meanwhile had Te Anau controversy Fig. 26 Schematic view of the Manapouri- received little attention with a general When a request to the University Te Anau catchment system from the assumption that effects of the scheme of Otago from the New Zealand southwest, showing the planned development: there would be minor. This was found two control structures and the Power Station Electricity Department came, in late to be otherwise when its proposed 1969, for an ecological study of the and associated tunnels, as well as the natural lake level variations for each lake. levels were found to contravene a

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 25 levels, in indicating the distinctive during which we developed lake lakeshore zonation of vegetation was management guidelines based on driven largely by the natural variation our earlier ecological studies which in lake levels: 4.8 m for Manapouri maximised the power production within and 3.5 m for Te Anau (Fig. 28). the constraints of retaining natural lakeshores. Clearly the lake-raising proposals bore no relation to the natural A lakeshore, which a 1970 government ‘white paper’ revealed would increase the electricity generation by a mere 4.6%, which seemed not to be critical for the viability of the aluminium smelter, for which the Fiordland power scheme was designed. These issues were relevant to the Fig. 29 The initial Lake Guardians with two ‘Save Manapouri’ campaign which associates: (left to right) Hec Jones (NZED), B had been launched and also to the Ron McLean (Kennington, farmer), Commission of Inquiry which the Wilson Campbell (Te Anau, motelier), Alan Mark, Les Hutchins (Manapouri, Fig. 27 The controversial Manapouri National Government established lakeshore clearance exercise at the head company manager), John Moore (Te Anau, of South Arm. A, soon after completion in 1970, based on its pre-election local doctor), Jim McFarlane (, civil (December 1969). B, 15 months later (March promise by Prime Minister Keith engineer); front, John Gardner (Fiordland park 1971) when previously buried tree stumps Holyoake in 1969. Appearing before ranger). were exposed along the lake edge. this Commission as part of a three- The Guardians celebrated their person Royal Society Otago Branch 21st year in 1994, with a weekend delegation, I was questioned by gathering of many earlier campaigners government’s Legal Counsel, the and launching their ‘Manapouri Saved’ Solicitor General, as to the ethics of book at the West Arm Hostel. They using the finances of a government were formally recognised in 1990 department to obtain information to when was added to undermine the aspirations of that their brief and the guidelines were department. Somewhat rattled, I verified over time (Fig. 30) and in responded that there was nothing 1981 formalised with gazettal and in our contract to dictate the Fig. 28 The lakeshore vegetation survey legislative amendments by the and results in relation to the natural lake outcome, that our results had been National Government, returned in level variation for both lakes. This information endorsed by a committee of senior 1975. The overall achievement has was later applied to achieve sustainable government scientists and, moreover, been recognised as a ‘World First’ management of the lakes while using their universities cherished their freedom large water resource for hydro-electric (Fig. 31), with the supporting book generation. of expression. to mark the 21st celebration (Peat, When the controversy became a 1994), a joint publication in an major clause in the agreement that major issue in the 1972 general American lake-management journal the township was not to be affected election, the Labour Party had a (Mark et al., 2001), and, in 1998, a by the scheme. Concerned when policy of not proceeding with lake ‘Commemoration Rock’ was unveiled Colin Bambery, Deputy DG of the raising (there was a similar issue at Manapouri Township overlooking Electricity Department, stated that with Lake Wanaka), whereas the the lake (Fig. 32). their plan would be just to raise the National Government were generally lake ‘slowly’, I contacted the MP for So, despite many disputes and equivocal. Following a landslide win the region, Hon Brian Talboys, who debates over more than a decade, for Labour (aided by many southern replied he was unwilling to take any there is now general agreement that electorates), the new Labour (Kirk) action since a petition was then in the compromise reached has been Government soon confirmed their the hands of a select committee. a most satisfactory outcome with policy on the Fiordland and Wanaka However, Hugh Templeton, National a ‘World First’ of integrating nature lakes, and later, more courageously, Party MP for Awarua contacted me conservation with the hydro-electric announced a Guardians group to with his concern and a suggestion development, the use of science- oversee the sustainable management that I organise a study of the Te Anau based guidelines for sustainable of the Fiordland lakes (and a Lake lakeshore similar to ours of Manapouri. management of the national park lakes Wanaka Preservation Act, which When he organised the funding, again (now a world heritage area), and a is still in force). I was appointed from the Electricity Department, I forerunner for the Official Information chair of the Manapouri-Te Anau accepted and organised a comparable Act 1982 (the Fiordland Lakes Lake Guardians which comprised study with several senior botany debate was shrouded in unnecessary the ‘cream of the rebels’ (Fig. 29). students over the 1971 May ‘vacation’. secrecy), the Resource Management We were given broad terms of Results of this study confirmed those Act 1991, and the requirement of an reference to manage the system from Manapouri, aided by a 27-year Assessment of Environmental Effects and I was chair for the first 26 years, Ministry of Works record of daily lake (AEE) for all major developments.

26 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) and more serious proposal by a consortium of New Zealand-based Fletcher-Challenge, Australia’s CSR Ltd and Swiss-based Alusuisse, plus the Harbour Board in a minor role, received national-development status, to be fuelled from the Clyde High Dam, and an impressive AEE was produced. This proposal split the opinions within A Fig. 30 Dying trees on a Te Anau lakeshore the City, the University and even its delta, April 1975, as a result of prolonged high Economics Department, such was lake levels, which exceeded the management guidelines. the contention. I was involved with others in highlighting the ecological importance of the extensive salt marsh which had been ranked of ‘national significance’ in a Lands and Survey coastal survey. We had managed to B convince the smelter planners and principals, particularly Hugh Fletcher, of the intrinsic value of the salt marsh to the extent that it was designated a ‘wildlife refuge’ in the AEE, to be Fig. 31 An interpretation panel, one of three protected from seepage by a bund in the Manapouri-Te Anau area, explaining wall. the power scheme and crediting it as a ‘World C First’ in integrating nature conservation with a The proposal eventually failed, mainly major hydro-electric development. on economic values of the time, and Fig. 33 A–C, Aramoana, the site and its values. the return of the land to the Harbour Board was contested in the court into non-forest systems, particularly which, impressed by its proposed wetlands, shrublands and tussock wildlife status, decided it should grasslands, and their first council remain protected. Soon thereafter, meeting in the South Island high following a government decree country (Fig. 34) and several journal 2 regarding protected coastal lands of articles soon followed . The Society’s conservation value, most of the flat efforts in the South Island high country land, including the non-tidal portion have been very rewarding, particularly which was considered important in through the tenure review process. Fig. 32 The unveiling of a commemorative plaque in October 1998, in Manapouri supplying fresh water to the marsh, by the Conservation Minister Nick Smith, was transferred to the Department accompanied by Roger Sutton (conservation of Conservation. I recommended board), myself and Lou Sanson (Southland Ecological Area status because of Conservator). its joint floral and faunal values and The Aramoana Smelter proposal Conservation Minister, Denis Marshall, Although nearer home than the formally opened the 359 ha Aramoana Fiordland lakes and the Tiwai Point Ecological Area in 1992 (Fig. 33A–C). Fig. 34 My early involvement with the Forest smelter, I decided to play only a Subsequently, I initiated construction and Bird Protection Society: launching into minor role with the Aramoana issue of a boardwalk out on to the vulnerable tussock grassland conservation (Kevin O’Connor of Lincoln College giving ‘The for two reasons: likelihood of being salt marsh which Mayor Sukhi Turner Sermon on the Mount’ to the first Council foray branded a perpetual stirrer and thus opened in the late 1980s. into South Island high country, at Porters Pass, losing some credibility and also in November 1984). probably weakening the case; and Forest and Bird Protection Society Frustrated by the failure of nine The future of the South Island West I knew there were other competent scientists to succeed with our Nardoo Coast forests was being debated players. Aramoana, pathway to proposal (as previously mentioned), at this time. Some of our earlier the sea, at the entrance to Otago I joined Forest and Bird in the early ecological studies were relevant, Harbour was vested ‘industrial’ by 1980s since I felt such a large including two studies of perching plant the Otago Harbour Board when organisation committed to nature (epiphytic) communities which revealed Otago Metals, a small New Zealand conservation appeared to have more world-record diversity for temperate company, proposed an aluminium political clout than a small group of forests (Fig. 35) and we launched a smelter there in the late 1970s, but scientists. With the support of others major campaign for the Southwest failed to secure an adequate power we widened the Society’s campaigns New Zealand World Heritage Area, supply. Soon after, a much larger spearheaded with the first book the

2 Two of my South Westland ecological studies were relevant to justifying World Heritage status of these areas: the dune swales at Okuru (Dickinson and Mark, 1994) and Lake Moeraki epiphytic communities (Hofstede et al., 2001).

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 27 Society had published for a major As one of three recently appointed campaign (Hutching and Potton, 1987; Society Ambassadors I was invited Fig. 36). This succeeded against the to be involved in North Canterbury’s odds when results of a major resource Lake Sumner debate, based on my assessment for South Westland by a experience with the Fiordland lakes. government-appointed representative A farming group in the lower Hurunui 11-member panel supported 9:2 catchment, looking for an irrigation A some further logging in the region, source had planned a 2 m-high dam to try and achieve sustainable forest on the outlet of 14 km2 Lake Sumner management on the vulnerable soils of (as well as an 83 m-high dam in the the coastal plain. adjoining South Hurunui River), the only unmodified natural lake left in Canterbury. Their consultants had assessed the environmental effects B as ‘minor or less than minor’ (implying Fig. 37 Shoreline trees of Lake Sumner, it would satisfy RMA criteria) but local North Canterbury, which helped protect it ‘boatie/crib-owner’ and Christchurch from the threat of lake raising for irrigation resident, Edward Snowden, assessed water storage in 2011–2012. A, kōwhai trees on the forest margin. B, rātā – kāmahi fringe it otherwise. I was invited through at lake level. Christchurch Forest and Bird staffer, Chris Todd, to assess the situation open-cast coal mining on public and did so with Edward’s assistance in conservation land on the Denniston April 2010, when we circumnavigated Plateau in North Westland, proposed the lake, established a baseline from by the Australian (more recently a survey point near the outlet and in New Zealand) mining company, relation to the lake level at the time. Bathurst Resources. Aware that court Fig. 35 Epiphytes at Cole Creek, Lake I selected representative sites along proceedings would be inevitable, I also 3 Moeraki, with 49 higher plant species and 52 its northern mostly forested shoreline joined a weekend BioBlitz exercise lower plant species epiphytic on the one tree (within Sumner Conservation Park) to ahead of these formalities, organised – a temperate forest record. profile the forest using a surveyor’s by Forest and Bird staff and members level and staff. With a natural variation in March 2012, when 150 volunteers of 3.2 m and the lake only 0.619 m assisted in obtaining much relevant above its historic minimum at the time, information from the plateau. I was I was very surprised to see part of asked to present the ‘international the canopy of many shoreline trees significance’ of the Plateau’s intrinsic dipping into the lake, particularly the values to the Environment Court several mostly large southern rātā and also the preceding ‘ecological trees which, along with at least two caucus hearing’ where specific kāmahi (both confined to the shoreline aspects of the case are presented fringe and known to be rare in North to a Court commissioner. Here I Canterbury, kāmahi especially so) rejected the term ‘pakihi’ (a common and the more common mountain Westland wetland type) being used beech (Fig. 37A–B). With these and by the applicant’s consultants and other shoreline trees rooted within suggested ‘Plateau tussock wetland’ 1.5 m of the lake they would clearly to emphasis its many significant and Fig. 36 Forest and Bird’s major publication be inundated for periods exceeding unique features. I invoked criteria of for promotion of South West New Zealand for their known tolerance (from our both the World Heritage Convention World Heritage status; which succeeded. Fiordland studies) if the proposed and the Ramsar Wetlands Convention Government’s decision to proceed lake raising proceeded. Apparently to rank Denniston against, since with World Heritage status for the the consultants had used an incorrect New Zealand is a signatory to both, southwest, consistent with our baseline and did not even front up and I had agreement from all the campaign, was applauded by the at a later Environment Canterbury caucus members that the values of Society but received some initial (ECan) Committee hearing. ECan Denniston satisfied certain aspects criticism from South Westlanders. later rejected the lake raising (and of both: the Denniston wetland This criticism has since abated the South Hurunui) proposal and ecosystem on its own would be too with the acceptance locally of a an alternative scheme on a lower small to satisfy World Heritage criteria more sustainable future based tributary, the Waitohi, is now under but it would complement Kahurangi on ecotourism, conservation and consideration. National Park if and when it was recreation, in contrast to southward proposed; and the proportion of the I was also asked to assist the Society endangered land snail, Powelliphanta continuation of resource exploitation with its opposition to the proposed as in the past. patrickensis, on the proposed mine

3 A BioBlitz is a brief (1–2 day) event where teams of volunteer scientists and community members work together to find and identify as many species and conservation values as possible.

28 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) site (c. 20%) would certainly satisfy restoration of at least half of the 25 ha one of the important criteria of the mine site with ‘direct transfer’ of the Ramsar Convention. My conclusion tall tussock wetland ecosystem. A was that the “many special biotic, letter that I organised to CEO Don ecological and biogeographic features Elder from 12 concerned New Zealand of the Denniston Plateau, which ecologists led to a meeting with Elder are relevant to the distinctiveness and their Environmental Manager criterion and rank it nationally and, Mark Pizey at their Head Office with in my considered assessment, also Drs Dave Kelly, Bob McDowell, Peter internationally significant and unique. Wardle and me, where we discussed Fig. 38 View north across the Denniston The Plateau is the centre of dispersal Plateau, an important public conservation our concerns and doubts about fulfilling and abundance for a regionally area in North Westland, dominated here by the restoration requirements. We were endemic tall tussock species, an open stand of the locally endemic tussock told there were still procedures to Chionochloa juncea, which dominates grass Chionochloa juncea, with associated work through before a final decision wetland species: a unique ‘Plateau Tussock widely on the Plateau (Fig. 38) and Wetland’ association of very high heritage was made, so I requested Dave and gives it much of its character. A range value. I be allowed to participate here. This of other, mostly woody, ecosystems was agreed, subject to us observing add to the ecological and biological confidence, and we were helicoptered diversity of the Denniston Plateau. The to the site in July 2009 with a staff indigenous faunal assemblage is even member and two consultants. We more distinctive (Fig. 39), considered again expressed concern with the to be unique, with several charismatic proposal and requested copies of invertebrate and lizard species, the annual independent peer-review including several formally classified reports required as a condition of the as Threatened, Rare or Uncommon. Regional Council’s consents, which ... In my professional assessment, were duly supplied up to March, 2013. the Denniston Plateau is much too They also revealed some concerns, precious, scientifically and in heritage Fig. 39 A unique diversity of indigenous flora mainly associated with the threats of (bryophyte stalactites and vascular plants) terms, to permit open-cast mining ...” and fauna (invertebrates, lizards and birds) acid leaching. Although warned by the Society’s from the Denniston Plateau, many restricted Further communication became in range and in a Threatened category, Counsel that I may be challenged but generally thriving here because of low difficult until it was revealed mining by the Applicant’s Counsel or even numbers of exotic pests associated with its had commenced, even though it the Court, as to my assumed ‘expert relatively severe environment. was known that the Company was in witness’ status, based on my previous Photos: Rod Morris. financial difficulties, CEO Don Elder ‘advocacy’ for protection of the Plateau resigned, the government gave $300 in public statements and two opinion million to bail it out financially, and pieces (with Rod Morris, well-known it laid off about 200 workers from natural historian and photographer) Stockton which has seriously unsettled in several print media, this challenge Westport; Solid Energy is currently didn’t happen. With many other again in financial strife. Nevertheless presentations by experts for the it went ahead with developing the appellant, I was confident of success Cypress mine in 2013 and now (from with our case but, alas, the Court, September 2014) has a massive pit although recognising the very high exposed (Fig. 41). The future remains natural values of the plateau, found uncertain. Fig. 40 Despite its acknowledged heritage in favour of the Applicant, swayed values and conservation land status, approval apparently by three aspects of the was given for open-cast mining and, despite case: the offset package offered, the collapse of the coal market, mining the significant employment it would commenced near the centre of the Plateau early in 2015. Photo: P. Lusk. provide, and the important economic returns to a somewhat depressed early in 2015 (Fig. 40) despite coal region. It was noted the Plateau prices being highly depressed at this had remained as a ‘Stewardship time. Area’, the lowest status of protection, Before the Denniston case developed, since acquired by DoC more than I concerned myself with Solid 20 years ago, and therefore could Energy’s proposal for a similar open- be considered dispensable. The Fig. 41 The Stockton open-cast coal mine cast mine, the Cypress Mine in the Society considered an appeal but, was extended downhill to Cypress in adjacent upper Waimangaroa Valley at Happy Happy Valley, by Solid Energy in 2014 after a instead, an agreement was reached Valley, down-slope from their existing prolonged dispute with conservationists, and for better protection of another part Stockton Mine in North Westland. I the company being in dire financial straits at of the Plateau. Conservation Minister the time, with a substantial bond to ensure became concerned when I heard the Dr Nick Smith later approved access restoration to a near-natural state. conditions with their consent involved Photo: P. Lusk. to Bathurst for mining, and this began

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 29 Waitutu marine terraces ‘ecological land, and all to be managed as part staircase’ studied and saved of Fiordland National Park. This was The Waitutu terrace sequence in a most rewarding and satisfactory western Southland, adjacent to outcome. Fiordland National Park, was known to be unusual but became more Ecosanctuaries: the way of the prominent when road access for future? At this time, ecosanctuaries, areas possible logging of both the Māori- A owned and Forest Service sections adequately protected from exotic was discussed in the late 1970s. animals so that a full range of local As a result the National Parks and native fauna can thrive in a natural Reserves Authority, of which I was setting, offer the best option for a member, became interested and retaining a near-natural ecosystem. investigated the area in 1982 which Protection can be achieved with prompted my concern for the limited either surrounding open water or information on its ecological values. a secure predator-proof perimeter Authority member Les Hutchins of fence. I have been involved with both Manapouri sponsored a brief but B types. I am Patron and organised the informative visit by geologist Chris original baseline study of Pomona Ward, myself and visitor David Island of 262 ha, the largest island in Bellamy by helicopter, which was most Lake Manapouri (and New Zealand’s instructive, revealing the distinctive C largest inland island) (Fig. 43), and sequence of ten terraces from a high Orokonui Ecosanctuary of 307 ha, with point of 652 m, overlooking Lake an 8.7 km predator-proof fence, on Poteriteri, down the 11.5 km terrace the outskirts of Dunedin which I had sequence, southwards to the coast the pleasure of officially opening in (Fig. 42A–D). D October 2009. Faunal introductions are continuing in this most successful but Chris and I later organised a team of Fig. 42 A comprehensive ecological study expensive venture (Fig. 44). seven scientists for a comprehensive of the Waitutu marine terrace sequence in western Southland in May 1985, confirmed ecological and biological study over its unique scientific values which justified its ten days in May 1985. The results formal protection and management as an were published in a special 90- extension to Fiordland National Park. page ‘Collected papers’ in the Royal A, (left to right) Tony Hughes, Les Hutchins, 4 David Bellamy and Chris Ward on Hump Society’s Journal . We described a Ridge en route by helicopter to assess the remarkable chrono-(time) sequence terraces (showing in the background). of vegetation and soils spanning B, David and Chris on one of the middle c. 640,000 years and ranging from terraces among open mixed mānuka – mountain beech woodland. C, aerial view open bog on the oldest (upper) to the west. D, diagram of the ecological terrace, through mānuka-dominated staircase: a sequence of ten marine shrubland, mixed mountain beech- terraces 0 to 650 m altitude created over podocarp-mānuka woodland to 0 to c. 640,000 years. tall mixed silver beech-podocarp- broadleaved forest on the lower terraces, apart from coastal scrub and turf on the youngest terrace estimated to be about 3000 years old. The soil sequence matched the vegetation pattern, and it appeared that, despite Fig. 44 Orokonui Ecosanctuary, a 307 ha, the area not having been glaciated, predator-proofed area of podocarp- broadleaved forest and regenerating kānuka the surfaces were probably bared and woodland, with an 8.7 km fence, on the deflated during the glacial period. outskirts of Dunedin, where an ambitious restoration programme is well underway. Our findings prompted the government Fig. 43 Pomona Island, the largest in Lake to seek adequate protection of this Manapouri (262 ha), now restored by a local Such ecosanctuaries, which are unique ‘ecological staircase’. The Trust (after a baseline study in 2005 which established at several locations cutting rights on the Māori land were I led), by removing and now maintaining it around New Zealand, will remain the essentially free of exotic animals (a few mice most common method of adequately later purchased by the government still persist), allowing several threatened bird (an alternative area was made species, including the Haast tokoeka (kiwi), securing our many vulnerable native available in Rowallan Forest) and as well as South Island robin and mōhua animals (and some plants) until pest- transferred to the Department of (yellowhead) to be introduced, with more proofing on a large scale becomes planned. Conservation, as was the Forestry a viable method for excluding a

4 The geology, flora and fauna of the Waitutu marine terraces. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 1–90.

30 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) wide range of introduced animal ‘Save Fiordland’ group, established Dilemmas with advocating nature pests. Methods of pest control are to oppose both of these proposals, I conservation steadily improving and a ‘Pest-free shared their delight with the rejection As a long-term advocate or New Zealand’ organisation is now of both proposals. In declining this campaigner for nature conservation in established to advance this most latter proposal, Conservation Minister numerous contentious environmental desirable outcome. The dilemma Nick Smith said: “The strategic issues, I have become very aware of remains, however, with a range of issue of facilitating better transport a range of dilemmas, some would call introduced herbivores which are options between Queenstown and them trade-offs, that one inevitably also cherished by a large group of Milford remains. The door is still must face. Being a professional field recreational hunters. open but proposals will need to be ecologist with sound qualifications, both environmentally sustainable and in academic employment, I have and economically viable.” This a choice of research endeavours response obviously didn’t include a in both basic and applied ecology, Haast – Hollyford highway, an off- and I have indulged in both. With and-on proposal which is again being the South Island high country, my promoted in certain quarters. Many fellowship with the Hellaby Indigenous of the same issues relate to this Grasslands Research Trust required proposal, as the debate continues. me to research the basic ecology of the grassland dominants and The Wise Response Society: apply that knowledge to achieve its origins and mission the sustainable management of this This society arose in Otago when Fig. 45 One of two recent proposals important ecosystem. As explained to shorten and hasten the passage a group of concerned citizens earlier, my research revealed serious between Queenstown and Milford Sound, discussed their concerns with Contact degradation problems associated with both declined by the government on Energy’s release, in 2012, of four heavy grazing of snow tussocks in environmental and financial grounds. The options for further hydro-electric proposed 43.8 km monorail, depicted here, the early post-burn period, so that my was seen by many as highly intrusive development on the Clutha River. recommendation for pastoral farming and disturbing in old-growth mixed A meeting in Alexandra proposed was, if infrequently (at least 15–20-yr beech-podocarp forest, copper tussock Option 5; no more dams. A later intervals) burning upland snow tussock grassland and wetland ecosystems, within meeting in Dunedin discussed a conservation area but also part of the SW grassland, ensure the whole block is New Zealand World Heritage Area. broader environmental concerns burnt and allow for one and preferably which led to the formation of a ‘wise two years of spelling before resuming ‘Save Fiordland’ and the threat of response’ concept and its launch grazing. continuing development in Dunedin in March 2013, with 10 The few areas of remote and speakers from throughout the country Some runholders disputed this wilderness regions remaining and support from representatives recommendation and its basis, as well in New Zealand, a limited and of three political parties. We also as that which came from our findings finite resource, will continue to be received support from more than on the water yield studies. They even threatened by a range of development 100 prominent New Zealanders for commissioned a desk-top review of proposals. Most recently, a proposal our proposed Appeal to Parliament our water yield findings by professional for an 11 km-long tunnel from for a risk assessment in five major hydrologists and then misrepresented Glenorchy through the Main Divide but interconnected fields: Economic aspects of their report to the media to the lower Hollyford Valley, aimed Security, Energy and Climatic Security, in a clear attempt to undermine my at reducing the road travel between Business Continuity, Ecological/ scientific credibility. The role of fog in the tourist mecca of Queenstown Environmental Security and Genuine contributing to water yield from the and Milford Sound, New Zealand’s Well-being (Fig. 46). We formally upland snow tussock grasslands is still most iconic tourist destination, failed petitioned Parliament in April 2014 disputed but there is at least general to get government approval, as did a and our concerns are currently with agreement that these grasslands ‘Fiordland Link Experience’ between the Finance and Expenditure Select maximise water yield compared with Queenstown and Milford Sound. This Committee. any alternative land use (and even involved a 20 km boat trip across bare soil). Lake Wakatipu, a 45 km all-terrain The Manapouri-Te Anau issue vehicle ride, followed by a 43.8 km inevitably generated debate, this time monorail ride (Fig. 45) and then a with senior government engineers 90 km bus ride to the Sound. The and politicians, but I stood my most contentious section was the ground on the basis of endorsement monorail and a parallel access/service of our ecological studies by senior road (and offered as a mountain bike government scientists and that we route) to be constructed through old- had been invited to undertake these growth, virgin, mixed beech-podocarp studies by a government department, forest in the Snowdon Forest section essentially without prejudice. However, of the SW New Zealand World Fig. 46 Promotional features of the Wise the debate has now subsided, with Heritage Area and an important native Response Society, which depicts its main general endorsement of the outcome bat and bird habitat. As Patron of the platform.

New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1) 31 as expressed in a joint paper with And another response from an Acknowledgments the CEO of Meridian Energy (and environmental lawyer was: “I believe Conservation successes never result ex ECNZ) and a Department of it could impact the weight of your from the efforts of one person alone. Conservation scientist in 2001. evidence as an expert witness if you My collaborators and supporters have made statements in the past are far too numerous to list, but the Having been prominent in the debate advocating a personal position.” A University of Otago staff and students, on these two major issues, I was fourth opinion from an environmental the Hellaby Indigenous Grasslands aware of the danger of too frequent consultant who frequently faces the Research Trust and the enlightened public exposure when the Aramoana court, was: “The most likely effect is Labour Governments of 1973 (under debate began in the late 1970s. To be that the Court places less weight on Norman Kirk) and 1984 (under David labelled a ‘perpetual stirrer’ not only your evidence – especially if you do Lange) deserve special recognition, in risks one’s professional credibility but not declare that, for example, you once terms of the opportunities and support it may also affect the case at hand, gave a public talk on a relevant topic.” they provided to allow me to facilitate and so lessen the chances of success. fulfilment of my aspirations to formally I was well aware that a credible case So clearly, one should keep public protect adequately representative did not inevitably ensure a successful statements on contentious issues and sustainable examples of outcome, as with the Nardoo exercise. to objective aspects within one’s New Zealand’s land-based indigenous For this reason, I intentionally kept a acknowledged area of expertise. ecosystems and their biota. low profile on the Aramoana issue. Prominent involvement in several When an issue progresses to an contentious environmental issues References Environment Court hearing, the ability inevitably also involves employer/ Dickinson, K.J.M. and Mark, A.F. to appear as an expert witness may employee relations, in my case an (1994). Forest-wetland vegetation depend on whether one has been academic institution where one is patterns associated with a Holocene dune-slack sequence, an advocate for the issue before it privileged to be protected by the Haast Ecological District, south is contested in a court hearing. This ‘Critic and Conscience of Society’ western New Zealand. Journal of situation arose when I appeared for conditions in the relevant legislation Biogeography 21(3): 259–281. Forest and Bird in their Environment (unlike a government scientist who Hofstede, R.G.M.; Dickinson, K.J.M.; Court appeal against the Bathurst coal is constrained by the conditions of Mark, A.F. (2001). Distribution, mining application on the Denniston employment). Nevertheless, messages abundance and biomass of Plateau, as already outlined. I have of concern are likely to be received by epiphyte-lianoid communities since consulted various authorities an outspoken academic’s employer, in a New Zealand lowland on this issue and, as one expert legal and in my case there were several, Nothofagus-podocarp temperate authority has responded: “There is a often with distorted information, and a rain forest: tropical comparisons. lot of difficulty about expert witnesses few even recommending my dismissal. Journal of Biogeography 28: in the Environment Court. … The main These always resulted in explanatory 1033–1049. thing is that you can demonstrate your meetings with senior administrators Hutching, G. and Potton, C. (ed.) integrity on the issues in front of the and I am pleased to record that the (1987). Forests, Fiords and court and have reached your position University of Otago always defended Glaciers: New Zealand’s World on the basis of proper research on my role. Moreover, they even Heritage: the case for a South- the science and not on the basis presented me with an Honorary DSc West New Zealand World of predetermined positions of the in retirement. My scientific peers in Heritage site. Royal Forest organisation that has called you.” the Royal Society also confirmed their & Bird Protection Society of support with a Fellowship (1978), New Zealand, Wellington. Another professional environmental as well as its Hutton Medal for my Mark, A.F.; Turner, K.S.; West, lawyer stated: “An expert witness in botanical research (1997) and its C.J. (2001). Integrating nature the Environment Court is one who Fleming Environmental Award (2010). conservation with hydro-electric is independent and can meet the The New Zealand and American development: conflict resolution practice note for expert witnesses5. Ecological Societies, as well as the with Lakes Manapouri and If you are perceived to be a Forest and Bird Protection Society all Te Anau, Fiordland National Park, public campaigner for a particular New Zealand. Lake and Reservoir conferred life membership, which was organisation and not objective, the Management 17(1): 1–25. further reassurance. court may not place much weight Peat, N. (1994). Manapouri saved! on your evidence. However, I do New Zealand’s first great not believe you should refrain from conservation success story. speaking out on a significant law and Longacre Press. policy matter because of the possibility that you might be challenged as an expert in the Environment Court.”

5 This includes: “An expert witness is not, and must not behave as an advocate for the party who engages the witness.”

32 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2015, Vol. 18(1)